Divine Names and Epithets

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UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology

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Title:

Epithets, Divine

Author:

Budde, Dagmar, University of Mainz

Publication Date:

2011

Series:

UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology

Publication Info:

UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, UCLos Angeles

Permalink:

http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9ct397mm

Additional Info:

Budde, Dagmar, 2011, Epithets, Divine. In Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLAEncyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles.

Keywords:

epithet, name, title, hymn, aretalogy, litany, antonomasia

Local Identifier:

nelc_uee_7979

Abstract:

The almost infinite number of epithets applied to Egyptian deities attests to the complex anddiverse nature of Egyptian gods. In general, epithets outline a deitys character, describe his/herphysical appearance and attributes, and give information about the cult. Epithets immediatelyfollow the deitys name and can be made up of several distinct components. In hymns and ritualscenes, epithets often occur in long strings. It is useful to distinguish between epithets that identifya unique aspect of a deitys personality (personal epithets) and epithets that refer to a particularsituation or activity (situational epithets); in the latter case, the epithet can be applied to multiple

deities.Supporting material:

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EPITHETS,DIVINE

Dagmar Budde

EDITORS

WILLEKEWENDRICHEditor-in-Chief

University of California, Los Angeles

JACCO DIELEMANEditor

Area Editor ReligionUniversity of California, Los Angeles

ELIZABETH FROODEditor

University of Oxford

JOHN BAINESSenior Editorial Consultant

University of Oxford

Short Citation:Budde, 2011, Epithets, Divine. UEE.

Full Citation:Budde, Dagmar, 2011, Epithets, Divine. In Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA

Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles.http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0028t1z4

1038 Version 1, July 2011http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0028t1z4


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Epithets, Divine, Budde, UEE 2011 1

EPITHETS,DIVINE

Dagmar Budde

Gtterbeinamen/Gtterepithetapithtes divinesThe almost infinite number of epithets applied to Egyptian deities attests to the complex anddiverse nature of Egyptian gods. In general, epithets outline a deitys character, describe his/herphysical appearance and attributes, and give information about the cult. Epithets immediatelyfollow the deitys name and can be made up of several distinct components. In hymns and ritualscenes, epithets often occur in long strings. It is useful to distinguish between epithets that identify aunique aspect of a deitys personality (personal epithets) and epithets that refer to a particularsituation or activity (situational epithets); in the latter case, the epithet can be applied tomultiple deities.

.

.

n addition to their proper name(rn), Egyptian deities carriedepithets that give information

about their nature, forms of manifestation,and spheres of influence, as well asgenealogical relations and connections withparticular locations. In most cases, epithetsimmediately followed the name. In the courseof time, particularly in the Ptolemaic andRoman Periods, they grew in complexity.Their length and meaning varied according tocontext and text medium.

Whereas a name was normally associatedwith one deity only, epithets could betransferred to other deities (Hornung 2005:89) and occasionally even become

autonomous. This principle (Antonomasia, seebelow) allowed for the creation of new deities.Personal epithets (for definition, see below)could be combined with names and titles intoa titulary (nxbt, rn-wr; Kuhlmann 1977b). Likethe royal titulary, names and epithets of godswere occasionally written in cartouches. Thiswas often the case with Isis, the Gods mother(mwt-nTr), Osiris-Onnophris (Wnn-nfrw mAa-xrw; fig. 1, cols. 13 and 14), and Horus Whodecides the battle of the Two Lands (wpj-Sat-tAwj).

I

The location of the inscription, a deitysposition and function within the pantheon,and the situational context were crucial factorsin the formation of epithets.


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Classification

The numerous epithets of Egyptian deitiesencompass in principle the following threedomains (see Kuhlmann 1977a): 1) nature andfunction, 2) iconography (physicalcharacteristics, posture, and attributes), and 3)provenance and local worship; to which canbe added the following subdomains: 4)genealogy, 5) status and age, and 6) myths andcosmogonies.

1. Nature and function. A deitys nature canbe expressed in his/her name, e.g., Amun

Figure 1. Names and epithets are here arranged in long lists, together forming a morning hymn that wasrecited to wake the gods in the temple at daybreak. Inner sanctuary, temple of Hathor in Dendera.

