DOCUMENT RESUME AUTHOR Song, Hae-Deok; Grabowski, …efficient, or attractive. The investigation of...
14
DOCUMENT RESUME ED 475 712 TM 034 876 AUTHOR Song, Hae-Deok; Grabowski, Barbara L.; Koszalka, Tiffany A.; Harkness, William L. TITLE Instructional Design Factors Prompting Reflective Thinking in Problem-Based Learning Environments: Comparing Middle School and College Students' Perceptions. SPONS AGENCY National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, DC PUB DATE 2003-04-00 NOTE 12p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Chicago, IL, April 21-25, 2003) . CONTRACT NCC5-432 PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) Speeches/Meeting Papers (150) EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *College Students; Educational Environment; Higher Education; *Instructional Design; *Learning; *Middle School Students; Middle Schools; *Problem Based Learning; Scaffolding (Teaching Technique) IDENTIFIERS *Reflective Thinking ABSTRACT Reflective thinking skills are important in a Problem-Based Learning (PBL) environment by helping learners engage deeply in the problem- solving process. The research on learners' perceptions of factors prompting reflective thinking in a PBL environment is limited, and it is not clear whether there is a difference in perceptions of these factors according to learners' developmental stages. This study investigated students' perceptions of design factors prompting reflective learning in a PBL environment in samples of 122 middle school students and 749 college students. Results indicate that both middle school and college students perceive two factors as helpful to their reflective thinking: learning environment and scaffolding tools. Middle school students perceived learning environment as the most helpful factor, while college students perceived scaffolding. tools as most helpful. Differences in learners' perceptions were also found between the most helpful elements of the identified factors in each group. Suggestions are given for designing developmentally appropriate PBL learning environments that support reflective thinking based on these results. (Contains 3 tables and 23 references.) (Author/SLD) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document
Transcript of DOCUMENT RESUME AUTHOR Song, Hae-Deok; Grabowski, …efficient, or attractive. The investigation of...
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 475 712 TM 034 876
AUTHOR Song, Hae-Deok; Grabowski, Barbara L.; Koszalka, Tiffany A.;Harkness, William L.
TITLE Instructional Design Factors Prompting Reflective Thinking inProblem-Based Learning Environments: Comparing Middle Schooland College Students' Perceptions.
SPONS AGENCY National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington,DC
PUB DATE 2003-04-00
NOTE 12p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association (Chicago, IL, April 21-25,2003) .
CONTRACT NCC5-432PUB TYPE Reports Research (143) Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *College Students; Educational Environment; Higher Education;
*Instructional Design; *Learning; *Middle School Students;Middle Schools; *Problem Based Learning; Scaffolding(Teaching Technique)
IDENTIFIERS *Reflective Thinking
ABSTRACT
Reflective thinking skills are important in a Problem-BasedLearning (PBL) environment by helping learners engage deeply in the problem-solving process. The research on learners' perceptions of factors promptingreflective thinking in a PBL environment is limited, and it is not clearwhether there is a difference in perceptions of these factors according tolearners' developmental stages. This study investigated students' perceptionsof design factors prompting reflective learning in a PBL environment insamples of 122 middle school students and 749 college students. Resultsindicate that both middle school and college students perceive two factors ashelpful to their reflective thinking: learning environment and scaffoldingtools. Middle school students perceived learning environment as the mosthelpful factor, while college students perceived scaffolding. tools as mosthelpful. Differences in learners' perceptions were also found between themost helpful elements of the identified factors in each group. Suggestionsare given for designing developmentally appropriate PBL learning environmentsthat support reflective thinking based on these results. (Contains 3 tablesand 23 references.) (Author/SLD)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document
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Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 2
Abs
trac
t
Ref
lect
ive
thin
king
ski
lls a
re im
port
ant i
n a
Prob
lem
-Bas
ed L
earn
ing
envi
ronm
ent b
y
help
ing
lear
ners
to d
eepl
y en
gage
in th
e pr
oble
m-s
olvi
ng p
roce
ss. T
he li
tera
ture
sug
gest
s se
vera
l
key
fact
ors
that
pro
mpt
lear
ners
' ref
lect
ion
(tas
k, in
stru
ctio
nal m
etho
ds, l
earn
ing
envi
ronm
ent,
and
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s). H
owev
er, t
he r
esea
rch
on le
arne
rs' p
erce
ptio
n of
fac
tors
pro
mpt
ing
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng in
a P
BL
env
iron
men
t is
limite
d. I
n ad
ditio
n, it
is n
ot c
lear
whe
ther
ther
e is
a
diff
eren
ce in
per
cept
ions
of
thos
e fa
ctor
s ac
cord
ing
to le
arne
rs' d
evel
opm
enta
l sta
ges.
The
res
ults
of th
is s
tudy
indi
cate
d th
at b
oth
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d tw
o
fact
ors
as h
elpf
ul to
thei
r re
flec
tive
thin
king
: lea
rnin
g en
vim
nmen
t and
sca
ffol
ding
tool
s. M
iddl
e
scho
ol s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d le
arni
ng e
nvir
onm
ent a
s th
e m
ost h
elpf
ul f
acto
r w
here
as c
olle
ge
stud
ents
per
ceiv
ed s
caff
oldi
ng to
ols.
Dif
fere
nces
in le
arne
rs' p
erce
ptio
n w
ere
also
fou
nd b
etw
een
the
mos
t hel
pful
ele
men
ts o
f th
e id
entif
ied
fact
ors
of e
ach
grou
p. S
ugge
stio
ns a
re g
iven
for
desi
gnin
g de
velo
pmen
tally
app
ropr
iate
PB
L le
arni
ng e
nvir
onm
ents
that
sup
port
ref
lect
ive
thin
king
bas
ed o
n th
ese
resu
lts.
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 3
Inst
ruct
iona
l Des
ign
Fact
ors
Prom
ptin
g R
efle
ctiv
e T
hink
ing
in P
robl
em-B
ased
Lea
rnin
g
Env
iron
men
ts: C
ompi
ling
Mid
dle
Scho
ol a
nd C
olle
ge S
tude
nts'
Per
cept
ions
A p
robl
em-b
ased
lear
ning
(M
IL)
envi
ronm
ent p
rovi
des
lear
ners
with
an
inst
ruct
iona
l
mec
hani
sm th
at c
an in
crea
se th
eir
high
er-o
rder
thin
king
ski
lls w
hile
exp
lori
ng a
uthe
ntic
and
ill-
stru
ctur
ed p
robl
ems,
par
ticip
atin
g in
soc
ial i
nter
actio
ns, a
nd r
ecei
ving
coa
chin
g fr
om p
eers
and
teac
hers
(A
lban
ese
& M
itche
ll, 1
993;
Hm
elo
& F
erra
ri, 1
997)
. How
ever
, PB
L a
lso
brin
gs
cogn
itive
cha
lleng
es. F
or e
xam
ple,
stu
dent
s m
ust b
e ch
alle
nged
to c
lari
fy th
e ca
uses
of
the
prob
lem
, to
deci
de im
port
ant f
acts
in p
robl
em s
ituat
ions
, and
to g
ener
ate
hypo
thes
es f
or th
e
solu
tions
. To
appr
opri
atel
y so
lve
the
prob
lem
in a
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ent,
it is
impo
rtan
t tha
t stu
dent
s
refl
ect o
n th
eir
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
an
issu
e, n
ew k
now
ledg
e to
dev
elop
a s
olut
ion,
and
how
thei
r
new
kno
wle
dge
can
be u
sed
to a
ddre
ss th
e si
tuat
ion.
