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Spices and Flavorings for Meat andMeat Products

PATTI C. COGGINS

Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi

I. INTRODUCTION

II. HISTORY OF SPICESA. A Brief History of SpicesB. The Spice Industry Today

III. SPICES AND HERBSA. Definitions and DifferencesB. Spices and Herbs in GeneralC. Peppers in GeneralD. Heat in Red Peppers

IV. SPICE BLENDSA. Spice Usage in Foods

V. INDUSTRIAL SPICES AND HERBSA. Indigenous and Cultivated SpicesB. Fresh versus Dried Spices and HerbsC. Whole and Ground SpicesD. Spice Grinding

VI. SPICE QUALITY AND STANDARDSA. Spice Quality and EvaluationB. Spice Standards

VII. OILS, OLEORESINS, AND EXTRACTSA. Spice Oils and OleoresinsB. Manufactures of Oils and OleoresinsC. Flavor Quality of Natural Spices, Oils, Oleoresins, and ExtractsD. Natural Spices versus Oils and Oleoresins

VIII. STORAGE AND SHELF LIFEA. Spice StorageB. Spice Shelf LifeC. Spices and Food Spoilage

Copyright © 2001 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

IX. CLEANING AND PROCESSING OF SPICESA. Cleaned and Uncleaned SpicesB. How Spices Are CleanedC. Sterilization of Spices

X. PROPERTIES OF SPICES AND HERBSA. Antimicrobial Properties of SpicesB. Antioxidants and Spices

XI. SPICE USAGE IN MEATSA. Use of Spices in MeatsB. Seasoning BlendsC. Basic Meat BlendsD. Commonly Used Spices in MeatsE. Measurement of Meat for FormulationsF. Meat Seasonings and CuresG. Brine Solutions

XII. REGULATIONS AND RECORD KEEPINGA. Formulations and Record KeepingB. Regulations of Seasonings and Natural Flavorings

XIII. MARKETING AND CONSUMERS OF SPICESA. Marketing of Meat SeasoningsB. Consumer Loyalty to Spices

XIV. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

I. INTRODUCTION

Spices are defined as the aromatic or fragrant vegetable product used for flavoring, sea-soning, or imparting aroma to foods; the term applies to the product in the whole or groundform.

Herbs are soft-stemmed plants from which the leaves and flowering tops are used inboth fresh and dried forms for the seasoning of foods.

Spices and herbs come from the following parts of aromatic plants: fruits (capsicum,black pepper), seeds (aniseed, caraway, celery, coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, mus-tard), rhizomes, roots (ginger, turmeric), leaves (bay, marjoram, parsley, sage, thyme),barks (cinnamon and cassia), floral parts (saffron, cloves), or bulbs (onion, garlic).

Spices and herbs are grown in different parts of the world and can be separated ac-cording to quality grade. Although spices are cultivated in most of the tropical countries,production for commercial use is confined to only a few regions.

A comprehensive nontechnical reference of spices is provided by Rosengarten (16),who gives interesting and reliable information on the history of spices from 2600 BC tothe present. This reference is enjoyable to read as well as informative. The fascinatinghistory of spices is a revelation of adventure, excitement, exploration, discovery, andmuch more.

Herbs and spices have been associated with many different religions of the world.Herbs were most notably associated with the Romans and the Greeks. Due to improvedworldwide communications over the past decade, the herb and spice map of the world hasbecome more widespread, with the new origins challenging the old ones and producingquality products at lower prices.

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Today, spices are used primarily as condiments in cooking and flavoring foods andbeverages, to provide medical use and advantages, to color cosmetics, and to provide aromato perfumes. These are just a few of the many uses of spices.

II. HISTORY OF SPICES

A. A Brief History of Spices

Spice is a magical word. Names that imply adventure and romance such as Zanzibar, Cey-lon, and Java are used to describe varieties of spices that we know and use consistently. Itis often the allure of these names or varieties of spices that entice us into flavoring ourfoods, perfumes, or other concoctions with such exotic additions.

The term spice is derived from the Latin word species, which means “fruits of theearth.” Spices were sought after as zealously as gold and were accepted as currency in thelate 13th century. Spices inspired nations to compete globally with fervor in search of newtrade routes and even to go to war. The search for spices actually was behind the discoveryof new continents and the merging of Eastern and Western civilizations (16).

The story of spices reaches down through the ages and into the civilizations of theearliest times. The history of spices would engulf a complete volume as a single topic. Itwill be addressed only briefly in this chapter.

Spices have played a major role in shaping world history. They were used in a hostof applications, including ingredients of incense, embalming preservatives, perfumes, cos-metics, and medicines. They were also found to change insipid food into more palatablefood and were used to preserve some foods. The early uses of spices can be traced back toEgypt, China, Mesopotamia in the Tigris and Euphrates Valley, and India, and to the an-cient Romans and Greeks (16).

Spices were a valuable commodity, and as a result, the spice trade was disputed over.Spices were used as money and for payment of debt in historical times. Therefore, if a coun-try possessed all of a certain spice, or controlled the cultivation and distribution of such aspice, then there was much power to be had and used. The story of spices and the spice tradeis complete with battles, romance, power struggles, conquests, and much more mystery andsuspense. It is indeed a blueprint of world history. To study spices is to study the history ofthe world from the very beginnings of civilization to the present day.

B. The Spice Industry Today

Toward the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, immigrants from Europeand Asia began entering the United States in enormous waves. Each group of immigrantsbrought with them their own unique culture, ethnic food preferences, and habits. Usually,the newcomers continued their traditional culinary habits for one or more generations. Tosatisfy these demands, they brought with them spices and herbs from the Old Country,many of which were unknown in their new land. These unknown spices and herbs createdanother virtually unstoppable trading explosion. Due to this explosion in demand forspices, dominance in the ancient spice trade shifted to the United States. Today, the heartof the spice trade is at Wall Street in New York City. Western ports such as San Franciscoand Los Angeles also have substantial volumes of spices entering their ports (17).

Today, spices account for less that 0.1% of world trade. However, there are countriesthat still rely heavily on the spice trade. In Tanzania, the production of clove accounts fora large percentage of that country’s economy. Tanzania grows about two-thirds of the

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world’s requirement for cloves. About half of Grenada’s revenue is derived from the salesof nutmeg and mace. Vanilla, which technically is not a spice, is the second largest prod-uct in the Malagasy Republic (14).

There are 36 different herbs and spices that are generally recognized and commonlyused. White and black pepper account for the largest amount of spices used in terms ofmonetary value. The next most valuable spices consumed are cloves, nutmeg, cardamom,cinnamon, ginger, mace, and allspice, respectively. It is difficult to track an accurate figurefor the value of spice imports and exports, because typically spices are not recorded sepa-rately from other food products (14).

Spices shipped into the United States are usually in the whole form. Spice extracts,the oils and oleoresins, are also imported in large quantities. Imported spices are inspectedfor wholesomeness and cleanliness by the United States Food and Drug Administration in-spectors on the docks. The spices that pass inspection are shipped to the spice “houses,” orcompanies dealing with spices throughout the country. The spice companies further pro-cess the product by cleaning, grinding, extracting, compounding, blending, or repackaginginto smaller containers for retail distribution (4).

Most of the tropical spices still come from the Eastern Hemisphere, as they have forcenturies, but Central and South America, as well as the West Indies, are now supplyinghigh-quality spices to the world market. Large spice plantations have been established inthe Americas. Guatemala is known for its quality cardamom, and Grenada produces thefinest nutmegs and mace, whereas Brazil produces select black pepper. According to mon-etary value, Indonesia is a leading producer of spices. However, it can no longer supply theworld’s markets with large amounts of cloves as it did in the past. Cloves must be importedfrom China, Zanzibar, and the Malagasy Republic. This short fall is due to the Indonesianpeople’s most popular cigarette, which contains one-third ground cloves and two-thirds to-bacco (14).

Black and white pepper are by far the leading types of imported spices, followed bymustard seed, capsicum, cassia, paprika, coriander, ginger, and oregano. These nine spicesrepresent about 75% of the weight and 63% of the monetary value of the imported spices.The “hot” spices, comprising mustard, pepper capsicum, and ginger, account for 80% ofthis tonnage and 70% of the value for these nine spices (4).

The United States has been involved in the spice trade since the end of the 18thcentury. It is currently the largest importer in the world. A contributing factor to theWestern world’s increasing interest in new flavoring agents is the growing anxiety aboutthe toxicity of synthetic food additives. People have become more interested in new fla-vors, colors, and texturizing agents that are of natural origin. Today’s consumer is look-ing for foods with less salt, sugar, and saturated fats, with more emphasis being placedon good nutrition. Americans who have been placed on boring, low-sodium and choles-terol-controlled diets can have flavor in their diet with the use of fresh, high-qualityspices or spicy relishes (14).

III. SPICES AND HERBS

A. Definitions and Differences

Spices are aromatic vegetable substances that have been dried. The term spice is used todescribe all dried plant products that include “true spices,” herbs, aromatic seeds, and de-hydrated vegetables. Spices are natural products and have variations in flavor, strength,

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and quality because of climactic conditions. True spices such as allspice, ginger, nutmeg,and pepper all come from tropical plants. They may represent different parts of theplant, including the root, bud, bark, flower, or fruit. Herbs are often confused with thetrue spices. Herbs are the leaves of plants grown in both temperate and tropical zones.They are relatively low in oil content. True spices have an oil content that is somewhathigh. Examples of herbs include marjoram, sage, and thyme. Aromatic seeds come fromplants grown in temperate and tropical areas. Examples of seeds are cumin, anise, andfennel.

The word “herb” comes from the Latin herba and means medical plant. The defini-tion of an herb is a nonlasting plant that withers after it blooms without the stems becom-ing woody. Some edible components can be categorized as spices if the poisonous elementcan be neutralized. An herb is classified botanically as a perennial plant, but the meaningof a spice is derived from its use in cooking, not its plant classification. A spice should beedible. There are no definitions that clearly distinguish between the meaning of a spice andan herb. A spice can broadly be defined as a compound having a pungent flavor or color-ing activity, or one that increases the appetite or enhances the digestion of food. A spice isobtained from buds, leaves, bark, seeds, berries, and roots that mainly grow in tropical andtemperate areas. A spice can be explained as follows:

Many plants used for spice are grown in tropical or temperate areas.The whole plant is not used as a spice. Only parts of the plant are effective.The effect of a spice is generally distinguished by its stimulating flavor.

Herbs and spices are aromatic vegetable materials that enhance the savory character-istics of food and stimulate the appetite. They can be used in almost any food. The use ofspecific herbs or spices is often indicative of a certain geographical or ethnic origin. For ex-ample, oregano and basil are generally found in Italian foods, and cumin and red pepper arepopular spices used in Mexican dishes.