(the hidden/secret one), Khons (thetraveler), Sakhmet (the mighty one), butepithets usually give more information abouthis/her character and spheres of influence. In

the formation of epithets, an ideal image ofhumans was partly projected onto the worldof the gods (Otto 1964: 39). Epithets cantherefore refer to human traits like wisdom,friendliness, honesty, and a sense of justice.Further themes are the ability to changeshapes, to regenerate, and to create, as well asphysical strength and weaknesses, freedom ofmovement, and the closeness to humans


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(Otto 1964: 11 - 40). This is illustrated by thefollowing examples: as sun god, Ra is theLord of rays (nb-HDDwt); in his role of moondeity, Khons appears as he Who repeats

rejuvenation (wHm-rnp). Osiris, the dying andeternally reborn god, was worshipped asLord of life (nb-anx), Weary of heart (wrD-

jb), and Who wakes up complete (rs-wDA), aswell as Master of the course of time (nb-nHH,HqA-Dt). Due to her intelligence, Isis is Greatof magic (wrt-HkAw) and all-knowing,Without whose consent no king ascends thethrone (nj-aHa-Hr-nst-m-xmt.s). Horus, thefalcon deity and son of Isis and Osiris, is theLord of the sky (nb-pt), dappled of plumage,who appears from the horizon (sAb-Swt-pr-m-Axt; fig. 1, col. 3), Beautiful of face, whoshines in the morning and brightens the skyand earth at his rising (nfr-Hr psD-m-Dt.f sHD-pt-tA-m-wbn.f; fig. 2). Thoth is the Judge (wp),Who does not accept bribes (bXn-Snw) andWho separates the Two Contestants (wp-rHwj); the latter refers to Horus and Seth asthey fight over who will succeed Osiris inoffice. Foremost, Amun dispenses the breathof life (dj-TAw), but he is also a deity wholikethe sun god or Hathor and Maathearsprayers (sDm(t)-sprw/snmHw) and thus servesas a contact for humans.

Epithets generally describe deities in apositive light. Gods act in accordance withmaat, are hence Lord or Lady of Maat (nb(t)-

MAat), overcome chaos and enemies (dr-jsft/sbjw/xftjw), loathe lies (bwt.sn-grg), andeveryone rejoices at their sight (Haa-Hr-nb-n-mAA.f/.s). However, Seth is an example of hownegative traits can also be expressed. Thishappens, for instance, when Seth is calledunsuccessful (wh or wh-sp.f).

2. Iconography (physical characteristics,

posture, and attributes). The outer appearanceof Hathor is addressed in her epithet Whoseeyes are festively painted(sHbt-mnDtj), whilefor child deities, especially in the RomanPeriod, the epithet With a beautiful sidelock (nfr/an-dbnt) is characteristic (Cauville,Dendara XIII: 193, 7; 222, 12; and 54, 8; 217,1). Posture is addressed in epithets like Withextended arm (fAj-a, awt-a), which are

Figure 2. Names and epithets often served aslabels to deities in wall scenes, thus identifying thegod depicted here as Horus of Edfu. Romanmammisi in Dendera.

characteristic for Amun-Min, who is depictedwith a raised arm, and for the vulture goddessNekhbet, who extends her wing in protection.Amun-Min is also Tall of two plumes (qA-Swtj), a reference to his double-plumed crown(Budde 2002). Amun-Mins epithet Whoboasts of his perfection (ab-m-nfrw.f)demonstrates that the transition betweendomains 1 and 2 can be fluid. It refers on theone hand to the ithyphallic representations ofthe deity, but on the other hand also to hisfertility and potency traits.

3. Origin and local worship. Epithets thatestablish a connection with a cult site usuallyconsist of two parts and are constructed withLord/Mistress (of) (nb/t), Ruler (of)(HqA/t), Foremost (of) (xntj/t), or Dwellingin (Hrj/t-jb) followed by the name of alocation. The formulations Hrj/t-jb and xntj/tgenerally signal that the deity is the recipientof a local guest cult, whereas nb/t is reserved


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for the main deity of the area (Kurth 1983:182 - 183).

