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Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 1
Title:
The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer Motivation
Stephen G. Fogarty
Alphacrucis College, Sydney Australia
Key Words:
volunteer motivation, self-determination theory, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic
motivation, nonprofit leadership, church leadership, transactional leadership,
transformational leadership, trust, value congruence
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 2
Abstract:
This study examines the impact of organizational leadership on volunteer
motivation in nonprofit organizations by exploring (a) the impact of the
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on
volunteer motivation within church congregations and (b) the mediating effects of
volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor on this relationship.
Volunteer motivation is conceptualized using self-determination theory, which
posits that people are motivated to satisfy their innate psychological needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness and connects these needs to levels of
motivation from extrinsic to intrinsic. The leadership behaviors of senior pastors
are conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership theory
which employs the behavior categories of contingent reward, active and passive
management by exception, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized consideration. A sample of 790 volunteers attending
28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) rated the leadership behaviors of
their senior pastor as well as their own motivation and their trust in and value
congruence with the senior pastor. Regression analyses indicated that senior
pastors’ transactional leadership behaviors predicted volunteers’ extrinsic
motivation and that transformational leadership behaviors predicted intrinsic
motivation. In addition, volunteers’ trust in and value congruence with senior
pastors partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and
intrinsic motivation. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are
presented and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 3
Introduction
Senior pastors of church congregations have a highly visible leadership role. They
usually rely upon their ability to articulate a value-based vision and to model
appropriate behaviors to motivate the members of their congregation to voluntary
service. How can senior pastors motivate volunteers to higher levels of
commitment and performance? This question focuses on the practical importance
of leadership within nonprofit organizations.
Given the practical importance of this topic, relatively few studies have explored
organizational leadership behavior and outcomes within church congregations or
other volunteer settings (Bae, 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and
Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996; Catano, et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully,
2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007; Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark,
1996; Lichtman and Malony, 1990; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008; Rowold and
Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and none of these studies has focused on the
relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. The present
study aimed at extending our understanding of the impact of organizational
leadership behavior on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations. More
specifically, the impact of the transactional and transformational leadership
behavior of senior pastors on the motivation of volunteers in church congregations
was investigated. Since previous studies have found that follower trust in and value
congruence with a leader may increase their responsiveness to the leader (Jung and
Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al., 1990; Shamir, et al., 1993), this study also
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 4
investigated the mediating impact of these variables on the effects of leadership on
volunteer motivation.
Volunteer Motivation
Volunteers are individuals who provide unpaid help in an organized manner to
parties with regard to whom the volunteer has no obligations (Millette and Gagné,
2008; Snyder and Omoto, 2004; Wilson and Janoski, 1995). Volunteers are eagerly
sought after because they add value to organizations and endeavors (Wilson and
Musick, 1997), and are typically employed in nonprofit organizations including
churches and charities (Phillips and Phillips, 2010, 2011). Because volunteers do
not receive direct personal tangible gains such as a salary, nonprofit organizations
must find other ways to motivate volunteers to work well and to continue in
volunteer activity, and by doing so retain the knowledge and skill resources of the
organization (Millette and Gagné, 2008). Maintaining volunteer motivation at
levels that result in sustained and productive voluntary service is critical to the
effectiveness of nonprofit organizations in fulfilling their stated missions.
Volunteer motivation is conceptualized using self-determination theory (Deci and
Ryan, 2000, 2008), which posits that people are motivated to satisfy their innate
psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers
to the desire to control one’s own behavior and activities in order to experience
personal integration and freedom. Competence is one’s propensity to be effective in
dealing with the environment while attaining valued outcomes within it.
Relatedness refers to one’s desire to be connected to others. According to Deci and
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 5
Ryan, the satisfaction of all three of these needs is “essential for ongoing
psychological growth, integrity, and well-being” (2000, p. 229).
Self-determination theory connects the needs for autonomy, competence, and
relatedness to levels of motivation, from extrinsic to intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation
refers to engaging in an activity for instrumental reasons, such as acquiring a
reward or avoiding a penalty, where the primary motivators are external to the
volunteer. By contrast, intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for its
own sake, because one finds it enjoyable and interesting, where the primary
motivators are internal to the volunteer as s/he seeks to fulfill the needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Extrinsic motivation has been
demonstrated to predict lower quality task performance and shorter volunteer
tenure whereas intrinsic motivation predicts higher quality task performance and
longer volunteer tenure (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Millette and Gagné, 2008).
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors
Millette and Gagné (2008) have suggested that supervisory style is likely to be an
important factor impacting the level of volunteer motivation. Transactional and
transformational leadership behaviors have been identified as appropriate and
effective components of supervisory style within nonprofit organizations (Bae;
2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996;
Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007;
Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;
Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003). Therefore, the leadership behavior of
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 6
senior pastors is conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership
theory.
Transactional leadership involves a reciprocal process of exchange between leader
and followers (Bass, 1985; Riggio et al., 2004). It is defined in terms of three inter-
related behaviors: (a) contingent reward, (b) active management by exception, and
(c) passive management by exception (Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Contingent
reward implies the provision of an adequate exchange of valued resources for
follower support (Judge and Bono, 2000). Active management by exception
involves monitoring performance and taking corrective action. Passive
management by exception means intervening only when problems become serious.