Herbs and spices are usually distinguished by the fact that herbs are mild and are usu-ally used for delicate flavoring. They are considered to be better when they are fresh.Spices, on the other hand, are more pungent and give a stronger flavor to the food. Herbsare fragrant plants of which the flowers, leaves, stems, seeds, and roots are used to flavorfoods. Spices are mostly grown in the tropics and are dried parts of aromatic plants. Theyinclude flowers, bark, leaves, seeds, and roots (18).

Spices are divided into categories according to the type of flavor and color they giveto foods. There are five groups. Hot and pungent spices are cayenne pepper, ginger,horseradish, leek, and onion. The aromatic group contains bay, cinnamon, clove, nutmeg,pimento (allspice), and mace. Herbaceous spices are anise, basil, caraway, cumin, dill, lau-rel leaf, rosemary, sage, marjoram, thyme, and tarragon. The final category is the spicesused for coloring which are paprika, saffron, and turmeric.

B. Spices and Herbs in General

Individual spices and herbs include the following:Allspice, anise, basil, bay leaves, caraway seed, cardamom, celery seed, chervil, cinnamon,cloves, coriander, cumin seed, dill seed, fennel seed, fenugreek, ginger, horseradish, mace,marjoram, mustard flour, nutmeg, oregano, paprika, parsley, pepper (black), pepper(white), pepper (red), rosemary, saffron, sage, savory, star anise seed, tarragon, thyme,turmeric.



1. Allspice

Allspice is the dried unripe berry of a tree found in Jamaica, Mexico, and Honduras. It getsits name from the fact that it tastes like a blend of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. It is usedwhole as a pickling spice. In the ground form it is used in desserts and in curry powder. Itis used in sausage and meat blends throughout the world.

2. Anise

Anise is an annual herb in the parsley family. It has a licorice flavor, and anise oil is usedwidely in beverages, baked goods, soups, and select sausages.

3. Basil

Basil is an herb and is part of the mint family (16). It is used with tomatoes, salads,casseroles, sauces, sausages, and mixed herb blends.

4. Bay Leaves

Bay leaves are grown in many geographical locations. The bay tree is indigenous to theeastern Mediterranean. The leaves can be used whole, cut, ground, or as bay leaf oil. It isused in stews, marinades, pickling spice, meats, and vegetables.

5. Caraway Seed

Caraway seed is the fruit of an herb in the parsley family (18). It is used whole in rye bread,cheese, cakes, sauces, meats and canned goods. Its main flavoring constituent is carvone.

6. Cardamom

Cardamom grows at high altitudes in the tropical forests of India, Guatemala, and SriLanka. Its flavor is a combination of sweet, pungent, and aromatic. It is used in curry pow-ders, coffee, and baked goods.

7. Celery Seed

Celery seed is derived from a plant that is a part of the parsley family (18). The seeds arevery small, but they have a very bitter taste. They are used whole in seasonings, or theground form is mixed with salt to produce celery salt. It is used in pickles, salads, soups,and sauces.

8. Chervil

Chervil is an herb that is quite similar to parsley in the shape of the leaf, but the taste issweeter and more aromatic. It is mostly used as a specialty herb.

9. Cinnamon

Cinnamon comes from the peeled bark of a tropical tree. The bark is rolled into quills toform cinnamon sticks. It has a very fine flavor and is commonly used in desserts and wines,bread, cakes, and select meats. Cinnamon is grown in Sri Lanka, the Seychelles and Mada-gascar (13). Cinnamon provides antimicrobial, preservation, and texturizing properties toselect foods.

10. Cloves

Cloves are the dried unopened flowers of a tropical tree. They are used in the popular In-donesian cigarette known as a kretek (18). They are very strong in flavor. They are used to

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stud hams when baked and also as an ingredient in curry powders. Cloves are grown in SriLanka, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Brazil, and Indonesia. Extractives of cloves are used inmany meat and sausage formulations.

11. Coriander

The coriander plant produces a spice seed and an herb. The herb is known as cilantro andhas a bitter, soapy flavor. It is used in Mexican sauces and yogurt. The spice seed is usedin spice mixes, seasonings, pickling spices and select meat formulations. Coriander is pri-marily grown in Morocco, Egypt, Pakistan, and India.

12. Cumin Seed

Cumin seed is the seed of an herb in the parsley family (18). It is similar to the carawayseed, but it has a lighter color and a more uniform size. It is a common ingredient in curryand chili powders. Cumin is used to flavor meat, sausages, casseroles, and soups. Cumin isgrown in China, Iran, Turkey, and India.

13. Dill Seed

Dill seed comes from the dill plant, which also yields dill weed. The seed is taken from ma-ture seeded flower heads and is used in making dill pickles, mixed spice blends, pastries,sauces, and as a flavorful complement to fish.

14. Fennel Seed

Fennel seed is the dried fruit of the fennel plant. It is indigenous to southern Europe and theMediterranean countries (13). The seed has a green color, and it has a licorice flavor. Fen-nel seed is used in fish seasonings and select sausages, such as Italian sausage and pepper-oni.

15. Fenugreek

Fenugreek is the seed of an annual herb, which is a part of the pea and bean family (13). Itis better in taste and is used as an ingredient in curry powders. It is often used for flavoringsyrups and related condiments. Fenugreek is cultivated in North Africa, India, and theMediterranean countries.

16. Ginger

Ginger is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale (13). It is both sweet and savory, andit has a hot and “lemony” taste. It is used in curry powders, sweet dishes, and many Asianfoods. Ginger is harvested widely in the tropics.

17. Horseradish

Horseradish is the root of a plant in the mustard family (13). Its flavor is sharp and pungent,and it is often used as a condiment for cold meats, such as roast beef.

18. Mace

Nutmeg and mace are produced from the same tree. Mace is the reddish colored, mem-branous tissue that surrounds the nutmeg. The membranous tissue is dried before use infoods. Mace and nutmeg are used in baked goods, savory foods, select sausages andmeats.



19. Marjoram

Marjoram is an herb related to oregano. It is primarily cultivated in Egypt, but it also grownin Eastern Europe. It is sold as rubbed, sifted, or ground. Marjoram is mainly used to fla-vor meats, casseroles, soups, and as a pizza herb.

20. Mustard Flour

Mustard flour is a blend of finely ground endosperms from the seeds of the mustard plant(13). It is used in seafood cocktail sauces, barbecue sauces, hams, meat loaves, salad dress-ings, and many other dishes (4).

21. Nutmeg

Nutmeg comes from the same tree as mace. It is grown in Indonesia and Grenada. It has awarm, aromatic flavor, and it is used in cakes, select processed meats, curry blends, andmany other dishes.

22. Oregano

Oregano is indigenous to the Mediterranean region, particularly Greece, Italy, andSpain. It is cultivated in Albania, France, Mexico, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and the Mediter-ranean region. Oregano is part of the mint family. The leaf color is grayish-green and theflowers are purple. Thymol and carvacrol are the primary flavoring ingredients oforegano (3).

23. Paprika

Paprika is mainly used as a coloring agent. It has a reddish color and is obtained from thedried pods of select capsicums. It has a mild flavor, and it is popular in Germany, where itis used to give a red color to sausages. It is one of the most widely used spices because itcan be used for both added flavor and color. It is available in many different red, orange,and yellow colors.

24. Parsley

Parsley comes in many forms: curly leaf, flat leaf, celery leaf, and Hamburg parsley. Flatleaf and curly leaf are the most widely used. The flavor of parsley is very delicate, and it isusually used to give color and appeal to foods. It is used in mixed herb blends, and it is asource of vitamin C and iodine (13).

25. Pepper, Black

Black pepper is the dried, green, unripe fruit of a tropical vine. It is strong in flavor and canbe used with many foods. It is grown mainly in India, Indonesia, and Brazil. The whole,crushed, ground and extractive forms are widely used in meats, sausages, and many otherkinds of food. It is the most popular and widely used spice.

26. Pepper, White

White pepper comes from the same vine as black pepper. The berries are picked just beforethey ripen, then soaked in water, and dried. White pepper is used in foods in which blackpepper specks are undesirable. White pepper and extractives of white pepper are widelyused in meats.

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27. Pepper, Red

Red pepper is grown in Central and South America. The flavor is very pungent and almostoverwhelmingly hot. The effect lingers in the mouth and throat. Red pepper is used in manyMexican, Indian, and Italian foods such as hot sauce, pickles, meats, and pizza (4). Redpepper is widely used throughout the world.

28. Rosemary

Rosemary is a shrub that is grown in the Mediterranean region, mostly in coastal regions.It is widely used with lamb and in stews, soups, and casseroles. The leaves are similar topine needles and are not easy to manage in the whole form because of their cylindrical nee-dle-like shape. Rosemary is widely known for its antioxidant properties and because of thatis widely used in the meat industry.

29. Saffron

Saffron is the dried stigma of the flowering saffron crocus. It is the most expensive of allthe spices. To produce 1 kg of saffron takes 70,000 flowers. It is grown mostly in Spain,Greece, Iran, and India. Saffron has a bitter flavor and a yellow color (3).

30. Sage

Sage is an evergreen shrub that is a part of the mint family grown in the Mediterranean re-gion. It is used with pork, poultry, sausages, canned foods, and prepared meats. It is theprincipal flavoring component of fresh pork sausage (13).

31. Savory

Savory is an herb that is similar to thyme. It is used in herb blends, and with legumes to addflavor.

32. Star Anise Seed

Star anise seed is the seed of the star-shaped fruit of a small tree that is indigenous to south-western China. Its flavor is similar to anise, but is more subtle. It is widely used in Chinesefoods (3).

33. Tarragon

Tarragon is a perennial herb indigenous to Europe and western Asia. The two types of tar-ragon are Russian and French tarragon. French tarragon is the most widely used. It has aflavor that is similar to aniseed. It is used with chicken, herb blends, rubs, soups, and manyother foods (3).

34. Thyme

Thyme is a shrub-like plant that grows wild in Mediterranean countries. It is used in savoryfoods, as an ingredient in poultry stuffing blends, and in herbal seasoning blends.

35. Turmeric

Turmeric is a dried rhizome. It has a yellow color, and a slight earthy flavor. Turmeric isused in curry powder, and to color prepared mustard, rice, breadcrumbs, and many otherfoods. It is grown in many countries, but the primary producer is India.



C. Peppers in General

Peppers are used as a condiment, spice, or vegetable. There are two families of peppers:vine peppers and capsicum (red) peppers. Vine peppers are grown in tropical areas andyield black pepper, white pepper, and long pepper. The different kinds of pepper vary inaroma, size, pungency, and peppercorn color. They are often named for their country of ori-gin. The quality of pepper is often distinguished by the price, although sometimes the priceis only an indicator of crop yield or availability (18).

