Michael MossaadErica Borden

Eukaryotes Larger Internal organelles Nucleus

Prokaryotes Smaller Lack internal

organelles No nucleus

Algal Cells Measurement

Cell 1 0.116 mm

Cell 2 0.162 mm

Cell 3 0.0861 mm

Average 0.1214 mm

CytoplasmChloroplast

Cell Wall

Long strands Block-like cell walls Green filaments Chloroplasts are spiral like Clear cytoplasm surrounding green

chloroplasts

Cyanobacteria Measurements

Cell 1 0.00672 mm

Cell 2 0.00362 mm

Cell 3 0.00387 mm

Average 0.00474 mm

Cell wall

Cytoplasm

GREEN ALGAE CYANOBACTERIA

Long strands Blocks which are cells Green filaments

(strands of cells) Chloroplast spirals Clear cytoplasm

surrounding the chloroplast

Smaller, longer filaments

Circular cell walls Chloroplasts-small,

appear as green dots

Chloroplast

Cytoplasm

Cell wall

0.055mm

Eukaryote (green algae) Large in comparison to prokaryote (cyanobacteria) Long strand

Strand separated by blocks Large green chloroplast Clear cytoplasm within cell

0.00915 mm

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Bacteria (dark spots)

Nucleus

Epithelial Cell Eukaryotic Larger Cell body with

nucleus in the center Circular cell with

circular nucleus

Bacteria Prokaryotic Smaller Circular On top of epithelial

cell

First eukaryotes, live in moist habitats Led to the other three kingdoms of eukaryotes:

Fungi Plantae Animalia

Microscopic in size Classified by ecological roles, major groups include algae,

protozoa, and fungus-like protists Habitat

Oceans, lakes, wetlands, and rivers Ice, acidic hot springs and other extreme environments

Many can perform photosynthesis Move using flagella or cilia Evolved from prokaryotes Most protists contain mitochondria

Movement: Single cell organism with a flagellum

Function in ecosystem: Thrive in moist environments Peranema are predators and scavengers

Ingest bacteria, algae, and other large organisms Appearance/behavior:

Body is half flagella and half body stucture Round, oval-like body Thin flagella moves back and forth, and enables

movement

FlagellaCell membrane

How it moves: Move using cilia in a spiracle fashion

Function in ecosystem: Live in freshwater environments and are attracted to

acidic conditions Feed on bacteria, yeast, and algae

Appearance/behavior: Oval-shaped body Cilia surrounding body: movement Larger body than the peranema

Cilia

Food Vacuole

Oral Groove

How it moves: Movement through pseudopodia,; projections of the

cell by moving cytoplasm Function in ecosystem:

Inhabit decaying organic material Appearance/behavior:

Take any shape they desire Flexible cell wall Transparent body

pseudopodia

pseudopodia

Cell membrane

Food vacuole

Amoeboid movement involves extending the pseudopodia, also known as the false feet, into lobes.

When the pseudopodia move toward a certain stimulus, such as food, the shape of the organism changes, due to the cytoplasm following the pseudopodia.

Major group: Eukaryotic algae Common type: phytoplankton How it moves:

Amoeboid movement: Extending protist cytoplasm into pasuedopodia, which are lobes, known as “false feet”

Function in ecosystem: Found in oceans Contribute primary production, freshwater and damp soil Decomposition and decay of diatoms allow for organic and inorganic

material for their water environments Appearance/behavior:

Autotroph Golden-brown chloroplast Clear, only nucleus is visible in some Half-crescent shape All unique with nucleus’ against cell walls

Glassy (Silica) Cell Wall

Nucleus

Chloroplast

volvox

Green algae

Euglena

Green algae Chloroplasts Cell walls cytoplasm

Volvox It contains a mature daughter colony

Euglena Chloroplasts Round, oval-like body structure

Characteristics of Animals: Multicellular Heterotrophs: feed on other organisms because of inability

to produce their own food No cell walls: Permit flexibility Nervous tissue: Nervous system to respond to the

environment Movement: enabled by a muscle and nervous system Sexual reproduction Extracellular matrix: proteins bind and give more support

and strength Hox genes Similar rRNA Characteristic cell junctions: anchoring, tight, and gap

Whether or not tissue types are present Parazoa: no special tissue types or organs Eumetazoa: multiple tissue types

Type of body symmetry Radiata: Divided on a longitudinal plane Bilateria: Divided on a vertical plane.