Both active and passive management by exception involve enforcing rules to avoid
mistakes (Judge and Bono, 2000). The impact of transactional leadership behaviors
on volunteer workers will be to provide them with a clear understanding of their
tasks and the desired outcomes, to create in them an expectation of the rewards for
achievement, and to assist them in improving their performance.
Transformational leadership “transcends transactional leadership because it is built
around the notion that leaders and followers are held together by some higher-level,
shared goal or mission, rather than because of some personal transaction” (Riggio
et al., 2004, p. 51). It involves a reciprocal process of inspiration between leader
and followers which results in both performing beyond expected levels of
commitment and contribution, and which is based on the leader developing
“positive, rich, emotional relationships with followers that build commitment to a
common purpose or cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 50). Transformational leadership
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 7
is defined in terms of four interrelated behaviors: (a) idealized influence, (b)
inspirational motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (4) individualized
consideration (Riggio et al., 2004; Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Idealized influence
involves leaders serving as idealized role models for followers (Avolio and Bass,
2004; Judge and Bono, 2000; Riggio et al., 2004). Inspirational motivation
“arouses followers’ enthusiasm and sense of team spirit” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 51)
as the leader provides followers with a clear vision of the organization’s future, the
value of high standards of operation, and a sense of meaningfulness in their work
(Avolio and Bass, 2004). Intellectual stimulation involves leaders encouraging
followers to be innovators and creative problem solvers (Avolio and Bass, 2004;
Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Individualized consideration involves the leader’s
attention to the unique gifts and talents of each follower and the leader’s ability to
coach or mentor followers with challenges and opportunities that suit each
individual (Avolio, et al., 1999; Bass, 1985; Yammarino and Bass, 1990;
Yammarino, et al., 1993).
Overall, transformational leadership theory encapsulates a “sense of moral good
and a passionate commitment to the cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 52) that is
essential for leadership in nonprofit organizations which are mission-driven and
which rely on the motivation and performance of volunteers to achieve the
organizational mission. The impact of transformational leadership behaviors on
volunteer workers will be to augment the effect of transactional leadership
behaviors by providing volunteers with vision and values to motivate them to
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 8
continue in voluntary activity at high levels of volition and quality performance
(Bass, 1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004).
Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Motivation
Linking the two literatures of self-determination theory and transactional and
transformational leadership theory is the observation that the augmentation effect of
transformational leadership on the effectiveness of transactional leadership is likely
to be related to volunteers’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Transactional
leadership behaviors are likely to produce extrinsic motivation in volunteers as they
are motivated to attain contingent rewards such as personal recognition or standing
within the organization. Transformational leadership behaviors are likely to
produce intrinsic motivation as volunteers are motivated by identification with and
commitment to the mission of the organization. This personal identification and
commitment is internally driven and volunteers are likely to sense that they are
satisfying the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. A leader’s exercise
of transformational behaviors will augment the impact of his or her use of
transactional behaviors by stimulating volunteer intrinsic motivation and producing
more sustained and higher quality task performance.
Trust and Value Congruence
The effective exercise of leadership is based upon leader–follower relationships
that incorporate followers’ trust in and value congruence with the leader (Yukl,
2006). Trust in a leader is “faith in and loyalty to the leader” (Podsakoff et al.,
1990, p. 113). Value congruence with a leader is belief that the follower’s personal
values are congruent with and aligned with those of the leader (Posner, 2010). Both
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 9
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors can inspire trust and value
congruence in followers.
Transactional leaders build followers’ trust by engaging in consistent behavior and
by honoring agreements (Bass, 1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al.,
1990). They stimulate followers’ value congruence by identifying mutual
aspirations and acknowledging followers’ expertise, experience, and education
(Jung and Avolio, 2000). Transactional leadership behaviors generate followers’
trust in and value congruence with the leader in relation to the nature of the
organization, the task and outcomes required for efficient organizational operation,
and the attendant contingent rewards. Jung and Avolio referred to such trust and
value congruence as being “conditional” because they are established “through a
reliable execution of contracts and exchanges” (p. 952). The trust and value
congruence inspired in followers by a leader’s exercise of transactional leadership
behaviors suffices to ensure a cooperative working relationship and the successful
completion of the necessary tasks. It does not necessarily “change followers’
personal values” nor “develop a deep sense of trust and commitment to the leader”
(Jung and Avolio, 2000, p. 951). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors
by senior pastors is likely to establish and maintain volunteers’ trust in the
competence and fairness of the senior pastor and volunteers’ value congruence with
the practices and desired outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value
congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional
leadership behaviors on volunteers’ extrinsic motivation.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 10
Transformational leaders increase followers’ trust levels by developing their skills
and confidence to perform tasks and assume responsibility, by providing support
and encouragement when necessary in the face of obstacles, difficulties, and
fatigue, and through their own role modeling of desirable behavior and willingness
to engage in sacrifice in order to achieve the organizational vision (Bass and
Avolio, 1990; Yukl, 2006). They influence followers to adopt and internalize the
leader’s values and vision by providing and communicating a desirable vision and
by raising followers’ level of awareness about the importance and value of desired
outcomes (Avolio and Bass, 1988; Jung and Avolio, 2000). Jung and Avolio (2000)
point out that “value congruence achieved through a value internalization process
and demonstrated trust in the leader,” are core mediating aspects of
transformational leadership (p. 950). The practice of transformational leadership
behaviors by senior pastors is likely to increase volunteers’ trust in the character
and competence of the senior pastor and to produce change in volunteers’ values
and to increase their value congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust
and value congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s
transformational leadership behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation.