Black pepper is used in most countries in basic cooking. It contains piperine, a com-pound that stimulates the flow of gastric juices. The flavor is the result of a nonvolatileresinous substance. The pepper tastes strongest when it is freshly ground, but usually, pre-ground pepper is used in seasonings for convenience. White pepper comes from the sameplant as black pepper, but the berries are picked ripe instead of green. White pepper is usedmainly in dishes in which black pepper specks are undesirable (18).

Capsicum peppers are in the same family as chili peppers, red peppers, sweet bellpeppers, cayenne peppers, and paprika. The peppers differ greatly in size and degree ofpungency. Chilies and red pepper are used mostly in foods of South India, Mexico, andAsia. Cayenne pepper is very hot and ranges in color from orange to red. Capsicum pep-pers are known to have a very hot bite, sometimes to the point of being overwhelming. Chilipowder is a blend of several peppers and spices. Paprika is usually used for its red color.Sweet bell peppers are larger than chilies and they have no bite. They are mostly used as avegetable or salad fruit (18).

D. Heat in Red Peppers

The pungent principles of red pepper are capsaicinoid compounds. The major pungentcompound contained in red pepper is capsaicin. The degree of pungency depends on thespecies, the region in which the harvest was grown, and the geographical and climatic con-ditions. The pungency of the pepper is also dependent on the maturity of the plant fromwhich it was harvested. Taking into consideration the variables mentioned regarding redpepper, it is usually checked quantitatively to determine the heat units (7).

To measure the degree of pungency of red pepper, the Scoville heat value method isused. This method measures pungency by determining a distinct pungent sensation. This isdone based on an extraction process in an alcohol system. Dilutions of the alcohol extractsare made and presented to a trained panel, usually containing not less than five expert pan-elists. When three of the five expert panelists detect heat, the heat level is calculated basedon the dilution from which the heat was determined. In spite of this tests’ originating date,early in the twentieth century, it is still one of the best heat measuring techniques used to-day. It is an official method of the American Spice Trade Association, ASTA. It is a sim-ple test in terms of equipment and training, but does have limitations. It requires the use ofa trained panel to measure the heat level of the pepper. The panel must be trained and ad-justed frequently to maintain accuracy. This can be time consuming for the technical ex-perts involved.

The Scoville heat values for red peppers available for industrial means are usually20,000, 30,000, 40,000, and 60,000. The Scoville heat values for red peppers range from10,000 to 120,000. To achieve different heat levels, the defined heat units are blended, usu-ally with paprika, to the desired level of pungency.

The extracts of red pepper, oleoresins, have a very concentrated pungency. The ole-oresins are available from 200,000 to 1,000,000 Scoville heat units. They are extracted in

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a very concentrated form and are blended down to desired level of heat. Oleoresins can beblended with oils and emulsifying agents. The oleoresin can be decolorized or blended withpaprika extracts to achieve a desired color (17).

There are several other methods used for measuring the pungency of red peppers.There are colorimetric methods that measure the blue color generated by the interaction ofcertain test compounds with capsaicin. There are also ultraviolet methods used. One UVmethod in particular was compared with the Scoville method, and a very close correlationbetween these two methods was observed (10,17). Many methods based on gas chro-matography have been developed as well as high-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) methods. One HPLC method has been adopted as an ASTA official method. It hasbeen observed that the HPLC methods produce greater accuracy due to their high resolu-tion, especially for capsaicin analysis. However, all of the mentioned methods have the dis-advantage of being time consuming because of the extraction process involved (8,17).

IV. SPICE BLENDS

Spices are often blended together to provide certain characteristics to products. Rarely arethey used singularly to flavor foods. Most spices and spice extractives are very potent. Infact, small amounts of spices are sufficient to flavor hundreds of pounds of seasoned meat.The aromatic and pungent aspects that make spices valuable are found in their volatile oilsand oleoresins. Seasoning and flavoring foods with spices is a very complicated processthat demands much skill and experience. The blending of spices and the careful addition ofthe spice blend to the food at the proper stage is a necessity. The blend should be compat-ible with the food that is to be seasoned. The blend should not be dominated by one spice.Bitter and astringent flavors should be suppressed. The production of a well-balanced sea-soning for a processed food is a difficult art (9).

Seasoning manufacturers have many different seasoning combinations in their li-brary of blends. In general, seasonings may be divided into several categories: ground spiceseasoning, ground spices and whole or crushed herbs, whole or crushed herbs, soluble spiceseasoning, or a combination of all.

Spices are used to give flavor to many different kinds of food either separately or ina combination as a seasoning containing sugar, salt, or other ingredients. Spice seasoningsand condiments are complex blends. There are many different definitions of spice season-ings. Spice seasonings can be added to different kinds of foods and can improve the flavoror enhance preference for food. A seasoning is an herb, spice, or salt blend that improvesthe food flavor. The spice seasoning can also be defined as a mixture that contains one ormore additional spices or spice extracts that improves the flavor of the original food. It isadded at processing or during cooking.

The aromatic ingredients of spices improve the flavor of foods. Some spices arewarming and aromatic, with a tangy bitterness that gives a clean taste. Other spices pos-sess a subtle flavor that stimulates the appetite. Some spices have extreme flavor and arevery pungent, and strong in aroma. Others have little or no pungency. Today, many com-panies offer blended spices to the food industry. Natural and synthetic spiced foods andother flavors in industrial quantities can now be produced. Companies sell essences,emulsions, solubles, dispersed spices, encapsulated spices, spices in fats, and the list goeson. Tailor-made blends of spices are also offered for products such as canned meat,sauces, other meat products, and vegetables. Chili powder, curry powder, and picklingspice are examples of spice blends. These blends, which are considered seasonings by



consumers, are different from the industrial product called seasonings. Industrial season-ings contain one or more spices or spice extracts in addition to many other dissimilar in-gredients. They are added during the manufacturing or processing of food and are distin-guished from condiments added after the food is served. Industrial seasonings are usedwidely in meat products such as bologna, frankfurters, sausage, soups, dry gravy mixes,instant sauces, and salad dressings.

A spice blender must understand the physical and chemical aspects of powders andliquids and also what effect the different processing methods have on the blends. The tech-nologist specialized in the compounding of seasonings should also have knowledge of gov-ernmental regulations that apply to the regions where the seasonings are produced and con-sumed. The ingredients in the seasonings are not always compatible with each other. Thestorage temperature, moisture, chemical composition, light, and oxygen should all be con-sidered when developing a seasoning blend (18).

The compounding of seasonings is a specialized skill. Dissimilar components such assalt, dairy products, emulsifiers, and preservatives must be added to the complex seasoningmixture, and this process requires a great deal of expertise and experience. The com-pounding specialist must be aware of restrictions and have a sense of economics when se-lecting the ingredients.

A seasoning can be a single ingredient or a blend of several ingredients. Seasoningsmay also contain ingredients that have no effect on the food flavor but provide advantagessuch as anti-microbial preservation, physical stability, or nutritional value. These ingredi-ents are referred to as additives.

Spices used in seasonings are available in several forms. A spice extractive is some-times preferred when extra strength is necessary, or to prevent spice particulates from en-tering a uniform blend. A plated spice which is an oleoresin or essential oil that is coatedon the surface of a sugar or salt carrier might be used for rapid flavor impact and low cost.If the compounding specialist is trying to achieve flavor retention and slow release, a moreexpensive, more stable encapsulate might be used.

A spice blend must be compounded in such a manner that it enhances the natural fla-vor of the product in which it is incorporated. The seasoning, or spice blend, should neverbe overwhelming or diminishing. It should blend and round the flavor without having anaftertaste.

A. Spice Usage in Foods

Spices can be used by themselves or in combination with other spices to enhance the fla-vor and to color foods. When formulating a blend, it is best to start with low levels of spices,and to build the flavor gradually. The flavor of spices will increase in foods that are keptfrozen before use. Spice levels have to be decreased, therefore, to obtain the desired levelof flavor (18).

Not only are spices used to give flavor to foods, but they also enhance the latent fla-vors of food. Because of the low sodium content of spices, they are often used as salt sub-stitutes. Some spices contain antioxidants and are regarded as beneficial. Spices such as pa-prika, turmeric, and saffron can be used as colors in foods and are referred to as spices andcolorings. The yellow color of mustard, the red-brown color of barbecue sauce, and the or-ange-red color of Spanish rice all come from these spices (9). By using the appropriatemethod of cooking, the coloring effect of spices can be manipulated. Dissolving a spice isthe easiest way to use it as coloring. The spice can be used as it is, or by crushing it into a

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paste. The tone of a spice’s color changes according to how it is dissolved in water or oil.For example, acidifying the water can change a spice’s coloration.

Spices have different effects when used in foods. They not only give flavor, pun-gency, and color but also have antioxidant, antimicrobial, pharmaceutical, and nutritionalproperties. In addition, they have complex or secondary effects. These effects include re-duction of salt, reduction of sugar, and improved texture for some foods.

As an example of texture improvement, cinnamon will be discussed. Cinnamon hasstrong antimicrobial activity. It is sometimes used in making bread. Cinnamon adds flavorand also suppresses yeast activity to avoid too much fermentation or rise of the bread. Theflavor is a direct effect, and the texture improvement is secondary (18).

When cooking or using spices in processed foods, the objectives should be clear.There are four categories summarizing the basic effects of spices. The categories are fla-voring, pungency, coloring, and deodorizing/masking. The deodorizing/masking categorymay actually overlap some of the others, but it is most often desired on its own. Each spiceperforms at least one of these (18).

V. INDUSTRIAL SPICES AND HERBS

A. Indigenous and Cultivated Spices

Two terms commonly used when referring to spices are indigenous and cultivated. Indige-nous refers to the presumed country of origin or where they grow naturally. Cultivatedrefers to a situation where the spices have been adapted to the climatic and growing condi-tions of a certain area, and the growth is controlled. Some cultivation practices may mod-ify the plants and in some cases, the plant may even lose its desirable attributes. However,many modern cultivation techniques actually improve flavor and yields.

B. Fresh versus Dried Spices and Herbs

Herbs and spices are generally cut and dried in the sun or shade. Dried herbs are then soldto a processor who takes the leaves from the stalks. This process is known as sifting, and“rubbing” is the process of sieving to remove stalks and rocks. The best form in which touse herbs is considered by most to be freshly cut. This, however, gives a different end re-sult when compared to dried herbs. These give a more concentrated flavor. In seasoningformulas, most compounding specialists tend to use dried herbs in either the rubbed, sifted,or ground form. Herbs also yield essential oils, which can be used in this way or as oleo-resins (18).