4. Genealogy. Epithets can also refer tokinship relations. This is most often expressed

in a genitival construction with the wordsFather (of) (jtj), Mother (of) (mwt), Son,Daughter (of) (zA/t), Brother, Sister (of)(sn/t), Child (of) (nxn, Hwn, xj, Xrd, sfj, etc.),and Heir (of) (jwaw) followed by the deitysname or characteristic epithets.

5. Status and age. With adjectives likegreat, small, and first (wr/t, aA/t, nDs/t,Srj/t, tpj/t), epithets can indicate the status of adeity or his/her position within a hierarchy.Many label the deity as unique (wa/t), othersdistinguish the deity with formulations such asWhose like does not exist (among the gods)(jwtj-sn.nw.f/.s, jwtj-mjtt.f/.s, n-wnn-mjtt.f, nn-Hr-xw.s-m-nTrw) and Beyond whom nobodyexists (jwtj-mAA-Hrj-tp.f/.s), or establish arelationship with a comparative constructionlike Who is greater than all other gods (wr-r-nTrw-nbw; for the principles and possibilities ofthese formations, see Otto 1964: 11 - 14).Expressions referring to age such as Smallchild (Xrd-nxn) and Eldest one (jAw/smsw)also belong in this category.

6. Myths and cosmogonies. Phrasesconstructed with the lemma SAa (to begin)designate creator gods and label the deity asprimeval (Budde 2010). Others refer to myths(e.g., Eye of Ra, jrt-Ra) and cosmogonies(Who creates sky, earth, water, andmountains, jr-pt-tA-mw-Dww) and can furtherbe of a very general nature when theycharacterize the deity as Great god (nTr/t-Aa/t, nTr/t-wr/t), Beneficent god (nTr/t-mnx/t),or Noble god (nTr/t-Sps/t).

Formation Principles

Various principles were applied in theformation of epithets. In most cases, epithetsconsist of two parts. Most common are twonouns in a genitive construction such asLord of the sky (nbt-pt) or Mistress of allgods (Hnwt-ntrw-nbw). Other constructionsinclude noun with adjective (e.g., Greatgoddess, nTrt-aAt, Great sovereign, jtj-wr,

Perfect youth, Hwn-nfr), participle withdirect object (e.g., Who breastfeeds her son,

pnqt-zA.s, Who strikes the foreign lands, Hw-xAswt), and adjective with object (e.g., Who

has great strength, wr-pHtj).In comparison, epithets were rarely

construed with definite articles like, forexample, The child (pA-Xrd) as a designationof several child deities or The menit(necklace) (tA-mnjt) as an epithet of Hathor.Sporadically, demonstrative pronouns occur,most often for Horus and Seth, who can bedesignated as This one (pn) and That one,respectively (pf; Leitz 2002, Vol. 2: 36).

Occurrence and Sources

Epithets can be found in almost all textgenres, in particular in the religious textcorpora such as the Pyramid Texts, CoffinTexts, the Book of the Dead, the underworldbooks, but also in literary texts, on funeraryobjects (e.g., stelae, sarcophagi, and coffins),in administrative documents (e.g., inventorylists), legal documents, correspondence, aspart of priestly titles and proper names, etc.On stelae, tomb and temple walls, and inpapyri, hymns (Assmann 1980a, 1999;Kockelmann 2008; abkar 1988), cult songs

(fig. 1; Assmann 1980b; Rter 2009), litaniesor lists of deities (e.g., see Assmann 1980c;Daumas 1987: 26 - 32; Faulkner 1958),aretalogies (e.g., Isis aretalogies, most recentlyQuack 2003; see also Assmann 1975), andmythological texts offer a comprehensivecharacterization of the addressed deities(Hornung 2005: 85 - 89).