Ref
lect
ing
on th
e pr
oble
m h
elps
lear
ners
to
gene
rate
con
cept
s an
d ab
stra
ctio
ns a
nd e
nhan
ce th
e tr
ansf
er o
f le
arni
ng to
new
pro
blem
s
(Bar
row
, 199
8). I
f st
uden
ts la
ck th
ese
thin
king
ski
lls, t
he P
BL
env
iron
men
t wou
ld b
e a
chao
tic
rath
er th
an c
onst
ruct
ive
in w
hich
they
bui
ld th
eir
own
mea
ning
ful k
now
ledg
e. T
hus,
ref
lect
ive
thin
king
ski
lls a
re n
eede
d to
ens
ure
a su
cces
sful
PB
L im
plem
enta
tion.
Key
Fact
ors
that
Pro
mpt
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
a P
BL
Env
inon
men
t
Res
earc
h su
gges
ts th
at v
ario
us e
lem
ents
in th
e le
arni
ng e
nvir
onm
ent c
an p
rom
pt r
efle
ctiv
e
thin
king
(A
ndru
sysz
yn &
Dai
ve, 1
997;
Gri
ffith
& F
ried
en, 2
000;
Lin
, Hm
elo,
Kin
zer,
& S
ecul
es,
1999
). I
ll-st
ruct
ured
, aut
hent
ic, a
nd c
ompl
ex ta
sks
in a
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ent,
for
inst
ance
are
kno
wn
to p
rom
ote
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng. T
hese
fea
ture
s of
the
task
hel
p st
uden
ts th
ink
refl
ectiv
ely
beca
use
stud
ents
hav
e to
inve
stig
ate
the
prob
lem
in o
rder
to g
athe
r ap
prop
riat
e in
form
atio
n to
sol
ve th
e
prob
lem
(St
epie
n &
Pyk
e, 1
997)
. Ano
ther
impo
rtan
t ele
men
t pro
mpt
ing
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng is
the
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 4
type
of
inst
ruct
iona
l met
hod
used
. Vir
tane
n et
al.
(199
9) f
ound
that
bot
h an
inqu
iry-
orie
nted
and
an e
xpla
natio
n-or
ient
ed in
stru
ctio
nal m
etho
d w
ere
effe
ctiv
e in
a P
BL
env
iron
men
t. T
he in
quir
y-
orie
nted
met
hod
faci
litat
esre
flec
tive
thin
king
by
aski
ngre
flec
tive
ques
tions
whi
le th
e
expl
anat
ion-
orie
nted
met
hod
dire
cts
lear
ners
to r
efle
ct o
n im
port
ant c
once
pts
(Moo
n, 1
999;
Vir
tane
n et
al,
1999
). C
reat
ing
flex
ible
and
act
ive
lear
ning
env
iron
men
ts is
als
o im
port
ant i
n
prom
ptin
g re
flec
tive
thin
king
dur
ing
PBL
. The
ele
men
ts th
at m
ake
the
lear
ning
env
iron
men
t
activ
e an
d st
uden
t-ce
nter
ed in
clud
e al
low
ing
stud
ents
to h
ave
enou
gh w
ait-
time
to th
ink
befo
re
answ
erin
g,pr
ovid
ing
ale
aner
-con
trol
led
inst
ruct
ion,
and
prom
otin
gco
oper
ativ
ean
d
colla
bora
tive
lear
ning
(M
icha
le &
Sus
an,
1998
; Row
e, 1
974;
Will
iam
s,19
96).
Fina
lly,
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s ar
e im
port
ant i
n pr
ompt
ing
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng d
urin
g PB
L. A
ndru
sysz
yn &
Dai
ve (
1997
) an
d K
inch
in &
Hay
(20
00)
repo
rted
on
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
ref
lect
ive
jour
nal
wri
ting.
Res
earc
h al
so s
ugge
sted
that
que
stio
n pr
ompt
s or
con
cept
map
s co
uld
be u
sed
as a
ids
to
prom
pt r
efle
ctiv
e le
arni
ng (
Bar
row
, 199
8; G
riff
ith &
Fri
eden
, 200
0; K
inch
in &
Hay
, 200
0).
The
refo
re, k
ey f
acto
rs th
at e
ncou
rage
stu
dent
s to
ref
lect
upo
n th
eir
lear
ning
ina
PBL
envi
ronm
ent s
eem
to f
ocus
on
the
use
of il
l-st
ruct
ured
and
aut
hent
ic ta
sks,
the
type
of
inst
ruct
iona
l met
hods
, sup
port
ive
and
activ
e le
arni
ng e
nvir
onm
ents
, and
sca
ffol
ding
tool
s.
How
ever
, it i
s no
t cle
ar w
hich
fac
tor(
s) e
ncou
rage
stu
dent
s to
eng
age
in r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
PBL
env
iron
men
ts.
Lear
ner's
Per
cept
ion
of F
acto
rs P
rom
ptin
g R
efle
ctiv
e T
hink
ing
in a
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
t
Alth
ough
, it i
s w
idel
y be
lieve
d th
at in
corp
orat
ing
thes
e fa
ctor
s in
a P
BL
env
iron
men
t can
supp
ort r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng, l
ittle
res
earc
h ha
s be
en c
ondu
cted
to in
vest
igat
e st
uden
ts' p
erce
ptio
ns
of th
ese
fact
ors.
Whi
le th
ese
key
fact
ors
have
bee
n ex
pect
ed to
incr
ease
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
a
PBL
env
iron
men
t, st
uden
ts h
ave
not a
lway
s pe
rcei
ved
the
use
of th
ese
stra
tegi
es a
s ef
fect
ive,
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
5
effic
ient
, or
attr
activ
e. T
he in
vest
igat
ion
of s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ion
is c
ritic
al b
ecau
se le
arne
rs m
ay
or m
ay n
ot p
erce
ive
desi
gned
fact
ors
as b
eing
hel
pful
in p
rom
ptin
g re
flect
ion
(Kos
zalk
a, T
.,
Son
g, If
., &
Gra
bow
ski,
13, 2
002;
Witt
rock
, 199
0). F
or e
xam
ple,
stu
dent
s m
ay n
ot b
e aw
are
of
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
str
ateg
ies
used
for
the
faci
litat
ion
of r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng. I
n ad
ditio
n, s
tude
nts
may
per
ceiv
e th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of s
trat
egie
s de
rived
from
key
fact
ors
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
diff
eren
tly a
ccor
ding
to in
divi
dual
diff
eren
ces
such
as
gend
er, h
ome
back
grou
nd, o
r ag
e.
In th
ose
case
s, s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
can
affe
ct th
eir
attit
ude
tow
ard
stra
tegi
es p
rom
ptin
g
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng, a
nd it
may
eve
ntua
lly in
fluen
ce th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of P
BL
(Gal
lagh
er, 1
994;
Roe
ser,
Eec
les,
& S
amer
off,
2000
). T
hus,
und
erst
andi
ng s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
of i
mpo
rtan
t
envi
ronm
enta
l fac
tors
that
hel
p th
em r
efle
ct c
an in
form
the
prac
tice
of d
evel
opin
g a
mor
e
effic
ient
1,1
31. e
nviro
nmen
t.
The
aut
hors
' ini
tial s
tudy
of f
acto
rs p
rom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
inve
stig
ated
the
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
perc
eptio
ns in
a g
ener
al le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t (K
osza
lka,
T.,
Son
g, H
., &
Gra
bow
ski,
13, 2
002)
.T
hree
fact
ors
perc
eive
d by
stu
dent
s to
affe
ct th
at r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng,
1.4.
foun
d as
are
sult
of f
acto
r an
alys
is, w
ere
inst
ruct
iona
l met
hod,
lear
ning
env
iron
men
t, an
d
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s. T
his
Fin
ding
sug
gest
s th
at s
tude
nts
do n
ot a
lway
s th
ink
all f
acto
rs a
re im
port
ant
in p
rom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
, and
thei
r pe
rcep
tions
can
be
chan
ged
acco
rdin
g to
the
char
acte
ristic
s of
the
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent.
Thi
s st
udy
inve
stig
ated
whi
ch fa
ctor
s pr
ompt
ed
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
a P
131.
env
ironm
ent.