There are noticeable differences between dried and fresh spices. Drying changes thechemical composition of the spice and thus affects the smell and taste. Although it wouldbe preferable to use fresh spices, these generally are not available. Therefore, dried spicesare used commercially. Drying is the most important processing step in post-harvest tech-nology. The objective of drying is to decrease the level of moisture naturally present at thetime of harvest to a safe limit. This will decrease the chances of insect and mold infesta-tion. In the producing and developing countries, sun drying is mainly used, although thisdoes promote contamination by microorganisms from the soil. The quality and flavor ofsun-dried spices is not usually uniform. When the spices are dried on raised platforms de-signed to expose the products to the sun, chances for soil contamination are considerablyreduced. On the raised platforms, drying is more uniform because of the air passing throughthe bottom and sides. Mechanical dryers have many more advantages to the platforms.



They avoid dependence on weather and reduce contamination by microbes and reduce thedrying time (18).

C. Whole and Ground Spices

Whole spices give flavor and aroma, as well as visual and textural effects, that are not at-tainable by extractives. Usually, the spice’s intact cellular structure and the natural antiox-idants present protect important flavoring from volatilization and oxidation. Many wholespices may release flavor too slowly to be of value. Ground spices, on the other hand, aremilled to the degree of fineness desired by the processor. When they are compared to thewhole spices, they can be incorporated more uniformly into the blend. They also releasetheir flavor more readily because the cells that contain the flavor have been ruptured dur-ing the milling process. In spite of these attributes, the finely ground spices have a limitedshelf life. They are subject to oxidation, loss of flavor, and degradation during storage. It isrecommended that they be stored for no longer than 3 months in manufacturing practices.In industrial applications, ground spices are generally used to provide a pleasing appear-ance and they are often supplemented with essential oils and oleoresins (17).

Spices are available in several forms. Besides the form they occur in naturally, wholeor ground spices can be used as spice oil, oleoresins, oleoresin on salt or other carriers, orencapsulated. There are cases where one or more can be used, and there are many instanceswhere one form is preferred over another due to the nature of the desired use.

D. Spice Grinding

Spice grinding is based on a very simple process. There are many different mills used togrind spices and they are generally designed to crush the spice particles. First, the grindingruptures many of the glands, or cells, in the spice that contain the volatile oil and this freesthe oil for reaction or evaporation. This rupturing presents a problem in grinding. In addi-tion to the volatile oil being exposed, the grinding also generates heat. This heat tends tovaporize this oil leading to a reduction in the strength of the flavor. Most spice mills are de-signed to pass the spice through quickly and also to minimize the buildup of heat. Thechoice of mill is often determined by the temperature rise during processing (17).

A few processors use liquid nitrogen to keep the temperature low and minimize theamount of oil lost. Although this process is not widespread, there is some value in its use.By freezing the spice and solidifying the oils, the spices grind and sift easier. They alsoshatter when subjected to a milling operation. Cryogenic grinding retains more of the fla-vor normally lost in other processes. Cryogenically ground spices contain more volatilecomponents, and the grinding minimizes oxidative deterioration of flavors because of thenitrogen blanket during grinding. A spice ground cryogenically may have a flavor profilethat is different from the usual. Since the product has more flavor, a smaller amount of spicecan be used to achieve the same level of flavor (17).

VI. SPICE QUALITY AND STANDARDS

A. Spice Quality and Evaluation

Organoleptic properties are the attributes of food that are perceived by the senses; they aredifficult to quantify objectively. Flavor, aroma, color, and texture are important organolep-tic properties for they are critical in determining the acceptability of foods to consumers andalso in promoting repeat purchases. Selecting and combining ingredients for a seasoning

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blend should be controlled to ensure the greatest degree of consistency possible. To ensurethat this happens, a detailed quality assurance program is necessary. This requires commu-nication between the ingredient vendor, seasoning manufacturer, and the consumer (18).

The seasoning manufacturer should understand as much as possible about the end useof the seasoning. Once the formula is approved by the end user, the seasoning manufacturermust make sure that no deviations are made in the process. Organoleptic testing is gener-ally used to verify the conformity of the seasoning to specification (1). These tests includeflavor, taste, texture, aroma, and overall mouthfeel sensation when the product is con-sumed. The seasonings may be tasted as is, or in a liquid slurry form. A sample of the batchis also kept to compare to future batches to check for consistency. The standard will de-grade over time, so it is necessary to obtain a fresh sample occasionally based on the cus-tomer’s needs (18).

Sensory evaluation of spices, spice oils, and oleoresins initially presented great diffi-culty. Many of the first oils and oleoresins were very flammable and not easy to work with.They were very viscous and often contained undesirable components. Sensory evaluationwas also in its infancy, and desirable testing methods had not yet been devised. Today,many techniques are used to test spice oils and oleoresins. Most, however, are dependenton sophisticated equipment. Sensory panels are used, but when testing oils and oleoresinsversus natural spices, it should be kept in mind that the flavor effect of the oils and oleo-resins is immediate and complete whereas the flavor cells of the spice are not always fore-most (18).

B. Spice Standards

Standards for spices are now being regulated. The two most important considerations arecleanliness and flavor quality. No molds or insects should be found in the spices, and littleor no extraneous or defective material should be found. Irradiation is sometimes used tosterilize spices, but it is not allowed in many countries. These standards are being discussedat national and international levels. Microbial standards for spices are important because itis a matter of cleanliness and hygiene. However, because spices are agricultural products,they will inevitably be exposed to contamination by microorganisms at different stages likeany other agricultural product. Because of this, it is hard to decide on microbiological stan-dards. The pathogenic bacteria Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens and the toxicmolds Aspergilllus flavus and the Penicillium citrium group and Salmonella are all foundon varying spices. Many nations are sterilizing spices using agents such as ethylene orpropylene oxide mixed with carbon dioxide. Using spice extractives overcomes the defect,but in many cases, a ground spice is preferred. Also, spices must be processed in hygienicconditions (9).

Some spices, unless given antimicrobial treatments such as irradiation, may containmicroorganism counts as high as 106–7 per gram. The most important are mold spores.Spices may also harbor toxins. Even though spices are used in small amounts, they can bethe source of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms found in food (9).

VII. OILS, OLEORESINS, AND EXTRACTS

A. Spice Oils and Oleoresins

The aspects that make spices valuable are the volatile oils and oleoresins. By using differ-ent types of flavoring extracts and spices, the food industry shows value and versatility in



many ways. By themselves, spices are not very convenient to use in food because they donot yield their flavors to the food readily. Finely ground spices have many disadvantages,such as variable flavor strength and quality, loss of flavor during storage, and discolorationof food, and they are not easily handled in bulk sizes. Because of these disadvantages, manynatural spices have been replaced by the appropriate counterpart of essential oils, oleo-resins, encapsulated spices, dispersed spices, emulsions, and essences.

An oleoresin consists of essential oil, organically soluble resins, and other relatedmaterials found in the natural spice. Nonvolatile fatty acids are also present. Spice seedsyield more fatty oils than spice constituents from other parts of the plant. Oleoresins areusually very viscous and often have to be thinned with propylene glycol to obtain flowa-bility.

Many flavor companies offer oleoresins that are standardized with mono-, di-, andtriglycerides, lecithin, and lactic acid, which are easily dispersible. These oleoresins maybe added directly to the formulated blend and do not have to be dispersed onto an ediblecarrier.

An essence is defined as an extraction that is prepared by macerating the ground spicewith 70% ethanol. An emulsion is a liquid seasoning prepared by emulsification of essen-tial oils and/or oleoresin with gum arabic or other emulsifiers. Heat-resistant spices are ole-oresins and/or essential oils that have been encapsulated with a water-insoluble coating,which extends the product’s shelf life and renders it suitable for baking applications. Fat-based spices are essential oils and/or oleoresins blended with a liquid edible oil or hydro-genated fat, and sold either bulk or as a spray-cooled, fat-encapsulated spice (2).

Spice oils are the principal flavoring constituents of spices. Spices depend on theiressential oil content for their characteristic aromatic profile (3).

Spice oils are obtained by steam or water distillation of ground spices, and in somecases, whole spices. The debris of cellular material contains no flavor value and is left be-hind, yielding a concentrated flavor. Solvent extraction of ground spices and the removalof the solvent by distillation gives the dark-colored, viscous products known as oleoresins.These represent the total flavoring of the spices in very concentrated form. Spice essences,emulsions, and solubles make oils and oleoresins easier to use. Some countries do not per-mit the use of solvents, and some users object to their presence. Dispersed spices are pro-duced by mixing bases, such as salt, sugar, flour products, or milk whey, with oils and ole-oresins, which makes them more soluble and easier to disperse. Encapsulated spices aremade by mixing spice oils and oleoresins with solutions of gums, gelatins, and so forth andare spray dried or precipitated to get flavors that are encapsulated. The processing cost ishigher, so the flavors are usually made in tenfold concentration (2,18).

B. Manufacture of Oils and Oleoresins

There are three different methods used in the industry to capture the flavor and character-istics of spices to prepare all extracts, oleoresins, and essential oils. The first method is in-fusion or maceration. This method is quite similar to the brewing of tea. The spices areplaced directly into a solvent, and they are then allowed to steep until the flavor has beenextracted. The entire process can take as little as a day or as much as a month. The lengthof time depends on factors such as spice particle size, extracting solvent, temperature, andmechanical stirring.

The second method is percolation. This method is quite easily described because it isexactly like the percolating of coffee. With spices, the percolator is a large tank. A solvent

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system is placed into the bottom of the tank, and the spices are put in a basket-like containerat the top of the tank in cloth bags. The solvent, in the base of the percolator, is forced upinto the basket containing the ground spice. The solvent is sprayed over the spices and isthen allowed to drip back to the base of the pot to be percolated again and again, until allaccumulated flavors have been extracted.

The final method of capturing the flavor and characteristics of spices is distillation.The leaves, seeds, and peels are placed in a still and covered with a solvent system. The dis-tillation occurs either atmospherically or under reduced pressure. The flavor can be solubleor insoluble in the distillate, depending on the solvent system. The distillates that result arecolorless as compared those produced by with maceration or percolation, which retain thespice color (6).

C. Flavor Quality of Natural Spices, Oils, Oleoresins, and Extracts

Food and spice companies are now researching ways to preserve the consistency of spicesand spice blends. Many different things can influence the abundance of the active compo-nents that are responsible for the natural flavor of the spices. In one year, varying climaticconditions can have a negative effect on the flavor of spices. Flavor quality is also affectedby variety, geographical origin, processing methods, and storage conditions. Spices grownwithin the same country, but in an area that is geographically different, can vary in flavorand other characteristics. The food industry must be able to understand these differencesand be able to adapt to them to maintain the flavor quality of the spice. The flavor qualityis as important as the cleanliness of the spice, because the main purpose of the spice is toimprove the flavor of the food.