In the temples, ritual scenes on the wallsprovided ample room for new, occasionallyvery long formations and combinations. Inparticular in the elaborate formulae of the

ritual scenes of the Egyptian temples of thePtolemaic and Roman Periods, the redactorsdevised chains of epithets, which, following atrend in contemporary royal titularies,increased successively in length and variety.The designation aSA/t-rnw, She/He withmany names, which was associatedparticularly with Amun, Ra, Osiris, and othercreator deities since the New Kingdom (Leitz


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2002, Vol. 2: 217 - 218, 225), reflects theiralmost inexhaustible diversity. In Greek texts,this epithet occurs with Isis as Isis PolyonymeorIsis Myrionyme (Bricault 1994). Other epithets

of Egyptian deities were also Grecized, themost famous beingTrismegistos, Thrice-great(aA-aA-aA), specific to Thoth (Leitz 2002, Vol. 2:15 - 16), andNepheros, He with perfect face(nfr-Hr), characteristic for Ptah or Osiris (Leitz2002, Vol. 4: 214 - 217; Quaegebeur 1982)and occasionally Horus (fig. 2).

Personal and Situational Epithets

In addition to the categories listed above,there exists a distinction between epithets thatexpress the unique personality of the deity

irrespective of context or medium, in otherwords, that establish the deitys identity(Kurth 1983: 188), and those that refer to theimmediate context. The latter occurs primarilyin ritual scenes in which the deity adopts ascene-specific role. Dieter Kurth has coinedsuch epithets personal and situationalepithets, respectively (1983: 185 - 186, 195ff.).

Situational epithets are often ad hocformations, which could yet develop intoformulaic sequences of epithets, for example,in a scene with Hathor in which she is offered

a menu-jar with an intoxicating beverage(Cauville 2002a: 70 - 80; Sternberg-el Hotabi1992): Hathor, the Great, Lady of Dendera,Eye of Ra, Lady of the sky, Ruler of all gods,Lady of the Two Lands, Lady of bread, whobrews beer, Lady of dance, Ruler of the jba-dance, Lady of drunkenness, Lady ofjubilating, Lady of making music, Lady ofjubilation, Ruler of joy (Chassinat 1934, Vol.2: 176, 2 - 3). In this case, the personalepithets end with Ruler of all gods and arefollowed by the situational epithets. The same

happens in a scene in the Roman Periodmammisi in Dendera in which emperor Trajansymbolically offers the horizon to Hathor ofDendera and Horus of Edfu (Daumas 1959:252 - 253). Following a listing of her personalepithets, the goddess is called here Powerfulone, Daughter of Atum, Rait in the sky, Rulerof the stars, who rises in gold together withhim who shines in gold (wcrt sAt-Itmw Rat-m-

Figure 3. Names and epithets identifying thegoddess depicted here as Hathor of Dendera.Roman mammisi in Dendera.

nnt HqAt-xAbAswwbnt-m-nbw-Hna-psD-m-nbw; fig.

3).In ritual scenes, the possibilities are nearly

unlimited; multiple relations to the subjectmatter of the scenes and the offering itemsare established in the epithets. The deity isoftentimes called their possessor (nb/t, jtj/t,HqA/t, Hnwt), conceiver (SAa), distributor (rdj/t,sSm/t), etc.

Personal epithets tend to follow the nameimmediately in apposition, are often ofancient origin, and remain basically

unchanged in their structure and predication,as the nature of deities changed little overtime even if their sphere of influence could beextended. Examples are Anubis, who as godof the necropolis always carried the epithetLord of the sacred land (nb-tA-Dsr; Leitz2002, Vol. 3: 774 - 776), and Seshat (resp.Sefekhet-abui), who in her role of architect oftomb and temples is called Lady of the


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builders (nbt-qdw) already in the PyramidTexts (Budde 2000: 293).

Spelling Conventions

In their hieroglyphic spellings, personalepithets were subject to developments in thehieroglyphic writing system. Hence new waysof writing the names and epithets of deitiesevolved, particularly in the Ptolemaic andRoman Periods, when the iconic nature ofhieroglyphic signs began to be truly exploited;this allowed for visual and phonetic punningin the spelling of words, adding an extra layerof meaning to the linguistic message (Cauville2002b; Kurth 2007 - 2008; Sauneron 1982).

Important epithets could also be written as

monograms, the signs of which could thenbecome part of the iconographic repertoire oftemple decoration. The epithet sequenceDappled of plumage, who appears from thehorizon (sAb-Swt-pr-m-Axt), which is typicalfor Horus-the-Behdetite, occurs both as a

single hieroglyph in texts ( or ) andin large format on temple walls (fig. 4;

Figure 4. Names and epithets could be integrated with wall decoration as is done here with name andpersonal epithets of Horus of Edfu. Door lintel, main temple of Edfu.