The
que
stio
n w
as if
stu
dent
s w
ould
per
ceiv
e th
e sa
me
fact
ors
as im
port
ant w
hen
they
exp
erie
nced
them
in a
diff
eren
t lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
t, a
PB
L
envi
ronm
ent.
Sin
ce th
e P
131.
. env
ironm
ent h
as it
s ow
n ch
arac
teris
tics,
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns o
f
fact
ors
prom
ptin
gre
flect
ive
thin
king
may
be
diffe
rent
from
the
perc
eptio
ns o
f oth
er
envi
ronm
ents
.H
owev
er, n
o st
udy
has
inve
stig
ated
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns o
f fac
tors
pro
mpt
ing
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
6
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent.
We
hypo
thes
ized
that
onl
y ce
rtai
n fa
ctor
s w
ould
emer
ge a
s ke
y fa
ctor
s pr
ompt
ing
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent.
A D
evel
opm
enta
l Dee
renc
e in
Lec
onei
s'Pe
rcep
t ion
of
Fact
ors
Prom
ptin
g R
Oec
tive
Thi
nkin
g
One
diff
eren
ce to
con
side
r w
hen
exam
inin
g le
arne
rs' p
erce
ptio
n is
thei
r de
velo
pmen
tal
leve
l (C
raig
, 198
3; C
rain
, 200
0). A
ccor
ding
to K
ing
and
Kitc
hene
r (1
994)
, ref
lect
ive
thin
king
skill
is th
e ou
tcom
e of
a d
evel
opm
enta
l pro
gres
sion
res
ultin
g fr
om in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n th
e
indi
vidu
al's
con
cept
ual s
kills
and
env
ironm
ents
that
pro
mot
e or
inhi
bit t
hese
ski
lls. T
hey
assu
me
seve
n de
velo
pmen
t sta
ges
of r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng a
nd m
ainl
y di
vide
d th
em in
to th
ree
sets
in te
rms
of d
evel
opm
enta
l ord
er: e
arly
sta
ge r
efer
ring
pre-
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng, m
iddl
e st
age
occu
rrin
g
quas
i- re
flect
ive
thin
king
, and
adv
ance
d st
age
occu
rrin
g sp
onta
neou
sly
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng. T
his
sugg
ests
that
indi
vidu
alab
ility
toth
ink
refle
ctiv
ely
isdi
ffere
ntac
cord
ing
tohi
s/he
r
deve
lopm
enta
l sta
ge. M
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s ar
e m
ostly
in th
e pr
e-re
flect
ive
thin
king
sta
ge a
s
they
tran
sit t
hrou
gh m
any
diffe
rent
dev
elop
men
tal s
tage
s; w
hile
col
lege
stu
dent
s ar
e in
the
mid
dle
or a
dvan
ce s
tage
s of
ref
lect
ive
thin
king
.T
he a
utho
rs' i
nitia
l stu
dy h
as r
epor
ted
a
sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
in m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
n of
hel
pful
ele
men
ts p
rom
ptin
g
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng b
ased
on
grad
e le
vel.
How
ever
, it i
s no
t cle
ar h
ow m
iddl
e sc
hool
and
col
lege
stud
ents
diff
eren
tly p
erce
ive
the
help
fuln
ess
of fa
ctor
s pr
ompt
ing
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng.
Purp
ose
of th
e St
udy
The
pri
mar
y fo
cus
of th
is s
tudy
was
to e
xten
d th
e au
thor
s' in
itial
stu
dy b
y ex
amin
ing
mid
dle
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
of t
he h
elpf
ulne
ss o
f the
fact
ors
desi
gned
to p
rom
pt
refle
ctiv
eth
inki
ngin
PB
L en
viro
nmen
ts. D
iffer
ence
sin
stud
ents
' per
cept
ion
of fa
ctor
s
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
acc
ordi
ng to
dev
elop
men
tal s
tage
s w
ere
exam
ined
as
wel
l.T
he
follo
win
g re
sear
ch q
uest
ions
gui
ded
this
stu
dy:
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 7
I.W
hich
inst
ruct
iona
l des
ign
elem
ents
load
toge
ther
as
fact
ors
that
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
as
help
ful i
n pr
ompt
ing
thei
r re
flec
tive
thin
king
in P
BL
envi
ronm
ents
?
2.W
hich
of
the
iden
tifie
d fa
ctor
s w
as p
erce
ived
as
the
mos
t hel
pful
in p
rom
ptin
g th
eir
refl
ectiv
e th
inki
ng in
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ents
?
3.W
hich
ele
men
ts o
f al
l the
fac
tors
wer
e pe
rcei
ved
as m
ost h
elpf
ul f
or p
rom
ptin
g re
flec
tive
thin
king
in P
BL
env
iron
men
ts?
4.A
re th
ere
diff
eren
ces
in s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ion
of th
e id
entif
ied
fact
ors
and
elem
ents
in
PBI.
. env
iron
men
ts b
ased
dev
elop
men
tal s
tage
s?
Met
hods
Par
ticip
ants
and
Con
text
In th
is r
esea
rch,
we
repo
rt tw
o re
late
d st
udie
s ab
out s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ion
of d
esig
n fa
ctor
s
prom
ptin
g re
flec
tive
thin
king
in a
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ent:
a st
udy
of m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s'
perc
eptio
n an
d a
stud
y of
col
lege
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
n.
'ro m
easu
re m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns, o
ne h
undr
ed tw
enty
-tw
o m
iddl
e sc
hool
stud
ents
, 70
boys
, 51
girl
s, a
nd 1
who
did
not
iden
tify
thei
r ge
nder
, fro
m 3
pub
lic m
iddl
e sc
hool
s
in a
nor
thea
ster
n st
ate
part
icip
ated
in th
is s
tudy
. The
se s
ubje
cts
cam
e fr
om in
tact
gro
ups
in 6
diff
eren
t cla
ssro
oms
repr
esen
ting
6s' (
n=83
), th
(n=
28),
and
8th
(n=
I1)
grad
es. T
o m
easu
re
colle
ge s
tude
nts'
perc
eptio
ns, 7
49 c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
atte
ndin
g 10
dif
fere
nt s
ectio
ns o
f an
Intr
oduc
tory
Sta
tistic
s co
urse
in a
nor
thea
ster
n la
nd-g
rant
res
earc
h un
iver
sity
par
ticip
ated
in th
e
seco
nd s
tudy
.
illea
sutu
men
t Ins
trum
ent
A s
urve
y co
nsis
ting
of 1
0 ca
refu
lly ta
rget
ed q
uest
ions
for
mea
suri
ng th
e pe
rcei
ved
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 8
help
fuln
ess
of f
acto
rs th
at p
rom
pt r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng d
evel
oped
by
the
rese
arch
ers
was
use
d
(Kos
zalk
a, T
., So
ng. H
., &
Gra
bow
ski,
B, 2
002)
. Eac
h ite
m o
f th
e su
rvey
que
ried
stu
dent
s ab
out
one
inst
ruct
iona
l des
ign
elem
ent p
redi
cted
fro
m th
e lit
erat
ure
to p
rom
pt r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng. T
he
desi
gn e
lem
ents
incl
uded
the
ill-s
truc
ture
d an
d au
then
tic n
atur
e of
task
s, e
xpla
natio
n an
d
ques
tioni
ng in
stru
ctio
nal m
etho
ds e
mpl
oyed
by
the
teac
her,
sup
port
ive
and
flex
ible
lear
ning
envi
ronm
ent e
lem
ents
incl
udin
g co
llabo
rativ
e le
arni
ng, w
ait t
ime,
and
lear
ner
cont
rol,
and
the
use
of s
caff
oldi
ng to
ols
such
as
conc
ept m
appi
ng, r
efle
ctiv
e w
ritin
g, a
nd r
efle
ctiv
e qu
estio
n
prom
pts.