The spice oils and oleoresins, and other extractives, are standardized by their manu-facturers to yield the same aroma and flavor of the named spice. Geographical region is alsoimportant. Manufacturers are different, and the products they produce are not the same asothers. This could be because of the country of origin, or the spice itself.

Manufacturers determine the spice equivalency of their liquid version to the groundspice. Spice equivalency of oils and extracts is defined as the number of pounds of oleo-resin required to equal 100 lb of freshly ground spice in aroma and flavor characteristics.For a complete listing of spice equivalencies, refer to Farrell (3).

In addition to looking for ways to improve flavor quality, spice producers and sellersare researching new ideas to increase the demand for spices. Already a new need hasemerged in the field of spices and flavoring extracts. It is possible to formulate new bever-ages, snacks, fillings, and other similar products. Also, it should also be noted that spiceshave always been known to have some medicinal uses. New pharmacological propertiesmay be discovered in the future.

D. Natural Spices versus Oils and Oleoresins

Natural spices are used when the “Old World” look is desired. They do have the disadvan-tage of causing some discoloration of fresh sausages, but if the discoloration is critical, ex-tractives can be used. When using extractives, they must be handled and stored carefullybecause the flavors dissipate much more quickly than in natural spices. The spice extractsare much easier to control for quality purposes. The flavor intensity is also much easier tocontrol when using extractives versus the whole or ground spice. If spice visibility is not amust in the product, it is at times more cost and quality effective to use the extractive ver-sion of the spice. Much less quantity of spice extractive is used in the final product and the



quality is built into the product. The meat processor does not have to worry about foreignmaterial or loss of flavor when using spice extractives. These things must be heavily takeninto account when using the whole spice or ground spice. Fresh spices have slow flavor re-lease in high-temperature processing. They are also easy to weigh and handle. It is easy toobserve if the spice looks less fresh than it should. Also, there are few problems encoun-tered when designing a label when working with fresh spices. However, the meat proces-sor does have to worry about product storage with using real spices versus oils and oleo-resins. Spices take up much more room and infestation can be a problem. The flavor qualitycan also vary from lot to lot of raw spices. This can cause problems with the end product.One of the biggest problems with using raw spices instead of the oils or oleoresins is con-cern with the microbial count. This is not a problem with the liquid counterparts. One draw-back to using liquid spices is that the oils and oleoresins experience volatile loss underhigh-temperature processing conditions, unlike the raw spices. The water-soluble spice oilsand oleoresins have a much lighter flavor, and often more must be used to achieve the sameflavor effect. The encapsulated oils and oleoresins are very expensive in comparison withthe other varieties and much more must be used to achieve the same flavor as an oil, oleo-resin, or raw spice.

VIII. STORAGE AND SHELF LIFE

A. Spice Storage

Spices should be stored in cool and dry conditions away from light. They should be pack-aged in an airtight container to avoid oxidation. Whole spices have a long shelf life, butwhen ground, the pungency and flavor can be lost. Ground spices that are stored longer than6 months can have a major loss in pungency. Herbs will usually store for 6 months to a year.Glass is a good storage container because it is airtight and inert. Some spices will reactchemically with other storage materials, causing an off-flavor to develop and degrade thespice. Glass containers should be stored in a cool, dry, and dark location.

B. Spice Shelf Life

Spices have a specific shelf life that is determined by their form, storage conditions, source,and age. Some spices have naturally occurring antioxidants. Others contain lipase and tan-nins that promote the degradation of color and oxidation. When purchasing spices, only theamount of spice that will be used should be bought. It is better to replenish spices as neededthan to work with an old spice that has lost its flavor and color. Spices and extractivesshould be stored under cool and dry conditions. They should be protected from sunlight.This prevents caking and fading. It also keeps essential oils from volatizing. Spices used ascolorings require even colder storage to retard the oxidation of the pigments. This alsohelps prevent infestation. All spice containers should be sealed tightly after use to preventthe loss of important flavor and aroma volatiles.

Cryogenic milling of certain spices avoids the oxidation, volatilization, and enzy-matic damage seen with the conventional techniques of milling. The higher volatile contentof these spices provides a better shelf life and flavor perception for products that are low infat and sugar. It also contributes to the development of flavors that are not damaged in themicrowave and have a fresh taste. As the flavor industry becomes more market driven, itwill most likely continue to take new approaches to new processing methods and flavorsystems (18).

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C. Spices and Food Spoilage

Contaminated meat is too often a problem. Spices are known for their contamination andfilth. But, when one considers the areas from which they are cultivated and the feat it takesto get them around the world, contamination is to be expected. Bacteria counts may run intothe millions per gram on many uncleaned, unsterilized spices. Once cleaned and sterilized,spices contribute in many remarkable ways to retard food spoilage. Recently, it has beenfound that common spices such as garlic and clove have been proven effective against somestrains of E. coli (7). A major problem that is encountered when trying to use spices to stopfood spoilage is finding the right mix between the taste of the food and the amounts ofspices necessary to inhibit pathogens. The amounts of spices necessary range from one toten percent. Research is being done regarding recommendations of spice usage levels formanufacturers and consumers.

It should be noted that spices are not a substitute for the proper handling of food.While spices can lessen the amounts of E. coli in meat products, they do not totally elimi-nate the pathogen. This necessitates proper cooking methods. Meats should be cooked atabout 160°F. Spices can be added as a protective measure and also to add flavor to the meat.

Many people have studied the preservative action of spices and condiments on foods.Many spices have been found to exert a definite inhibiting action against microorganisms,but many others have no significant preservative action. It has been found that mustard, cin-namon, and cloves are among the most potent spices in slowing the growth of molds,yeasts, and bacteria (7).

IX. CLEANING AND PROCESSING OF SPICES

A. Cleaned and Uncleaned Spices

In the United States, spices can be imported as raw uncleaned spice, uncleaned spice, orcleaned spice. The spices can be post-processed to reduce microbial counts. Many times,spice buyers observe only the prices and overlook that the spices are used as food items.There is a large market for spices that have been minimally cleaned directly after harvest-ing. A spice processor with an adequate spice cleaning facility can easily show the debristhat has been collected from “cleaned spice.” Stones, rodent droppings, insects, nails, bal-ing wire, dead rodents, and wood are examples of debris found in uncleaned spices. It isvery easy for a spice supplier to transfer a spice from its original package to another formof packaging and say that the spice has been cleaned. Thus, it is an advantage to buy froma reputable spice house or supplier. Oftentimes, buyers may think they are getting a verygood deal on the price per pound of a spice. But in actuality, buying some of those “gooddeals” could cost a company a great deal of money, especially if some of the debris thatfinds its way to a consumer causes harm.

B. How Spices Are Cleaned

There are different methods of spice cleaning, and each one makes use of a physical dif-ference between the spice and the foreign material being removed. Most often the physicaldifferences are shape and density. The closer the foreign material is in shape and density tothe spice, the harder it is to remove. The cleaning of spices is an expensive process; thus,the spice processor must consider the cost of the cleaning equipment, the labor, and the lossof product that comes with the cleaning. It is impossible to guarantee that no foreign mate-rial is present in a batch of cleaned spice (17).



Every spice cleaning system should have magnets in as many locations as possible.They are protection not only for the end users but also for the processor because magneticmaterial needs to be removed so it will not damage the milling equipment. There are manydifferent types of magnets, and there is no one magnet that is perfect for every type of sys-tem. To be effective, the magnet must come very close to the metal and be designed so thatthe flow of spice over the magnet cannot brush the piece of metal back off the magnet andinto the product again. The magnet must be cleaned often because they are designed to holda certain amount of metal before the spice flow knocks the metal back into the spice (17).

The cleaning operation is a basic use of sifters. Running the spice over a collectionof screens, particles both larger and smaller than the spice can be removed. Although theprinciple sounds simple, the process is generally very difficult. Spices are not uniform insize. They are uneven oval seeds or pieces of leaves. Sifters are not usually used for clean-ing. Instead, they are often used for sizing. If the harvester does any cleaning at all, it is usu-ally not more than a simple sifting operation to remove large debris from the spice (17).

The air table or gravity separator is the most versatile type of cleaning equipment forspices. A processor usually acquires this piece of machinery first and uses it most often. Awire mesh screen with a stream of air blowing up through it suspends the spice particlesover the top of the screen. The lighter pieces are suspended higher than the heavier ones.The lightest pieces are actually blown out of the system. The screen is then tilted and thespice particles move to the bottom end of the screen. A rotational vibration is applied to thescreen, causing the heavier particles to move up the screen. The lighter particles are nottrapped, and they continue to move toward the lower end. This causes a separation basedon size. The process is adjusted so that the cleaned spice migrates to the middle of thescreen. The very heavy and very light particles are generally discarded as debris, and themiddle particles are collected as clean spice. Often the clean spice is then run through theair table again for a second cleaning operation (17).

De-stoners are similar to air tables, but they are generally much smaller. An air tableis able to separate the product into many divisions, but a de-stoner removes only the heav-ier stones and rocks. De-stoners usually have a much smaller screen surface than air tablesdo, and they remove only the heaviest pieces. With a change in air flow, the incline of thescreen, the screen vibration, and the screen type, the stones move up the screen and causea separation from the lighter material. De-stoners are sometimes used in combination withair tables (17).

Air separators are designed in many different ways, but they all are based on the sameprinciple. The principle is that a narrow stream of spice falls through a horizontal airstream. Generally, the heavier particles fall straight down, but the lighter particles areblown to the side. This causes a size separation. Air separators are built in a variety ofstyles, with some vertical or horizontal airflows (17).

Another type of spice cleaning equipment is the indent separator that makes use ofthe difference between the spice and the foreign material. The spice is fed into one end ofa revolving drum. The outside of the drum is lined with cavities of uniform shape. The cav-ities are sized so that a spice particle of the desired shape will easily fit. The centrifugalforce from the rotating drum holds the right-shaped particles in the cavities longer than par-ticles that do not fit well. The rotational force lifts the correctly shaped particles until theyeventually fall out. When this happens, they are caught in a trough and moved out of themachine. The wrong-shaped particles eventually fall out of the far side of the rotating drum.Very effective separations, based on size or shape, can be made by varying the shape of thecavities and the drum rotation (17).

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To separate round seeds from non-round foreign material, many processors use spi-ral separators. The spiral separator is a U-shaped trough that is curved into a downward spi-ral. Spices are fed into the top of the separator, and the round particles increase in speed asthey roll down the chute. As the round particles gain speed, the centrifugal force drives theround particles up the side of the chute. The non-round particles do not roll and are not ableto gain momentum. They end up sliding down the center of the chute. At the bottom of thechute a divider separates the round particles that have risen up the side of the chute fromthe non-round ones that slid down the center. Spiral separators are very simple machinesand do not require motors or blowers. The entire process utilizes gravity as the driving force(17).