Whether or not a body cavity is present Coelom: fluid-filled body cavity Pseudocoelom: coelom isn’t completely lined with tissue from the

mesoderm. Acoelomates: lack fluid-filled boy cavity Hydrostatic skeleton: fluid-filled body cavity surrounded by muscles

Patterns of embryonic development Spiral cleavage Radial cleavage Determinate cleavage Indeterminate cleavage

Osculum

Mouth/Anus

Tentacles

Epidermis

Gastrovascular cavity

Appearance Tentacles surrounding the mouth/anus Long, thin body surrounded by the epidermis layer Hypostome and mouth/anus are surrounded by the

tentacles Behavior

Cnidocytes, stinging cells, function in defense or capturing of prey

Cnidocytes contain nematocysts, which are known as the stinging cells

SPONGES CNIDARIANS

lack a digestive system and have intracellular digestion

digest food inside their individual body cells through phagocytosis, or the infolding of the cell membrane Water circulates the food,

oxygen, and waste removal, which goes out through the ostia, into the spongocoel, and out the osculum

possess a gastrovascular cavity and have extracellular digestion

digest food in their gastrovascular cavity, which is a single opening that serves as the mouth and anus gastrovascular cavity is a

significant advancement because it allows larger food particles to be digested, compared to the intracellular digestion of sponges

Body Advances Sponges Cnidaria

Symmetry Absent Radial

Digestive System Absent Gastrovascular Cavity

Support Endoskeleton Hydrostatic Skeleton

Nervous System Absent Nerve Net

Tissues Absent Present

Germ Layers Absent Two

The sponges lack symmetry, tissues, and both a digestive and nervous system. The little support they have is through an endoskeleton. Cnidarians have symmetry (radial), a digestive system (gastrovascular cavity), a nervous system (nerve net), and tissues. The nerve net is the most basic nervous system, consisting of neurons without a central control organ, which sends messages to muscle cells. They also have better support than the sponges in the form of a hydrostatic skeleton, which is a fluid-filled body cavity that is surrounded by muscles. Cnidarians also possess two embryonic germ layers made up of ectoderm and endoderm.

Eye Spots

Auricle

* Pharynx and gastrovascular cavity not visible

Planaria have three germ layers present: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm, compared to Hydra, who only have ectoderm and endoderm. The mesoderm that planaria possess allows for more sophisticated organs to develop. planaria also possess an incomplete digestive system with one opening that serves as both the mouth and anus. Digestion occurs in the gastrovascular cavity, which is reached through the pharynx. The incomplete digestive system of planaria is an evolutionary advancement because it prevents continuous feeding from occurring. Another advancement is the excretory system, which consists of protonephridia, which are lateral canals, with branches that are capped by flame cells. This particular excretory system allows for osmotic balance between the planaria and their surroundings. Finally, planaria exhibit sensory cells in their auricles and light sensitive eyespots, which lead to a more centralized nervous system, serving as the early development of a brain. The brain consists of cerebral ganglia, which receives messages from the sensory cells, and leads to nerve cords that run laterally along the body.

Epidermis

Pharnyx & Gastrovascular Cavity

Planaria have a pharynx that leads to the gastrovascular cavity. The gastrovascular cavity splits into branches, enabling nutrients to be distributed throughout the entire body. These sections are therefore that branched parts of the gastrovascular cavity.

Planaria lack a respiratory or circulatory system meaning they must obtain oxygen by diffusion. Earthworms on the other hand have a closed circulatory system and blood with hemoglobin in order to transport oxygen.

Movement is due to segmentation. Earthworms have longitudinal and circular

muscles, which compact and contract. Each segment elongates as it contracts against the hydrostatic skeleton.

Clitellum

Segments

Setae not visible

Epidermis

Longitudinal Cells

Circular Muscles

Gastrovascular Cavity

Digestive tract

Earthworms possess long and circular muscles that contribute to their movement. The circular muscles in a segment contract, elongating the segment. When the longitudinal muscles in a segment contract, the segment compacts. The muscle contraction of the circular, then longitudinal muscles enable movement in an earthworm. These muscular contractions differ from planaria, which move in a gliding motion due to the movement of cilia on their ventral surface.

Planaria have an incomplete digestive system, while earthworms have a complete digestive system. Planaria have a digestive system, which consists of multiple parts of the gastrovascular cavity because it splits into branches. As a result of the split branches, nutrients reach all parts of the body. In contrast, earthworms have only one section of digestive tract because of their complete, unsegmented digestive system. The digestive system in an earthworm consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestine, and anus, while planaria digestive system solely consists of the pharynx and gastrovascular cavity.

Digestive Tract

Cuticle

Muscle

Reproductive structures

Digestive tract

*Reproductive Structures: not shown

Annelid Roundworm

Body cavity Coelom Pseudocoelom

Segmentation Present Absent

Circulatory System Closed Absent

Excretory System Metanephridia Excretory gland cells

Nervous System Brain, ventral nerve cord Brain, nerve cord

Annelids move forward by using peristaltic contractions of the circular muscle and turn by contracting the longitudinal muscles.

Roundworms move using a thick layer of obliquely arranged muscle fibers just under epidermis, they lack circular muscles so motion is always undulatory.

Annelids have a coelom, which is a fluid-filled body cavity, and segmentation, due to their circular and longitudinal muscles. They also possess a closed circulatory system and an excretory system composed of metanephridia. Annelids also have a central nervous system (brain) that is made up of ganglion and connects to a large ventral nerve cord that runs down the entire length of the body.