Bot
h m
iddl
e sc
hool
and
col
lege
stu
dent
s w
ere
aske
d to
res
pond
to e
ach
ques
tion
usin
g a
five
-poi
nt L
iker
t sca
le f
rom
str
ongl
y ag
ree
(5)
to s
tron
gly
disa
gree
(1)
.
Thi
s su
rvey
was
adm
inis
tere
d to
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
(N=
143)
to m
easu
re th
eir
perc
eptio
ns o
f fa
ctor
spr
ompt
ing
refl
ectiv
eth
inki
ngin
scie
nce
clas
sroo
m e
nvir
onm
ent
(Kos
zalk
a, T
., So
ng, H
., R
. Gra
bow
ski,
B. 2
002)
. The
Chr
onba
ch a
lpha
rel
iabi
lity
in th
e st
udy
was
.890
. The
res
ultin
g C
ronb
aoh
alph
a re
liabi
lity
from
dat
a co
llect
ed f
or m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s
in th
is s
tudy
was
.880
whi
le th
e C
ronb
ach
alph
a re
liabi
lity
for
colle
ge s
tude
nts
was
.706
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts
Mid
dle
scho
ol a
nd c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
part
icip
ated
in d
iffe
rent
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ents
. Mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
part
icip
ated
in a
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ent c
alle
d K
ids
as A
irbo
rne
Mis
sion
Sci
entis
ts
(KaA
MS)
des
igne
d an
d de
velo
ped
by th
e re
sear
cher
s to
insp
ire
stud
ents
' int
eres
ts in
sci
ence
,
mat
h, a
nd g
eogr
aphy
. In
this
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ent,
stud
ents
wer
e fi
rst p
rese
nted
with
a p
robl
em
situ
atio
n to
inve
stig
ate-
-the
act
ive
lava
flo
ws
in H
awai
i. T
o so
lve
this
pro
blem
, stu
dent
s ne
eded
to b
e ab
le to
a)
iden
tify
the
prob
lem
situ
atio
n, b
) pr
opos
e id
eas
and
sear
ch f
or in
form
atio
n, c
)
colle
ct a
nd a
naly
ze d
ata,
and
d)
prop
ose
solu
tion
idea
s. A
var
iety
of
reso
urce
s, w
hich
wer
e
mai
nly
NA
SA w
eb r
esou
rces
on
both
are
as o
f ae
rona
utic
s an
d re
mot
e se
nsin
g, w
ere
prov
ided
in
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 9
the
prog
ram
. Sev
eral
ref
lect
ion
stra
tegi
es w
ere
inco
rpor
ated
thro
ugho
ut th
e en
tire
KaA
MS
PB
L
less
on p
lans
to s
timul
ate
stud
ents
to d
emon
stra
te r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng a
ctiv
ely
and
pers
iste
ntly
.
13ot
h in
quiry
and
exp
lana
tion-
orie
nted
inst
ruct
ion
met
hods
wer
e in
corp
orat
ed in
the
less
on p
lans
for
leac
hers
. Var
ious
str
ateg
ies
faci
litat
ing
activ
e le
arni
ng w
ere
also
incl
uded
. To
supp
ort
stud
ents
' ref
lect
ive
thin
king
, a g
uide
d re
flect
ive
wor
kboo
k fo
r st
uden
ts w
as p
rovi
ded.
Stu
dent
s
wer
e en
cour
aged
to w
rite
refle
ctiv
ely
or d
raw
thei
r ow
n id
eas
on th
e jo
urna
ls d
riven
by
refle
ctiv
e
ques
tion
prom
pts.
We
obse
rved
that
stu
dent
s ex
perie
nced
all
thes
e ke
y fa
ctor
s su
ppor
ting
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng d
urin
g th
eir
inve
stig
atio
n.
Col
lege
stu
dent
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed in
a s
tatis
tics
cour
se d
esig
ned
to e
nhan
ce p
robl
em s
olvi
ng
abili
ty b
ased
on
the
P13
1. p
rinci
ples
. The
PB
L en
viro
nmen
t inc
orpo
rate
d au
then
tic a
nd il
l-
stru
ctur
ed p
robl
em s
ituat
ions
, stu
dent
-cen
tere
d, te
ache
r-fa
cilit
ated
act
iviti
es, c
olla
bora
tive
wor
k,
and
guid
ing
ques
tions
.
We
ackn
owle
dge
that
a d
irect
com
paris
on b
etw
een
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ion
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ion
has
a lim
itatio
n be
caus
e th
ey p
artic
ipat
ed in
diff
eren
t lea
rnin
g
envi
ronm
ents
.H
owev
er, b
oth
lear
ning
env
ironm
ents
hav
e a
com
mon
cha
ract
eris
tic th
at th
ey
wer
e de
sign
ed b
ased
on
the
esse
ntia
l des
ign
prin
cipl
es o
f PB
L. W
e be
lieve
that
the
com
mon
char
acte
ristic
s of
a 1
'131
. env
ironm
ent e
nabl
e us
to in
quire
abo
ut th
ose
fact
ors
that
pro
mpt
eac
h
grou
p's
(mid
dle
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts)
thin
king
ref
lect
ivel
y an
d de
scrip
tivel
y co
mpa
re th
em.
Piri
cedu
iv
Mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
wer
e ex
amin
ed a
fter
com
plet
ing
the
KaA
MS
PB
L
less
ons.
The
ave
rage
tota
l am
ount
of t
ime
for
the
com
plet
ion
of th
e K
aAM
S P
BL
less
ons
was
6
mon
ths.
The
stu
dent
's e
xpos
ure
to th
e P
BL
envi
ronm
ent d
urin
g th
is a
mou
nt o
f tim
e en
sure
d th
e
stab
ility
of s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
for
fact
ors
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
abo
ut a
PB
L
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 10
envi
ronm
ent.
A s
urve
y w
as a
dmin
iste
red
and
colle
cted
by
a cl
assr
oom
teac
her
at th
e en
d of
thes
e
six
mon
ths.
The
col
lege
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns w
ere
exam
ined
afte
r co
mpl
etin
g a
fifte
en-w
eek
cour
se.
The
stu
dent
's e
xpos
ure
to th
e P
BL
envi
ronm
ent d
urin
g th
is a
mou
nt o
f tim
e al
so e
nsur
ed th
e
stab
ility
of s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
for
fact
ors
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
abo
ut a
PB
L
envi
ronm
ent.
A s
urve
y w
as a
dmin
iste
red
and
colle
cted
by
the
inst
ruct
or a
nd te
achi
ng a
ssis
tant
s at
the
end
of th
e co
urse
.
Dat
a A
naly
ses
Max
imum
like
lihoo
d ex
trac
tion
and
Var
imax
rot
atio
n m
etho
ds w
ere
used
to r
un a
fact
or
anal
ysis
to d
eter
min
e ho
w th
e re
spon
ses
to th
e qu
estio
ns o
f ins
truc
tiona
l des
ign
elem
ents
load
ed
to th
e pr
edic
ted
fact
ors.
To
test
for
diffe
renc
es a
mon
g th
e fa
ctor
s, a
pai
red
sam
ple
T-t
est w
as
cond
ucte
d. A
n in
depe
nden
t T-t
est w
as u
sed
to te
st fo
r di
ffere
nce
amon
g th
e el
emen
ts in
the
iden
tifie
d fa
ctor
s. A
ll da
ta a
naly
ses
wer
e co
nduc
ted
usin
g th
e S
PS
S/P
C+
sta
tistic
al p
acka
ge
(SP
SS
Win
dow
V. 1
0).