C. Sterilization of Spices

When unsterilized spices are incorporated into meat and food products, there is a possiblehealth hazard. Spices may be sterilized with ethylene oxide or propylene oxide. The addi-tion of either of these methods increases the price of the spice by several cents per poundbut is well worth it. The simplest type of equipment for sterilizing spices consists of awalled chamber made of steel, about 10 inches deep, 4 ft high, and 4 ft wide. The chamberis fitted with a lock-tight door with a recording temperature and pressure instrument. Thechamber must be capable of withstanding at least 28.5 in. of vacuum and 10 to 15 lb of pres-sure. It is also desirable to have a heating unit within the chamber capable of raising thetemperature 10 to 15 degrees above ambient temperature. The other equipment needed is atank of ethylene oxide fitted with a pressure gauge and a supply line to the chamber. Thechamber briefly described is capable of holding ten 200-lb poly-lined fiber drums or abouttwenty 100-kg sacks of spices (3).

After the chamber is loaded, the door is locked and the chamber evacuated to at least28.5 in. of vacuum. The vacuum is held for about 10 minutes and released, replacing thechamber with ethylene oxide gas up to a pressure of 5 to 10 lb. Heat of 90° F is held, alongwith the vacuum, for 8 to 10 hours. After the required conditions are met, the ethylene ox-ide is shut off and the gas within the chamber penetrates the gas-permeable packaging ma-terials and kills the microorganisms present. This process destroys 95% to 100% of the to-tal microbes present. All pathogenic organisms, molds, yeast, insect eggs, insects, and otherliving matter are also destroyed (3).

Ethylene oxide usage in regard to safety for humans has been questioned by many.Ethylene oxide is chronically toxic at levels not detected by smell. It is a skin irritant pro-ducing erythema and edema with a potential for sensitization. White (20) discusses thetoxic effects of ethylene oxide (3).

Propylene oxide is used like ethylene oxide, but its penetrating ability is weaker. It isa microbiocidal. It requires a higher temperature or longer treatment to accomplish thesame microbial kill as ethylene oxide (3).

The only known effective and safe alternative technique is the use of radiation (12).Industry has not responded very well to the use of radiation. Food irradiation employs anenergy form termed ionizing radiation. There are several particular attributes of ionizing ra-diation that make it useful for treating foods. Certain kinds of ionizing radiation have theability to penetrate into the depth of a food. Through physical effects they interact with theatoms and molecules that make up the food and also those of food contaminants such asbacteria, molds, yeast, and insects, causing chemical and biological consequences that canbe utilized in beneficial ways. Although ionizing radiation frequently is referred to as high-



energy radiation, the total quantity of energy needed to secure the beneficial effects withfoods is relatively small, and gross changes in a meat or food that could affect its accept-ability usually do not occur (19). The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has pro-posed an amendment to its regulations to permit the use of ionizing radiation for treatingrefrigerated or frozen uncooked meat, meat by-products, and certain other food products.The FSIS proposal allows the specified food products to be treated with ionizing irradia-tion at dosages of up to 4.5 kiloGrays (kGy) for refrigerated products and up to 7 kGy forfrozen products, with no minimum dosage (5).

Inactivation of all spoilage microorganisms present is sterilization, and when radia-tion is used, the process is termed radappertization. Radappertization is the treatment offood with a dose of ionizing radiation sufficient to reduce the number and/or activity of vi-able microorganisms to such a level that very few, if any, are detectable by any recognizedbacteriological or mycological testing method applied to the treated food. The treatmentmust be such that no spoilage or toxicity of microbial origin is detectable regardless of howlong or under what conditions the food is stored after treatment, provided it is not recon-taminated. Radappertization does not include inactivation of viruses, bacterial toxins, my-cotoxins, or enzymes (19).

Most spices are irradiated with a dose of 6.5 or 10 kGy. Spices normally are used atthe level of 0.1% to 1% in meat products, and untreated spices can cause a product con-tamination level of as many as 105 to 106 bacteria per gram (19). The low moisture contentof spices and seasonings limits chemical change resulting from irradiation. As might be ex-pected, the effects of radiation are different for different spices. The threshold doses re-quired for flavor changes are not the same for all spices. The yield of essential oils fromspices, important in spice quality, can be changed by irradiation. Irradiation has proved tobe superior to chemical sterilization with ethylene oxide and propylene oxide. Irradiationinactivates molds more efficiently than the chemical sterilization techniques. Irradiation iseasier to use than chemical sterilization and a shorter exposure time is required. Most im-portantly, there are no residues remaining after the process is complete. Also, the safety ofoperating personnel is not a problem with irradiation. Adequate product volume, however,is essential for satisfactory economic feasibility (19).

X. PROPERTIES OF SPICES AND HERBS

A. Antimicrobial Properties of Spices

In many areas of the food industry, especially the meat industry, microorganisms playa major role. Many spices, as mentioned earlier, have antimicrobial and or antifungalproperties. The antimicrobial properties of spices have been known for hundreds of years.For example, cinnamon, thyme, and cumin were used in mummification in ancientEgypt. Spices were also used in ancient India and China to preserve foods and also asmedicine. In ancient Rome and Greece, coriander was used to prolong the preservationperiod for meat, and mint was used to prevent the spoilage of milk. In the 1880s, researchon the antimicrobial properties of spices was begun, and mustard, clove, and cinnamonwere all found to have antimicrobial characteristics. Since the beginning of the twentiethcentury, research has been broadened to include both spice extracts and the essential oilsof spices. Rosemary and sage have antioxidant properties, but marjoram does not. Mar-joram has the opposite effect and is known as a prooxidant. If microbial contamination isof concern, the spice equivalent in the form of a spice extractive might solve the prob-

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lem. Spice extracts result in fewer microbial contamination problems because the oil-based extracts do not provide a source of spoilage microorganisms like their naturalcounterparts. Also, the extracts are easier to store and present less of a problem with in-festation (7,16).

B. Antioxidants and Spices

Spices have been used to cover spoilage or off-flavors in meats for hundreds of years, with-out knowledge of how the spices were being effective. All that was known was that thespices made the food taste more desirable and that they helped maintain its quality. It is nowknown that many spices such as rosemary and sage act as antioxidants that help preservethe quality and color of the meats as well as providing health benefits to consumers. Theantioxidant quality of the spices is partly due to the reduction in the degree of oxidation offats present.

Foods deteriorate gradually during storage for several reasons. One major reason isthe oxidation of oil or fat found in the foods. Antioxidants such as spices can extend theshelf life of many kinds of foods and could actually make it possible to sell many new foodproducts. The fats in meat are known to react with the oxygen in the air, generating perox-ides, which are then further oxidized and degrade into low-molecular-weight alcohol andaldehyde compounds. This process results in rancidity. These “free radicals” are believedto damage DNA in the human body and to promote cancer and aging (14). The problem ofoxidation in packaged foods can be addressed by replacing oxygen in the container with aninert gas. The most commonly used method, however, is to use antioxidants in the foods.Synthetic or natural antioxidants such as spices can be used. Although synthetic antioxi-dants seem to work quite well, they are easily decomposed at high temperatures, and thereis some concern of possible liver and lung toxicity. Tocopherol is a natural antioxidant thathas been used widely in the food industry. Its antioxidant effect is still inferior to the syn-thetic antioxidants. From the many studies that have been conducted on the antioxidantqualities of spices, it can be concluded that sage and rosemary are by far the most effectivein retarding fat or oil oxidation. It is also known that other leafy spices such as oregano andthyme have stronger antioxidant activities than most of the other spices (14). Two of themost effective germicidal spices are cinnamon and clove. Cinnamon contains cinnamicaldehyde and cloves contain eugenol.

XI. SPICE USAGE IN MEATS

A. Use of Spices in Meat

Of the ten markets for spices, the largest is the food industry and household sector. Spicesare used in many categories of the food industry, such as meat, fish, vegetable products,bakery products, snack foods, and others. Of these categories, the meat industry is thelargest consumer of spices (9). The household sector generally uses only a few spices, suchas pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, paprika, and vanilla. Food industries tend to demand manyof the less known spices such as turmeric, coriander, mace, ginger, chilies, and cardamom.

Spices have been used for centuries to flavor food across the world. Spice usage dif-fers considerably in each culture and country. The number of spices used in meats has in-creased. Spices provide micronutrients and are used to increase food palatability. Spicesalso to help cleanse foods of pathogens and thereby contribute to the health of people whoenjoy the flavor of spices (15).



Many different spices, seasonings, and flavorings are used in meat products. Theamount of spices, seasonings, and flavorings used is dictated by product identity standardsand flavor preferences. Combining different levels of the various spices, seasonings, andflavorings available creates an almost infinite variety in the meat supply (15). Spice blendsand seasonings are often unique to the type of meat they are designed to flavor. There is noone particular known spice blend that will flavor all types of meat or meat products to a de-sirable degree. The species of animal from which the meat was taken, the fat level of the fi-nal product, the physical and chemical components, just to name a few, must be carefullyevaluated and taken into consideration when using seasoning blends or spices in meats. Forinstance, when a seasoning blend or individual spice is used to flavor low-fat meat prod-ucts, less quantity must be used. Without fat as a carrier for the flavor system much less ofthe seasoning blend or spice is needed in the product. For example, if the proper amount ofa seasoning blend was used in full-fat bologna, and the same amount was used in fat-freebologna, the fat-free product would have an overwhelming spice effect and leave an unde-sirable astringent aftertaste in the mouth of the consumer.

B. Seasoning Blends

“Seasonings are compounds, containing one or more spices, or spice extractives, whichwhen added to a food, either during its manufacture or in its preparation, before it is served,enhances the natural flavor of the food and thereby increases its acceptance by the con-sumer” (3). Seasonings are added to a food before it is ready for serving, as opposed tocondiments, which are added after the food is served. Some compounds can serve as a sea-soning or a condiment. An example of this is tomato catsup. It is normally used as a condi-ment, but if it were to be added to beef stew during its cooking, it would be considered aseasoning (3).

There are many different formulas for seasoning different types of meats. Some com-panies are quite secretive about their mixes, others are not. Not all seasoning formulas arecomplete. Formulations can be adjusted to suit the flavor profile desired.

Spices and flavorings are used to season ham and other cured-meat products. Thisgives these products their unique flavor characteristics. The soluble spices, usually on a saltor dextrose carrier, can be dissolved in the pumping pickle to flavor the cured meat prod-uct. Some hams are rubbed with spices on the surface instead. The spices commonly usedto flavor ham are pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, and clove (15).