Figure 5. Names and epithets could be written cryptographically for visual effect as is done here with thename and ersonal e ithets of Hathor of Dendera. Dendera main tem le.

Chassinat 1929: pl. 74). Moreover, in the lattercase the falcon god, the child god, and thegoddesses Hathor and Isis incorporate thenames and personal epithets of Horus-the-Behdetite (Great god, Lord of the sky, nTr-aAnb-pt). The example illustrates that knowledgeof mythological connections is oftendemanded for the reading and correctunderstanding. This is also required when theappellation Eye of Ra (jrt-Ra) is written witha seated falcon god holding a wedjat-eye onhis lap (fig. 5, seventh deity from the right;Cauville 1990: 87, 88). Similarly subtle writingsof god names have been discussed by Junker(1903) and more recently Cauville (2002a: 100,126 - 127).

AntonomasiaA phenomenon of late texts is the use ofepithets as autonomous names (antonomasia;Traunecker 1997: 171 - 173; Willems et al.2003: 14 - 18; cf. Guglielmi 1986). This led tothe creation of new, independent, usuallylocally worshipped deities, as in the Thebanregion in the temples in El-Qala and Shenhur,


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where The great goddess (tA-nTrt-aAt) andThe lady of joy (nbt-jhj) were worshipped as

manifestations of Isis and Nephthys.

Bibliographic NotesWith the publication of reference works, monographs, and text editions, the overwhelmingabundance of divine epithets has become more accessible for study. However, a comprehensiveanalysis of their structures, formation principles, and functions remains to be written. The as-of-yet single, large general study and classification of divine epithets is by Eberhard Otto (1964: esp.1 - 40), who added a list of epithets to his study (Otto 1964: 95 - 163). The Lexikon der gyptischenGtter und Gtterbezeichnungen(7 volumes; Leitz 2002) provides the largest source collection to datewith about 56,500 entries. An index volume with the epithets organized by major deitiescompletes this reference work (Leitz 2003). Specialized epithets, e.g., those of Thoth, havereceived detailed studies (Derchain-Urtel 1981). Monographs or studies about individual deitiesare often provided with indices, enabling a survey of the deitys epithets (Boylan 1922: 180 - 200,

213 - 124; Budde 2000: 281 - 326, 2003: 89 - 93; Guglielmi 1991: 319; Sandri 2006: 292 - 306;Schumacher 1988: 311 - 321; Zecchi 1996). This is also the case with recent text editions and theirphilological commentaries (Cauville 1997, 1998, 1999a, 1999b, 2000a, 2000b, 2001; Christophe1955: 33 - 66 and 73 - 84; de Wit 1962: 4 - 16; du Bourguet 2002: 195 - 257; Jasnow and Zauzich2005: 538 - 539; Kurth 1998, 2004; Thiers 2003: 362 - 388; Willems et al. 2003: 145 - 148). For thereferences to the epithets cited in this article, see the respective entries in Leitz (2002).

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Image CreditsFigure 1. Names and epithets are here arranged in long lists, together forming a morning hymn that was

recited to wake the gods in the temple at daybreak. Inner sanctuary, temple of Hathor in

Dendera. (After Chassinat 1934, Vol. 1: 4.)Figure 2. Names and epithets often served as labels to deities in wall scenes, thus identifying the god

depicted here as Horus of Edfu. Roman mammisi in Dendera. Photograph by UrsulaVerhoeven.

Figure 3. Names and epithets identifying the goddess depicted here as Hathor of Dendera. Romanmammisi in Dendera. Photograph by Ursula Verhoeven.

Figure 4. Names and epithets could be integrated with wall decoration as is done here with name andpersonal epithets of Horus of Edfu. Door lintel, main temple of Edfu. (After Chassinat 1929:pl. 74.)

Figure 5. Names and epithets could be written cryptographically for visual effect as is done here with thename and personal epithets of Hathor of Dendera. Dendera main temple. Photograph byDagmar Budde.

Divine Names and Epithets

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