Res
ults
Inst
ruct
iona
l Des
ign
Fact
ors
Prom
ptin
g R
efle
ctiv
e T
hink
ing
in P
BL
Env
iron
men
ts
Fou
r fa
ctor
s w
ere
pred
icte
d to
em
erge
from
the
data
: (I)
inst
ruct
iona
l met
hods
, (2)
task
, (3)
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent,
and
(4)
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s. H
owev
er, a
s sh
own
in T
able
I, in
res
pons
e to
the
first
res
earc
h qu
estio
n,W
hich
inst
ruct
iona
l des
ign
elem
ents
load
toge
ther
as
fact
ors
that
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
as
help
ful i
n pr
ompt
ing
thei
r re
flec
tive
thin
king
in P
BL
env
iron
men
ts?;
two
fact
ors
emer
ged
from
the
fact
or a
naly
sis
usin
g an
Eig
en
valu
e of
1.0
.
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
11
The
res
ults
from
the
stud
y of
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ion
show
that
six
item
s lo
aded
to fa
ctor
1: a
uthe
ntic
task
, wai
t tim
e, il
l-str
uctu
red
task
, inq
uiry
-orie
nted
inst
ruct
iona
l met
hod,
lear
ner
cont
rol,
and
colla
bora
tive
lear
ning
. Fou
r ite
ms
load
ed to
fact
or 2
: con
cept
map
ping
,
refle
ctiv
e w
ritin
g, te
ache
r ex
plan
atio
n, a
nd r
efle
ctiv
e qu
estio
n. T
he m
ain
char
acte
ristic
s of
fact
or
appe
ared
to r
elat
e to
the
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
iron
men
t des
ign
varia
ble.
The
stu
dent
-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent i
s de
fined
by
this
dat
a as
bei
ng in
quiry
-orie
nted
, col
labo
rativ
e,
lear
ner-
cont
rolle
d, fl
exib
le, a
nd d
riven
by
auth
entic
and
ill-s
truc
ture
d pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng
chal
leng
es. T
he q
uest
ions
that
load
ed to
fact
or 2
app
eare
d to
rel
ate
to th
esc
affo
ldin
g to
ols
varia
ble
for
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
, as
pred
icte
d. A
n un
expe
cted
res
ult w
as th
at th
e
ques
tion
on 't
each
er e
xpla
natio
n' w
as lo
aded
to th
esc
affo
ldin
g to
ols
fact
or. I
nste
ad o
f thi
nkin
g
abou
t tea
cher
exp
lana
tion
as a
n in
stru
ctio
nal m
etho
d, s
tude
nts
mig
ht c
onsi
der
it as
a s
caffo
ld
prom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng li
ke o
ther
tool
s su
ch a
s qu
estio
ning
, writ
ing,
or
conc
ept
map
ping
.
The
res
ults
from
the
stud
y of
col
lege
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns s
how
that
two
late
nt fa
ctor
s
wer
e al
so id
entif
ied
base
d on
an
Eig
enva
lue
of 1
.0. F
ive
item
s lo
aded
to fa
ctor
1: l
earn
er c
ontr
ol,
wai
t -lim
e be
fore
ans
wer
ing
a qu
estio
n, a
uthe
ntic
task
, col
labo
rativ
e w
ork,
and
con
cept
map
ping
and
five
item
s lo
aded
to fa
ctor
2: t
each
er q
uest
ion,
ill-s
truc
ture
d ta
sk, t
each
er e
xpla
natio
n,
refle
ctiv
e w
ritin
g, a
nd r
efle
ctiv
e qu
estio
n pr
ompt
s. T
he m
ain
char
acte
ristic
s of
fact
or I
appe
ared
to r
elat
e to
the
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
iron
men
tva
riabl
e. T
he s
tude
nt-c
ente
red
lear
ning
envi
ronm
ent i
s de
fined
by
this
dat
a as
bei
ng c
olla
bora
tive,
lear
ner-
cont
rolle
d, fl
exib
le, a
nd
driv
en b
y au
then
tic p
robl
em s
olvi
ng c
halle
nges
. The
que
stio
ns th
at lo
aded
to fa
ctor
2 a
ppea
red
to
rela
te to
the
scaf
fold
ing
tool
sva
riabl
e fo
r pr
ompt
ing
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng u
sing
teac
her
ques
tion,
teac
her
expl
anat
ion,
ref
lect
ive
writ
ing,
ref
lect
ive
ques
tions
, and
ill-s
truc
ture
d pr
oble
m s
ituat
ions
.
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PH
I. E
nviro
nmen
ts-
12
Tab
le 1
Fac
tor
Load
ing
of E
lem
ents
Tha
t Pro
mpt
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g
Mid
dle
Sch
ool S
tude
nts
Fac
tors
12
Item
Item
con
tent
Col
lege
Stu
dent
s
Hem
Item
con
tent
2W
orki
ng o
n ac
tiviti
es in
cla
ssre
late
d to
rea
l pro
blem
s on
eart
h or
in o
ur s
ocie
ty h
elps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
t wha
t Iam
stu
dyin
g.6
Hav
ing
time
to th
ink
abou
t aqu
estio
nbe
fore
answ
erin
ghe
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
tw
hat I
am
stu
dyin
g.1
Wor
king
on
activ
ities
in c
lass
that
have
man
ydi
ffere
ntan
swer
s he
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
t wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
4W
hen
my
teac
her
asks
me
how
to s
olve
diff
icul
t tas
ks it
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
7H
avin
g fr
eedo
m in
cla
ss to
expl
ore
topi
cs I
ant i
nter
este
din
hel
ps m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
5W
orki
ng w
ith p
artn
ers
durin
gcl
assr
oom
act
iviti
es h
elps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
t wha
t I a
mst
udyi
ng.
gD
raw
ing
pict
ures
to il
lust
rate
my
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
a to
pic
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
9W
ritin
gab
out
my
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
a to
pic
help
sm
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out w
hat I
ant s
tudy
ing.
3W
hen
my
teac
her
expl
ains
how
to s
olve
diff
icul
t tas
ks it
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
10A
nsw
erin
g qu
estio
ns a
bout
ato
pic
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
eab
out w
hat I
am
stu
dyin
g
.729
.118
7
.691
.244
6
.664
.331
2
.594
.426
5
.510
.309
8
.498
.191
4
.132
.742
1
.284
.736
3
.509
.609
9
.484
.560
Hav
ing
free
dom
in c
lass
toex
plor
eto
pics
Iam
inte
rest
ed in
hel
ps m
e th
ink
mor
eab
out w
hat
I am
stud
ying
.H
avin
g tim
e to
thin
k ab
out a
ques
tion
befo
re a
nsw
erin
ghe
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
tw
hat I
am
stu
dyin
g.W
orki
ng o
nac
tiviti
esin
clas
sre
late
dto
real
prob
lem
s on
ear
th o
r in
our
soci
ety
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
eab
out w
hat I
am
stu
dyin
g.W
orki
ngw
ithpa
rtne
rsdu
ring
clas
sroo
m a
ctiv
ities
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
Dra
win
gpi
ctur
esto
illus
trat
e m
y un
ders
tand
ing
of a
topi
c he
lps
me
thin
km
ore
abou
t wha
tI
am
stud
ying
.W
hen
my
teac
her
asks
me
how
to s
olve
diff
icul
t tas
ksit
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
Wor
king
on
activ
ities
incl
ass
that
have
man
ydi
ffere
nt a
nsw
ers
help
s m
eth
ink
mor
e ab
out w
hat I
am
stud
ying
.W
hen
my
teac
her
expl
ains
how
to s
olve
diff
icul
t tas
ksit
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e ab
out
wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing.