C. Basic Meat Blends

1. Frankfurters

The basic frankfurter seasoning is quite simple, containing approximately four ounces ofpepper and about one ounce of nutmeg as the major ingredients with the basics of salt, cure,and so on (3). There are many different and more complex formulas that contain the basicspices but also contain other spices that are complementary. Some formulas have almostthree times the amount of spices as the basic formula, but the blend is not overpowering. Infact, it is considered to be at the right level for a high-quality flavored frankfurter. Commoningredients often found in frankfurter blends are salt, corn syrup solids, sodium erythorbate(a cure accelerator), white pepper, nutmeg, onion powder, garlic powder, ginger, coriander,mace, cardamom, paprika, dextrose, oleoresins of paprika, ginger, pepper and coriander,oils of mace or cardamom, mustard, and select anti-caking agents. Various heat levels can

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be obtained with varying amounts of capsicum. There are products with added capsicumthat are marketed as “hot” in flavor.

2. Bologna

Bologna seasonings are very similar to those of frankfurters. Depending on the preferenceof the consumers, garlic may or may not be added. To round out the flavor of the bologna,monosodium glutamate may be added as a flavor enhancer. Today’s consumer often prefersto shy away from this ingredient, however. Allspice and cloves give the product a sweeter,spicy flavor. Cardamom can be substituted for the allspice and cloves in certain blends.Cardamom is used in small amounts because it is a very flavorful and aromatic spice. Somecommon ingredients found in traditional bologna seasonings are salt, dextrose, sodium ery-thorbate (a cure accelerator), monosodium glutamate, garlic or onion powder, mustard,white pepper, paprika, coriander, mace, allspice, cloves, oleoresins of pepper, paprika, andcoriander, oils of mace, allspice, and cloves, and select anti-caking agents.

3. Sausage

Sausage is prepared from comminuted and seasoned meat. It is usually shaped into a sym-metrical form. Placing the sausage in natural casings, made from the gastrointestinal tractof animals, was done for the convenience of packaging the sausage. Sausage seasonings aremade up of mixtures of various spices. In addition to giving flavors and aromas to thesausage, some spices have antioxidant properties (11).

Manufacturing fresh pork sausage is one of the easier processes in the preparation ofprocessed meats. It is also the most widely manufactured fresh sausage. It is made fromcomminuted and seasoned pork. Special attention must be paid to the cleanliness of thespices, equipment used and the surrounding work areas. The basic seasoning of pork sausagecontains salt, ground white or black pepper, ground sage, ground mace or nutmeg, and sugar,dextrose, or corn syrup solids, monosodium glutamate, a preservative agent (citric acid), ole-oresins of sage, pepper, ginger, paprika, and capsicum, and oils of mace, nutmeg, or marjo-ram. Optional spices added to this formula are ground ginger, ground marjoram, and groundcayenne pepper. A superior blend of spices calls for approximately five times the usualamount of oil of sage, slightly more sweetness, and a capsicum blend to give a fresh pinkcolor before cooking. The unit package weight is increased about five ounces, but this alsoadds to the weight of the finished product. Although ground sage is used in some sausageseasonings, oil of sage has mostly replaced it because the product has a more appealing ap-pearance and does not have the green specks that are caused by the fresh spice (11).

Some meat processors make sausage from freshly slaughtered pork carcasses. Theygrind and season the meat while it is still warm. Once the sausage is made, it is then chilledquickly or frozen to retain maximum flavor. This sausage is called “hot boned” or “hot pro-cessed” pork sausage (11).

Although the names sound similar, Italian pork sausage differs considerably fromfresh pork sausage. They differ in the seasonings and also in the size of the ground meatparticles. A formula for a basic sweet Italian sausage is salt, ground white pepper, wholeseed fennel, and ground paprika. A formula which is more typical of what is found on themarket contains salt, sugar, ground white pepper, ground paprika, ground nutmeg, groundmace, ground coriander, ground anise, ground clove, and ground cinnamon. Red peppercan be added to various seasoning blends to make a hotter sausage. Usually, one ounce ofcorn oil or another vegetable oil is added to the seasoning blend to aid in producing theblend. Another type of sausage is the Kielbasa or Polish sausage, which is not cooked but



smoked. It is highly seasoned with garlic, pepper, coriander, nutmeg, dextrose or cornsyrup solids, and oleoresins of the mentioned spices (11).

4. Meat Marinades

Another use for spices is meat marinades. A typical fajita marinade recipe includes salt,monosodium glutamate, dextrose, grill flavor, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, smoked maltpowder, lime juice solids, caramel color, onion powder, celery, and a free-flow agent. Allingredients are added and mixed until uniform. Water is added to the mix. The meat is ei-ther marinated or tumbled to allow the marinade to thoroughly penetrate the meat.

5. Gravies

Spices are also used in gravies, which enhance the flavor of meats. An example is meatgravy mix. A general recipe includes salt, lactose, monosodium glutamate, dextrose or cornsyrup solids, oleoresin turmeric, wheat flour, cornstarch, powdered meat, yeast, meat fat,non-fat milk solids, onion and garlic powder, meat flavoring or hydrolyzed vegetable pro-tein, yeast extract, dried meat fat, dehydrated meat, free-flow agent, celery seed, white pep-per, and paprika.

D. Commonly Used Spices in Meats

The following is a listing of spices and the meats that they commonly season:

Allspice Bologna, pork sausage, frankfurters, hamburgers, mincemeatAnise seed Dry sausage: pepperoniBasil Pizza sausage, certain poultry productsBay leaves Pickling spice for corned beef, beef tongue, lamb tongue, pork tongue, and

pigs’ feetCaraway seed Polish sausageCelery flakes Chicken and turkey productsCelery seed Beef stews, meat loaf, chicken and turkey productsChili powder Chili con carne, taco meat, some Spanish and Mexican sausagesCinnamon Ham loaf, other pork loaves, pastrami rub, bologna, and blood sausageCloves Bologna, frankfurters, head cheese, liver sausage, corned beef, and

pastrami; whole cloves can be stuck into baking hamsCoriander seed Frankfurters, bologna, knackwurst, Polish sausage, other cooked sausagesCumin seed Chorizo, chili con carne, other Mexican and Italian sausagesDill seed Head cheese, souse, jellied tongue loafFennel seed Italian sausages, pizza sausage, pizza, pepperoni, salamiGarlic, dried Polish sausage, beef sausage, salami, bologna, frankfurtersGinger Pork sausage, frankfurters, knackwurst, other sausagesMace Bologna, bratwurst & other sausagesMarjoram Braunschweiger, liverwurst, head cheese, Polish sausageMustard Bologna, frankfurters, salami, summer sausageNutmeg Frankfurters, bologna, knackwurst, minced ham sausages, liver sausage,

and head cheeseOnions, dried Braunschweiger, liver sausage, head cheese, baked luncheon loavesOregano Most Mexican and Spanish sausages, fresh Italian sausage, frankfurters,

bolognaPaprika Frankfurters, bologna, fresh Italian sausagePepper, black Frankfurters, bologna, pork sausage, summer sausage, salami, liver sausage,

loaf products, most other sausages

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Pepper, red Chorizo, smoked country sausage, Italian sausage, pepperoni, fresh porksausage

Pepper, white Used when black pepper specks are not wanted; pork sausage and deviledham

Rosemary Chicken stews, some poultry productsSaffron Used mostly for color, and in some sausagesSage Pork sausage, pizza sausage, breakfast sausage, and old-fashioned loafSavory Pork sausage, other sausagesThyme Pork sausage, liver sausage, headcheese, and bratwurstTurmeric Used mostly for color; curry powder

Source: Ref. 15.

E. Measurement of Meat for Formulations

The amount of meat used in a formula is called a meat block. The amounts of seasoningsand other ingredients added are based on the meat block, typically in 100 lb increments. Anexample would read: “Use 6.5 lbs seasoning per 100 lbs meat block” (17). A meat proces-sor makes items in 100 lb increments such as 500 lb, 700 lb, or 1000 lb. The weight of theitems depends on the equipment used. Other ingredients, including water, are added basedon the 100 lb increments. Often, manufacturers will be provided the seasonings in individ-ual containers, formulated for the amount of product the meat processor is making. In a 500lb block, the seasoning is packed into a 32.5 lb bag. “Restricted ingredients are usuallybased on the amount per 100 lbs meat block” (17). Many processors work with the ingre-dients in a controlled-access room where the temperature and humidity are carefully mon-itored for measuring the critical ingredient. The critical components are weighed, pack-aged, and assembled for batch productions. A checklist must be prepared and verified inorder to make sure that all of the materials are accounted for.

F. Meat Seasonings and Cures

The product that is used to treat meat to give it a longer shelf life and a characteristic pinkcolor and cured flavor is called a cure. Some examples of cured meats are ham, bologna,bacon, wieners, and corned beef. Meat-curing ingredients (sodium nitrite) increase theproduct shelf life and inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. This organism can growand form its deadly toxin in meat items that are vacuum packed. Cures contain salt, sodiumnitrite and, occasionally, sodium nitrate, sugar, and an anticaking agent. The amount of thenitrate is limited because it is associated with increased formation of nitrosamines duringcooking, which have been found to be carcinogenic. Cures that give the pink color containFD&C Red Dye #3. The coloring is added to eliminate confusion between cure and salt inthe processing plant. Most cures contain 6.25% sodium nitrate, and others contain 12.5%.Although other levels can work, the two above are most common. Because many season-ings contain amines and are able to combine with nitrites and nitrates to form nitrosamines,cures are never included with seasonings. Cures are sold separately or in batch sizes. In the500 lb meat block example, 1.25 lb of cure would be placed in a separate bag and put in-side or attached to the outside of the seasoning bag. Then, the operator would only have toadd a bag of each product to the formula without extra weighing of the seasoning ingredi-ents (3).

To formulate for meats, it is practical to formulate based on the ingredient weight,which is necessary for the amount of meat block. It is much less practical to work



with percentages. When making a product such as a seasoning for wieners, themanufacturer must work in weight of seasoning per 100 lb of meat. It can then beeasily converted to percentages and the seasoning formula can be determined. Formeat blocks that may not be in 100 lb increments, simply figure the percentage usageof spice per pound and then multiply by the pounds desired to find the amount of spiceto use.

G. Brine Solutions

Brine is a water-soluble solution containing seasonings, salt, sugar, sodium erythorbate(a curing accelerator), phosphates, and cure. It is pumped or injected into a meat item. Allof the flavoring materials should be water-soluble, but small levels of micro-mesh pow-der are possible because of the small particle size. Many times, oleoresins are used withpolysorbate 80 or another emulsifier. The brine is formulated so that if the product ispumped at 20%, the restricted ingredients are at the correct level. Pumping 20% meansthat 120 lb of finished product will result from 100 lb of meat if it is pumped with that so-lution. The term pickup is used mostly in the poultry industry. If the manufacturer wantsa 15% pickup, then the poultry is marinated, vacuum tumbled, or injected so that 100 lbof the finished product weighs 115 lb. This is very important when formulating the sea-soning so the strength of the flavor, salt, and phosphate are kept at the appropriate levels.The seasonings that are marinated can utilize some particulate ingredients that are notsoluble (18).