Roundworms have a pseudocoelom, which is a coelom that isn’t completely lined by tissue from the mesoderm. Their pseudocoelom is acts as both a hydrostatic skeleton and a circulatory system. Roundworms have a tough cuticle, made of collagen, which covers the body. They also possess only longitudinal muscles, but no circulatory muscles. As a result of no segmentation, roundworms thrash. Their excretory system is made up of gland cells, and their nervous system composes of a central nervous system (brain) and nerve cords.

Exoskeleton

Legs

Segments (13)

Appearance: 13 segments Exoskeleton is scale-like Legs are very small, protected by body

Behavior & Movement: Movement occurs through the few small, short legs

of the sow bug that are attached to the segments.

Exoskeleton

Legs

Segments (3)

Appearance: Six legs and two antennae Exoskeleton covering the body Divided into three segments:

Head, abdomen, and thorax Behavior & movement:

Movement occurs through the six legs of the tenebrio beetle, one pair per segment.

Segmentation becomes more specialized from earthworms to sow bugs to tenebrio beetles.

Earthworms exhibit circular and longitudinal muscles in each segment.

Sow bugs have less, more specialized segments and small appendages.

Tenebrio beetles have the most specialized segmentation, consisting of three segments known as the head, abdomen, and thorax.

Segments

head

exoskeleton

Head

Mouth parts

segments

exoskeleton

gonads

Digestive glands

Stomach

Radial canal

Ring canal(underneath stomach)

ampullae

Tube Feet

madreporite

Eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic Majority of species grow as multicellular

filaments called hyphae forming a mycelium Sexual and asexual reproduction of the fungi is

common through spores often producing fruiting bodies

Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms are examples of fungi

fungi are more closely related to animals than plants

MyceliumCulture Medium

Sporangia

Many strands of clear hyphae Hyphae are the clear strands that make up the

organism, together they are form a structure known as the mycelium

Sporangia are abundant at the ends of many hyphae Sporangia are the fruiting bodies that are produced,

in this case, asexually by the Rhizopus

Mating Strain Hyphae

Zygospore

Sporangia

Fungal Hyphae

Top of LichenAlgal Cells

Ascus and spores

ascocarp

Hyphae

Nematode

Trap

gills

Basidiospores

Gills

hyphae

Plants most likely evolved from green algae Both groups have chlorophylls a and b and betacarotene

as their photosynthetic pigments Both store reserve food as starch Both have cellulose containing cell walls

The Plantae kingdom includes mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants

Nearly all plants produce their own organic molecules through photosynthesis

Alternation of generations Plants cycle between diploid sporophyte and haploid

gametophyte stages

The earliest plants in the evolutionary timeline are Bryophytes (nonvascular plants) which include mosses and liverworts require a constantly moist environment dominant gametophyte structure in plant stay small and close to the ground lack true stems, leaves and roots

Then came the vascular plants which can be divided into two categories, seedless and seed plants Vascular plants developed a root system Phloem and xylem (transport water/nutrients)

Seedless vascular plants include club mosses, horsetails, and ferns

Seed plants developed a more extensive root system, a more efficient vascular system, and a new adaptation in which the reproductive structure in which the gametophyte is protected inside sporophyte tissue (the seed) Seed plants can be further separated into two

groups, Naked seed plants (such as conifers) known as

gymnosperms Flowering plants, or angiosperms

Stem

Leaves

Hyaline Cells

Epidermis

Vascular BundlePhotosynthetic Cells

Guard Cells

Guard Cell

Epidermal Cell

Vascular Bundle

Guard Cells

Air Spaces

These leaves only have stomata on the upper surface because this leaf comes from a water lily that floats on the top of ponds. Therefore, there are no stomata on the bottom of the leaf to ensure they do not open and let water into the leaf.

The vascular tissue is reduced in the hydrophytic leaf due to the plant being surrounded by water. Because of this, the hydrophytic leaf does not need water to be sent to it from the roots but rather water diffuses into them. The mesophytic leaf on the other hand is surrounded by air causing a need for water to be transmitted from the roots up to the leaves.

Epidermis

Guard Cells

Vascular Bundle

Photosynthetic Cells

Stomata/Guard Cells

Vascular Bundle

Epidermis

Photosynthetic Cells

Xerophytic leaf comes from plants that are native to arid environments.

To combat the lack of water available, xerophytic leaves adapt by making their epidermis and cuticle thicker, while obtaining stomata in pits. As a result of these adaptations, xerophytic leaves reduce water loss, allowing them to survive in droughts.

Archegonia

Antheridia

Roots

Scale

Pollen Sacs

Pollen Grain

Ovule

Scale

Seed Coat

Embryo

Food Supply

Filament

Stigma

Style

Anther

Petal

Pollen Grain

Ovary

Ovule

Outer shell from ovary Skin from ovule

Embyonic leaves (plumule)

Embyonic root (radicle)

Stored food (cotyledons)