Writ
ing
abou
tm
yun
ders
tand
ing
of a
topi
che
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
tw
hat I
am
stu
dyin
g.10
Ans
wer
ing
ques
tions
abo
uta
topi
c he
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
abou
t wha
t I a
m s
tudy
ing
Fac
tors
12
.629
.135
.497
.107
.391
.273
.335
.202
.328
.322
2.38
0.5
70E
-02
.273
.445
.189
.440
.244
.401
.231
.313
Stud
ents
Per
cept
ions
of
Fact
ors
Prom
ptin
g R
efle
ctiv
e T
hink
ing
in P
M E
nvir
onm
ents
In r
espo
nse
to th
e se
cond
res
earc
h qu
estio
n,W
hich
of
the
iden
trie
d fa
ctor
s w
as p
erce
ived
as
the
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
13
mos
t hel
pfirl
in p
rom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
PB
L en
viro
nmen
ts?
mid
dle
scho
ol a
nd
colle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d th
ese
diffe
rent
ly.
The
res
ults
from
the
stud
y of
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
dem
onst
rate
d th
at fa
ctor
1- s
tude
nt-c
ente
red
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent e
mer
ged
as th
e hi
ghes
t ran
ked
fact
or (
M =
3.7
9, S
D =
.74)
, fol
low
ed b
y fa
ctor
2-
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s (M
= 3
.37,
SD
= .9
1). T
able
2 in
dica
tes
that
ther
e
was
a s
igni
fican
t diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
thes
e tw
o fa
ctor
s. T
hese
res
ults
sug
gest
ed th
at s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d th
e st
uden
t-ce
nter
ed le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t as
the
mos
t sig
nific
ant f
acto
r in
pro
mpt
ing
thei
r re
flect
ive
thin
king
.
How
ever
, the
res
ults
from
the
stud
y of
col
lege
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns s
how
ed th
at th
at fa
ctor
2- s
caffo
ldin
g to
ols
emer
ged
as th
e hi
ghes
t ran
ked
fact
or (
M =
2.2
3, S
D =
.63)
, fol
low
ed b
y
fact
or 1
- le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t (M
= 2
.02,
SD
= .5
9). T
able
2 a
lso
indi
cate
s th
at th
ere
was
a
sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
bet
wee
n th
ese
two
fact
ors.
The
se r
esul
ts s
ugge
sted
that
col
lege
stu
dent
s
perc
eive
d th
e sc
affo
ld to
ols
as th
e m
ost h
elpf
ul fa
ctor
in p
rom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng.
Tab
le 2
Pai
red
Sam
ples
T-T
est f
or F
acto
rs
Fac
tors
Mid
dle
Sch
ool S
tude
nts
Msd
Tdf
I'F
acto
rs
Col
lege
Stu
dent
s
Msd
Tdf
p
Fl
Leon
ia's
Env
ironm
ent
F2
Sca
ffold
ing
Too
ls
3.79
.74
.91
6.39
114
.01
Fl
Lear
ning
Env
ironm
ent
F2S
caffo
ldin
g
Too
ls
2.02
.59
-9.1
748
.00
Nitc
httr
' Pen
:wai
l ref
hvo
uctix
tal D
esig
n E
bner
& li
onpt
ing
Rej
lort
ive
773i
nAin
g in
PB
L E
nvA
onrn
erts
Mea
nwhi
le, i
n re
spon
se to
the
rese
arch
que
stio
n, W
hich
ele
men
ts o
f all
the
fact
ors
wer
e
perc
eive
d as
mos
t hel
pful
for
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
in P
BL
envi
ronm
ents
?, m
iddl
e sc
hool
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
14
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d th
ese
diffe
rent
ly a
s w
ell.
The
res
ults
from
the
stud
y of
mid
dle
scho
ol s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
sho
wed
that
the
high
est
rank
ed e
lem
ents
wer
e bo
th lo
aded
to th
e st
uden
t-ce
nter
ed le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t fac
tor
and
wer
e
of a
soc
ial a
nd le
arne
r co
ntro
l nat
ure.
See
Tab
le 3
. The
mea
n sc
ores
for
item
5 -
wor
king
with
part
ners
(Iti
= 4
.06,
SD
= 1
.16)
and
item
7 -
havi
ng fr
eedo
m to
exp
lore
topi
cs (
Al =
4.0
2, S
D
=.9
9) w
ere
stat
istic
ally
the
sam
e, b
ut s
igni
fican
tly h
ighe
r m
ean
scor
es th
an a
ll ot
her
item
s.
Tab
le 3
Mea
ns a
nd S
tand
ard
Dev
iatio
ns o
f Que
stio
n Ite
ms
Mid
dle
Sch
ool S
tude
nts
Fac
tor
Item
MS
DF
l5.
Wor
kIng
with
Lear
ning
part
ners
durin
g4.
061.
16E
nviro
nmen
tcl
assr
oom
activ
ities
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e
7.H
avin
gfr
eedo
min
clas
s to
exp
lore
topi
cs I
am in
tere
sted
In h
elps
me
thin
k m
ore
Fl
5. H
avin
g tim
e to
thin
kLe
arni
ngab
out a
que
stio
n be
fore
3.82
.97
Env
ironm
ent
answ
erin
g he
lps
me
thin
km
ore.
Fl
1. W
orki
ng o
n ac
tiviti
es in
Lear
ning
clas
sth
atha
ve m
any
3.82
.92
Env
ironm
ent
diffe
rent
answ
ers
help
sm
e th
ink
mor
eF
l2.
Wor
king
on
activ
ities
inLe
arni
ngcl
ass
rela
ted
tore
al3.
68.9
9E
nviro
nmen
tpr
oble
ms
on e
arth
or
inou
r so
ciet
y he
lps
me
thin
km
ore
Fl
4. W
hen
my
teac
her
asks
Lear
ning
me
how
to s
olve
diff
icul
t3.
351.
04E
nviro
nmen
tta
sks
it he
lps
me
thin
km
ore
F2
3.W
hen
my
teac
her
Too
lsex
plai
ns h
ow to
solv
e3.
75.9
9di
fficu
lt ta
sks
it he
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
F2
8.D
raw
ing
pict
ures
toT
ools
illus
trat
em
y3.
391.
22un
ders
tand
ing
of a
topi
che
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
Fl
Lear
ning
Env
ironm
ent
4.02
.99
A
Fac
tor
F2
Too
ls
F2 Too
ls
F2 Too
ls
F2
Too
ls
F2 Too
ls
Fl
Lear
ning
Env
ironm
ent
Fl
Lea
rnin
gE
nvir
onm
ent
Fl
Lea
rnin
gE
nvir
onm
ent
Col
lege
Stu
dent
sIte
m4.
Whe
n m
y te
ache
ras
ks m
e ho
w to
sol
vedi
fficu
lt ta
sks
it he
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
1. W
orki
ng o
nac
tiviti
es In
cla
ss th
atha
ve m
any
diffe
rent
answ
ers
help
s m
eth
ink
mor
e9.
Writ
ing
abou
t my
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
a23
8to
pic
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e
MS
D
2.39
1.01
3
2.39
1.08
A1.
08
10. A
nsw
erin
gqu
estio
ns a
bout
a to
pic
2.01
.92
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e
3. W
hen
my
teac
her
expl
ains
how
to s
olve
diffi
cult
task
s it
help
sm
e th
ink
mor
e
5.W
orki
ng w
ithpa
rtne
rs d
urin
gcl
assr
oom
act
iviti
eshe
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
8. D
raw
ing
pict
ures
toill
ustr
ate
my
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
a to
pic
help
s m
e th
ink
mor
e7.
Hav
ing
free
dom
incl
ass
to e
xplo
re to
pics
Iam
inte
rest
ed in
hel
psm
e th
ink
mor
e
1.98
1.01
2.06
.99
F2 Too
ls
F2 Too
ls
10. A
nsw
erin
g qu
estio
nsab
out a
topi
c he
lps
me
thin
k m
ore
9.W
ritin
gab
out m
yun
ders
tand
ing
of a
topi
c
3.32
1.08
help
s m
o th
ink
mor
e
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
15
Fl
Lear
ning
Env
ironm
ent
Fl
Lear
ning
Env
ironm
ent
2. W
orki
ng o
n ac
tiviti
esin
cla
ss r
elat
ed to
rea
lpr
oble
ms
on e
arth
or
in1.