Brines are used in many products to give flavor and also to cure the product. Thetwo products most often made in the United States are corned beef and ham. Ham is usu-ally cured and flavored with brine that is soluble because it is injected or pumped to givean evenly cured product. Ham seasonings generally contain spice extractives on a sugaror salt carrier, garlic, and sodium erythorbate. Corned beef is usually soaked in a pickleseasoning. The seasoning may or may not be soluble. Many times, a whole pickling spiceis used.

XII. REGULATIONS AND RECORD KEEPING

A. Formulations and Record Keeping

Food processors keep records on the formulas of seasonings. The formulas are designedso that costs can be easily calculated and updated as needed. Each spice blender may havea special way of recording formulas. As was mentioned previously, some are quite se-cretive, and others are not. However, given time, a good seasoning blender can duplicatea competitor’s blend, so there is really no need for secrecy. There is an understanding be-tween the blender and the customer that the blender will not divulge the secrets of onecustomer’s blend to another customer. Some standard items found on blending or formu-lation forms are laboratory and plant code numbers, the ingredients, the weight of the in-dividual ingredients in one seasoning unit, and the percent of each ingredient in the batch.For some ingredients such as oils and oleoresins, coded labels are affixed to containers toprevent visitors and even employees from knowing the exact formula of the seasoningblend. These forms and codes are especially helpful in meat processing plants to get thecorrect seasoning formula for whatever meat is being processed, such as frankfurters orsausage (18).

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B. Regulations of Seasonings and Natural Flavorings

There are flavoring regulations that apply to the manufacturers of seasonings. In March1991, FSIS issued a flavoring regulation that defined “flavoring,” “natural flavoring,” and“natural flavor” as follows:

Essential oils, oleoresins, essences, extractives, distillates or any product of roasting or heat-ing which contains the flavoring constituents derived from any spice, fruit, or fruit juice, veg-etable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bud, root, bark, leaf, or other edible portion of aplant. Spices, onion powder, garlic powder and celery powder, oleoresin black pepper, ginger,and garlic oil are examples (FSIS NOTICE USDA, U.S. Government Printing Office: 1990-262-858:20312/FSIS). Any other item not listed above must:1. Be listed by common or usual name or2. Common or usual name with a sub-listing of ingredients or3. Subject to USDA approval for acceptable labelingAll proteinaceous materials are not flavoring, and must be listed by their common and usualname including source, such as hydrolysates and autolysates of animal, plant, dairy, and yeastsources.

This new legislation mandates that almost all ingredients be broken down into theircomponent ingredients. For example, previously, a flavor blend that replaced MSG mighthave been labeled as a natural flavor. Currently, it must be labeled with all components,which may include maltodextrin, salt, autolyzed yeast extract, hydrolyzed vegetable pro-tein, citric acid, and natural flavor. As one can see, this regulation has made labeling prod-ucts extremely complicated. Another problem that has been encountered is that reaction fla-vors are produced. The treatment of amino acids of other proteins along with sugar underheat to produce meat flavors can produce the reaction flavors (18).

XIII. MARKETING AND CONSUMERS OF SPICES

A. Marketing of Meat Seasonings

Meat seasonings are generally low-margin items. Many companies will often change sup-pliers to save only a few cents per pound. For example, when formulating sausage season-ings, it is necessary to have an economical source of ground mustard seeds. Sausage sea-sonings have a high amount of mustard. Unless the manufacturer grinds his own, it is veryhard to be competitive with other companies. Many seasoning companies are known in theindustry to primarily be suppliers of meat seasonings. This is generally because of two rea-sons. First, many of the smaller seasoning companies were initially formed by large meatcompanies to provide seasonings to their processing plants, and then they were expandedor sold. Second, some of the seasoning houses were initially involved in meat seasoningsbecause of their technical expertise. In the past, many of the small meat companies reliedon technical support from the seasoning company to help formulate their meat items andalso to instruct them on how to produce the product. Some of the seasoning companies pro-vided the seasoning, the smoke flavors, the sausage casings, and other ingredients, and thetechnical support to produce the processed meat items such as summer sausage andwieners. Even the relatively large companies used the seasoning companies as technicalreference much more in the past than they do today. Processed meat manufacturers nowusually have their own laboratory and research personnel.

Seasoning companies provide seasonings for many items in the red meat industrysuch as fresh, smoked, dried, and cured sausages, nonspecific items including meat loaves



and luncheon loaves, ham brines, chili, taco meat, corned beef pickles, and roast beef rubs.They also provide seasonings for poultry companies, including pumps and basting blends;sausage seasonings, such as turkey bologna, ham, and breakfast sausage; glazes and mari-nades. Thousands of flavor combinations are possible for each type of product. The flavorof the product even varies by the region in the United States. For example, chorizo that ispurchased in different geographic areas will be extremely different. It can be dry, semidry,hot, mild, fresh, cooked, cured, red to pale orange, or fine or coarse grind. There are alsoan infinite number of flavor variations available.

B. Consumer Loyalty to Spices

The United States is consuming more red pepper than it ever has. It seems that the Ameri-can public is becoming more adventuresome as to what they like to eat. The people are con-suming many more hot foods, and normally bland foods are becoming spicier. The hot tastein spices such as pepper and ginger is due to specific compounds found in the spice. Whilethe public may consider this degree of heat pleasing, most people consider the heat fromthe spice capsaicin to be extremely hot and undesirable. Mild spices are also on the in-crease. This is partially attributed to the restriction of salt in diets. It is expected that the useof spices will continue to increase (14).

One of the most important methods of determining the success of a product is repeatpurchase. Most consumers will buy a product once, or they might even buy it twice. How-ever, if the product varies each time they purchase it, they will avoid the product com-pletely. Product consistency is very important. Changes in the food product are the mostimportant factor, but changes in price, package, and availability also affect the frequencyof repeat purchase. Achieving this consistency is not an easy task. Agricultural productssuch as spices vary due to climatic conditions and harvesting conditions. The more ingre-dients used, the greater the chance for errors and inconsistencies. To avoid some of theseinconsistencies, currently, quality management is the responsibility of the supplier (18).

Consumer tastes and expectations are increasing in sophistication, and therefore, thefood and flavor industries have been presented with a challenge to produce more “healthy”foods that contain less salt, sugar, and fat. These ingredients are very important to the over-all flavor of products. In addition, there is a need to develop flavors that can withstandpreparation in a microwave oven. In response to these challenges, the flavor industry hasimplemented more efficient methods of synthesis that will have a major impact on the pro-duction of less expensive synthetic flavors. Flavor compounds that can elicit specific moodsensations can be used on food to change the mood of the consumer. Research has shownthat peppermint, orange, and eucalyptus odors are relaxing and soothing, whereas sage androsemary are more stimulating (18).

The spice market offers many different types of products, from whole spices to ex-tractives that gives a variety of tastes, from spicy heat to aromatic, savory, or bitter. By us-ing the imagination, spices can add distinctive touches to food, whether it is to perk up theflavor, add textural contrast, or carry out an ethnic theme. Just as they were once treasuredas much as gold, spices still hold value in the eyes of a food technologist or compoundspecialist.

XIV. SUMMARY

Spices are incorporated into meat products to add or enhance flavor and to ultimatelyachieve a desired level of flavor. Spices impart varying levels of flavors and tastes to meats.

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A meat seasoning must be compounded in such a way as to potentiate the natural flavor ofthe meat in which it is to be incorporated. It should not be overwhelming or diminish theproduct’s flavor but “balance” the product with a blended, well-rounded flavor with no per-ceptible, undesirable aftertaste. Proper spice selection can make the difference between asuccessful meat product, either new to the marketplace or existing, and an unsuccessfulone. The quality of the meat incorporated into a meat item can be of the highest available,but if the blend is not seasoned properly, the quality of the meat used becomes less of animportant factor. This chapter has briefly touched the surface of the overwhelmingly largetopic of spices and their usage in meats. It is to be used more as a basic guideline to assistthe processed meat formulator, or those working in the area of product development ofmeat items, meat seasoning blends, or other related areas. This chapter provides a brief his-tory of spices, a general discussion of spices, a detailed listing of standard cleaning proce-dures relating to spices, and so forth that pertain to the vast world of spices.

REFERENCES

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pany, 1985.4. Farrell K.T. Spices, Condiments, and Seasonings. 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold

Company 1990.5. Federal Register. 1999. Food Safety and Inspection Service. 9 CFR Parts 381 and 424. Vol. 64,

No. 246.6. Glazer, M. 1989. “A Flavor Odyssey”, Food Technology, Vol. 43, No. 7.7. Hirasa, K., et al. Spice Science & Technology, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998.8. Hollo, J., E. Kurucz, and J. Bodor. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2:19, 1969.9. Lewis, Y.S. Spices and Herbs for the Food Industry. Orpington, England: Food Trade Press,

1984.10. Mori, K., Y. Yomamoto, and S. Komai. Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi 21:466, 1974.11. Price, J.F., and B.S. Schweigert. The Science of Meat and Meat Products. 3rd ed. Westport,

Conn:. Food & Nutrition Press, Inc, 1987.12. Proctor, B.E., S.A. Goldblith, and H. Fram. Effect of supervoltage cathode rays on bacterial

flora of spices and other dry food materials. Food Res 15:440, 1950.13. Pruthi, J.S. Spices and Condiments: Chemistry, Microbiology, Technology. New York: Aca-

demic Press, 1980.14. Risch, S.J., and C.T. Ho. 1997. Spices Flavor Chemistry and Antioxidant Properties. American

Chemical Society. Washington, D. C.15. Romans, J.R., W.J. Costello, C.W. Carlson, M.L. Greaser, and K.W. Jones. Romans. The Meat

We Eat. Danville, Ill: Interstate Publishers, Inc. 1994.16. Rosengarten, F. The Book of Spices. Wynnewood, PA: Livingston Publishing Company, 1969.17. Tainter, D.R., and A.T. Grenis. Spices and Seasonings A Food and Technology Handbook.

New York: VCH Publishers Inc, 1993.18. Underriner, E.W., and I.R. Hume. Handbook of Industrial Seasonings. Bishopbriggs, Glasgow:

Blackie Academic & Professional, 1994.19. Urbain, W.M. Food Irradiation. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, Inc. 1986.20. White, J.D. Standard aeration for gas sterilized plastics. J Hygiene Cambridge 79, 225–232,

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