98.7
9
our
soci
ety
help
s m
eth
ink
mor
e6.
Hav
ing
time
to th
ink
abou
t a q
uest
ion
befo
rean
swer
ing
help
s m
eth
ink
mor
e.
1.79
.82
Not
e: A
Sta
tistic
ally
the
sam
e, s
tatis
tical
ly d
iffer
ent f
rom
all
othe
r m
ean
scor
es a
t the
.05
leve
l.
The
res
ults
from
the
stud
y of
col
lege
stu
dent
s' p
erce
ptio
ns s
how
ed th
at th
e m
ost h
ighl
y
rank
ed e
lem
ents
wer
e lo
aded
to th
e sc
affo
ldin
g to
ol fa
ctor
and
wer
e 'te
ache
r qu
estio
n' (
M=
2.39
,
SD=
1.01
) an
d 'il
l-str
uctu
red
task
' (A
l= 2
.38,
SD=
1.08
),fo
llow
ed b
y 're
flec
tive
wri
ting'
(A1
=2.
38, S
D=
1.08
). T
he m
ean
scor
es fo
r th
ose
thre
e ite
ms
wer
e st
atis
tical
ly th
e sa
me,
but
sign
ifica
ntly
hig
her
than
the
mea
n sc
ores
of a
ll ot
her
item
s.
Dis
cuss
ion
The
prim
ary
rese
arch
que
stio
ns in
this
stu
dy w
as to
iden
tify
and
com
pare
inst
ruct
iona
l
desi
gn fa
ctor
s an
d el
emen
ts th
at th
e m
iddl
e sc
hool
and
the
colle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d as
hel
pful
in p
rom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
PB
L en
viro
nmen
ts.
Tw
oFa
ctor
s ho
wlin
g R
efle
ctiv
e T
hink
ing
in a
PB
L e
nvir
onm
ent
Whe
reas
the
liter
atur
es r
epor
t sev
eral
key
fact
ors
that
pro
mpt
ref
lect
ive
thin
king
, tw
o
fact
ors
wer
e fo
und
as a
res
ult o
f fac
tor
anal
ysis
for
both
mid
dle
scho
ol a
nd c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
in
thes
e tw
o st
udie
s. B
oth
mid
dle
scho
ol a
nd c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d th
e st
uden
t-ce
nter
ed
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent a
nd th
e sc
affo
ldin
g to
ols
as fa
ctor
s pr
ompt
ing
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent.
How
ever
, Iw
o ot
her
fact
ors
(inst
ruct
iona
l met
hod,
task
) w
ere
not f
ound
as
maj
or
fact
ors
in th
is s
tudy
.
Thi
s al
so d
iffer
s fr
om th
e re
sult
in th
e ea
rly s
tudy
by
Kos
zalk
a, S
ong,
& G
rabo
wsk
i (20
02)
in a
gen
eral
sci
ence
-lear
ning
env
ironm
ent i
n w
hich
thre
e fa
ctor
s em
erge
d. T
he in
stru
ctio
nal
met
hod
fact
or r
epor
ted
in a
utho
rs' i
nitia
l stu
dy w
as n
ot fo
und
in th
is s
tudy
and
two
elem
ents
in
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nviro
nmen
ts-
16
this
fact
or(t
each
er q
uest
ion
and
teac
her
expl
anat
ion)
wer
e lo
aded
to e
ither
the
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent f
acto
r or
the
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s fa
ctor
in th
e m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s gr
oup
and
load
ed to
geth
er to
the
scaf
fold
ing
tool
fact
or in
the
colle
ge s
tude
nts
grou
p. It
is in
tere
stin
g
that
the
teac
her
expl
anat
ion
load
ed to
the
scaf
fold
ing
fact
or in
the
both
gro
ups
but
the
teac
her
ques
tion
load
ed to
the
scaf
fold
ing
tool
fact
or in
the
only
col
lege
stu
dent
s gr
oups
. Thi
s su
gges
ts
that
bot
h st
uden
ts p
erce
ived
the
teac
her
expl
anat
ion
as a
sca
ffold
ing
tool
hel
ping
them
to s
olve
the
prob
lem
in a
PB
L en
viro
nmen
t. H
owev
er, m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s pe
rcei
ved
the
teac
her
ques
tion
as a
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f lea
ning
env
ironm
ent r
athe
r th
an a
sca
ffold
tool
.
Tw
o el
emen
ts in
a ta
sk fa
ctor
,ill
- s
truc
ture
d an
d au
then
tic ta
skch
arac
teris
tics
wer
e al
so n
ot
emer
ged
as a
fact
or in
bot
h gr
oups
. One
pos
sibl
e re
ason
why
the
task
fact
or w
as n
ot e
mer
ged
and
com
bine
d w
ith th
e ot
her
fact
ors
can
be fo
und
in th
e ch
arac
teris
tics
of a
PB
L en
viro
nmen
t. P
I3L
rese
arch
ers
repo
rt th
at a
uthe
ntic
and
ill -
def
ined
task
s ar
e es
peci
ally
an
impo
rtan
t cha
ract
eris
tic o
f
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent (
Alb
anes
e &
Mitc
hel,
1993
; Bar
row
, 199
8). T
here
fore
, stu
dent
s m
ight
not
sepa
rate
the
task
fact
or fr
om th
e ot
her
fact
ors
such
as
the
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent o
r th
e to
ol fa
ctor
.
Mos
t Hel
pful
Fac
tor
Whi
le m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s pe
rcei
ved
the
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent a
s th
e
mos
t hel
pful
fact
or, c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
perc
eive
d th
e sc
affo
ldin
g to
ol a
s th
e m
ost h
elpf
ul.
Res
earc
hers
on
PB
L ha
ve r
epor
ted
that
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d na
ture
of l
earn
ing
is th
e m
ost e
ssen
tial
char
acte
ristic
of t
he P
BL
envi
ronm
ent (
Bar
row
, 198
8). I
n fa
ct, P
BL
emph
asiz
es th
e se
lf-di
rect
ed
lear
ning
in w
hich
stu
dent
s ta
ke a
res
pons
ibili
ty fo
r th
eir
lear
ning
. The
ele
men
ts in
the
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent f
acto
r ar
e al
l rel
ated
to m
ake
lear
ning
inde
pend
ent a
nd a
ctiv
e.
Mos
t Hel
pful
Ele
men
ts
The
mos
t im
port
ant e
lem
ents
in th
e m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s w
ere
colla
bora
tion
and
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 17
havi
ng fr
eedo
m in
the
clas
sroo
m. g
ener
ally
cla
ssifi
ed in
the
liter
atur
e as
the
soci
al a
nd le
arne
r
cont
rol n
atur
e of
the
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent.
The
se tw
o el
emen
ts a
re e
ssen
tial i
n m
akin
g P
BL
stud
ent-
cent
ered
. Tw
o m
ajor
lear
ning
app
roac
hes
in P
BL
are
self-
dire
cted
lear
ning
cha
ract
eriz
ed
by le
arne
r co
ntro
l and
a s
mal
l gro
up le
arni
ng e
mph
asiz
ed a
s so
cial
lear
ning
. On
the
cont
rary
, the
mos
t im
port
ant e
lem
ents
in th
e co
llege
stu
dent
s w
ere
teac
her
ques
tion,
ill-s
truc
ture
d ta
sk, a
nd
refle
ctiv
e w
ritin
g. T
hese
ele
men
ts a
re e
ssen
tial t
ools
in m
akin
g st
uden
ts s
elf-
dire
cted
lean
er in
P13
1 en
viro
nmen
ts.
Whi
le m
iddl
e sc
hool
stud
ents
per
ceiv
ed th
eel
emen
tsin
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
envi
ronm
ent f
acto
r th
at s
uppo
rt th
eir
lear
ning
as
the
mos
t hel
pful
, col
lege
stu
dent
s pe
rcei
ved
elem
ents
in th
e sc
affo
ldin
g to
ol th
at p
rom
ote
self-
dire
cted
lear
ning
as
the
mos
t hel
pful
. The
se
findi
ngs
impl
y th
at m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s pr
efer
a le
arni
ng c
limat
e in
whi
ch th
ey c
an in
tera
ct
with
thei
r cl
assm
ates
in p
rom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng w
here
as c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
pref
er a
scaf
fold
to h
elp
them
to h
e se
lf-di
rect
ed le
arne
rs s
uch
as te
ache
r qu
estio
ns, r
efle
ctiv
e w
ritin
g, o
r
ill-s
truc
ture
d tu
sk.
Diff
eren
ces
in H
elpf
ulne
ss b
y D
evel
opm
enta
l Sta
ges
Diff
eren
ces
in p
erce
ptio
ns w
ere
foun
d in
term
s of
fact
or a
nd e
lem
ents
that
pro
mpt
ref
lect
ive
thin
king
bas
ed o
n de
velo
pmen
tal s
tage
. The
res
ult t
hat m
iddl
e sc
hool
stu
dent
s pe
rcei
ved
the
stud
ents
-lear
ning
env
ironm
ent f
acto
r as
mor
e he
lpfu
l tha
n co
llege
stu
dent
s re
veal
s th
at s
tude
nts
in a
pre
-ref
lect
ive
thin
king
sta
ge c
an b
enef
it m
ore
from
cre
atin
g su
ppor
tive
expe
rient
ial
envi
ronm
ents
than
stu
dent
s in
mid
dle
or a
dvan
ce s
tage
of r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng s
tage
in P
BL
envi
ronm
ents
. The
res
ult t
hat c
olle
ge s
tude
nts,
on
the
othe
r ha
nd, p
erce
ived
the
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s
as m
ost h
elpf
ul im
plie
s th
at th
ey c
an b
enef
it m
ore
from
sup
port
ing
self-
dire
cted
lear
ning
in P
BL
envi
ronm
ents
. In
fad,
this
impl
icat
ion
was
sup
port
ed fr
om th
e re
sult
in th
at c
olle
ge s
tude
nts
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 18
perc
eive
d th
e re
flect
ive
writ
ing
as o
ne o
f the
mos
t hel
pful
ele
men
ts w
here
as m
iddl
e sc
hool
stud
ents
less
hel
pful
. The
se fi
ndin
gs s
uppo
rt th
e im
port
ance
of d
evel
opm
enta
lly a
ppro
pria
te
inst
ruct
ion.
Acc
ordi
ng to
Nat
iona
l Mid
dle
Sch
ool A
ssoc
iatio
n (1
995)
, you
ng a
dole
scen
ts w
ho a
re
in b
etw
een
the
ages
of 1
0 to
15
are
in a
tran
sitio
n pe
riod
from
con
cret
e th
inki
ng to
abs
trac
t
thin
king
. Sin
ce th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts in
the
stud
y I w
ere
from
6th
gra
ders
to 8
th g
rade
rs, w
e as
sum
e
that
they
are
in th
e st
age
of c
oncr
ete
thin
king
, and
thus
they
nee
d m
ore
inte
rest
ing
and
expe
rient
ial l
earn
ing
rath
er th
an r
efle
ctiv
e w
ritin
g. T
hese
find
ings
impl
y th
at w
e m
ust c
onsi
der
indi
vidu
al d
iffer
ence
s w
hen
we
supp
ort r
efle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng in
PB
L en
viro
nmen
ts.
Con
clus
ion
Thi
s st
udy
expl
ored
the
ques
tion
of w
hat f
acto
rs in
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent c
ould
pro
mpt
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng c
onsi
derin
g st
uden
ts' d
evel
opm
enta
l sta
ges.
We
exam
ined
bot
h m
iddl
e sc
hool
and
colle
ge s
tude
nts'
per
cept
ions
of f
acto
rs p
rom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
afte
r im
plem
entin
g
PB
L le
sson
s. T
he fi
ndin
gs in
dica
te th
at b
oth
stud
ents
per
ceiv
ed S
tude
ntC
ente
red
Lear
ning
Env
ironm
ent a
nd S
caffo
ldin
g F
acto
r as
hel
pful
fact
ors
prom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng.
How
ever
, the
y pe
rcei
ve d
iffer
ently
the
help
fuln
ess
of th
e id
entif
ied
fact
ors
and
the
elem
ents
in
thos
e fa
ctor
s. T
his
impl
ies
that
we
mus
t con
side
r th
e ch
arac
teris
tics
of d
evel
opm
enta
l sta
ges
whe
n de
sign
ing
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent s
uppo
rtin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
.
The
find
ings
of t
his
stud
y ha
ve im
port
ant i
mpl
icat
ions
for
supp
ortin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
in
a P
BL
envi
ronm
ent b
y em
piric
ally
iden
tifyi
ng d
esig
n fa
ctor
s le
arne
rs p
erce
ived
as
mos
t hel
pful
prom
ptin
g th
eir
refle
ctiv
e th
inki
ng. O
ne o
f the
mos
t mea
ning
ful f
indi
ng in
this
stu
dy w
as th
e
impo
rtan
ce o
f the
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t and
sca
ffold
ing
tool
. Giv
en th
at b
oth
fact
ors
incl
ude
vario
us d
esig
n el
emen
ts, i
t is
impo
rtan
t to
furt
her
refin
e an
d te
st th
e at
trib
utes
of
each
fact
or. S
ince
the
char
acte
ristic
s of
a P
BL
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent o
verla
p w
ith th
ose
of a
Ref
lect
ive
Thi
nkin
g in
PB
L E
nvir
onm
ents
- 19
cons
true
tivis
t lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
t, fu
ture
stu
dy m
ay in
vest
igat
e va
rious
des
ign
stra
tegi
es to
iden
tify
the
attr
ibut
es o
f the
stu
dent
-cen
tere
d le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t and
sca
ffold
ing
tool
s fo
r
prom
ptin
g re
flect
ive
thin
king
in a
PB
L en
viro
nmen
t.
Fur
ther
res
earc
h is
als
o ne
eded
to in
vest
igat
e th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e st
uden
t-ce
nter
ed
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent f
acto
r an
d th
e sc
affo
ldin
g to
ols
fact
or. R
ecen
tly, m
any
scaf
fold
ing
tool
s
usin
g cu
rren
t tec
hnol
ogy
are
devi
sed
to h
elp
stud
ents
' hig
her
orde
r th
inki
ng s
kills
in a
PB
L
envi
ronm
ent.
The
ele
men
ts in
the
stud
ent-
cent
ered
lear
ning
env
ironm
ent f
acto
r in
this
stu
dy c
an
he u
sed
for
maj
or d
esig
n st
rate
gies
for
deve
lopi
ng s
caffo
ldin
g to
ols.
Ack
now
ledg
emen
t: T
his
proj
ect w
as m
ade
poss
ible
thro
ugh
findi
ng fr
om th
e N
atio
nal
Aer
onau
tics
Spa
ce A
dmin
istr
atio
n, L
eadi
ng E
duca
tors
to A
pplic
atio
ns. R
esea
rch,
and
NA
SA -
Rel
ated
Edu
catio
nal R
esou
rces
in S
cien
ce (
LEA
RN
ER
S),
a C
oope
rativ
e A
gree
men
t Not
ice
from
the
NA
M E
duca
tion
Div
isio
n an
d Le
arni
ng T
echn
olog
ies
Pro
ject
. Pro
ject
Num
ber:
NC
C5-
432:
Lear
ning
Usi
ng E
RA
ST
Airc
raft
for
Und
erst
andi
ng R
emot
e S
ensi
ng, A
tmos
pher
ic S
ampl
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raft
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