Study Model
The model presented in Figure 1 is based on self-determination theory (Deci and
Ryan, 2000, 2008) and transactional and transformational leadership theory (Avolio
and Bass, 2004; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 1985, 1998) and incorporates the
mediating variables of volunteer trust (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Jung and Avolio,
2000; Onnen, 1987; Podsakoff et al., 1990) and value congruence (Burns, 1978;
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 11
Jung and Avolio, 2000). The model emphasizes the relationship between the
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors and the
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The independent variable is
the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors, and
the dependent variable is volunteer motivation. The relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable can be direct or mediated by
volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior pastor.
Figure 1: A model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.
Transactional Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation
Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transactional
leadership behaviors are likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their
Senior pastor transactional leadership
behaviors
Volunteer extrinsic motivation
Volunteer trust in senior pastor
Volunteer value congruence with
senior pastor
Senior pastor transformational
leadership behaviors
Volunteer intrinsic motivation
Volunteer trust in senior pastor
Volunteer value congruence with
senior pastor
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 12
leadership (Druskat, 1994) and to rate them as effective leaders (Butler and
Herman, 1999). Transactional leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers
towards the achievement of desired organizational outcomes (Son, 2003). In the
context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of transactional
leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers clearly understanding their task
descriptions and the desired outcomes for the church that result from the
performance of these tasks. Volunteers will perform their tasks so as to achieve the
expressed expectations of the senior pastor and to receive the associated contingent
rewards including personal recognition and standing within the church. Therefore,
the practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to
reinforce the extrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:
H1: The transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more strongly
related to volunteer extrinsic motivation than will transformational leadership
behaviors.
Trust and Value Congruence
Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader are likely to have a mediating
effect on the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on their performance
(Jung and Avolio, 2000). The leader’s clear specification of tasks, performance
expectations, and contingent rewards builds follower trust in the leader (Bass,
1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000) and value congruence with the leader (Jung and
Avolio, 2000). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors
is likely to establish and maintain volunteer trust in the competence and fairness of
the senior pastor and volunteer value congruence with the practices and desired
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 13
outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value congruence is likely to mediate
the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer
extrinsic motivation. Thus:
H2: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the
impact of the transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors on
volunteer extrinsic motivation.
Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation
Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transformational
leadership behaviors are also likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their
leadership (Druskat, 1994; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008) and to rate them as
effective leaders (Onnen, 1987; Butler and Herman, 1999). Transformational
leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers towards the achievement of desired
organizational outcomes (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003) and congregational
satisfaction (Bae, 2001; Rowold, 2008). They are also likely to produce increased
volunteer morale and participation (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996), volunteer job
satisfaction (Choi, 2006; Rowold, 2008), and volunteer extra effort and
effectiveness in task performance (Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).
Transformational leadership behaviors are also likely to enhance positive emotions
including joy, pride, admiration, and enthusiasm among volunteers, and to augment
the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer satisfaction, extra
effort, and rating of leaders’ effectiveness (Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).
In the context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of
transformational leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers understanding
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 14
and identifying with the importance of the tasks they are undertaking as
contributions to the mission of the church. Volunteers will perform their tasks to a
degree beyond the expressed expectations of the senior pastor because they are
motivated by the vision and values of the church, the personal meaningfulness of
their involvement, and the sense of goal attainment and positive feelings that they
experience. Therefore, the practice of transformational leadership behaviors by
senior pastors is likely to reinforce the intrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:
H3: The transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more
strongly related to volunteer intrinsic motivation than will transactional
leadership behaviors.
Trust and Value Congruence
Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader have been demonstrated to
have a mediating effect on the impact of transformational leadership behaviors on
their performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir, et al.,
1993). The leader’s clear, attractive, and attainable vision for the organization and
demonstrated commitment to the organization and vision inspires follower trust in
and value congruence with the leader and motivates them to do more than they
originally expected to do (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Avolio and Bass, 1995; Yukl,
2006). The practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is
likely to increase volunteer trust in the character and competence of the senior
pastor and to produce change in volunteer values and to increase their value
congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust and value congruence is
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 15
likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transformational leadership
behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation. Thus:
H4: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the
impact of the transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on
volunteer intrinsic motivation.
Control Variables
In this study, it was likely that the age, gender, and length of tenure of participating
volunteers could influence their assessment of their own motivation and of the
senior pastor’s leadership. It was also possible that the length of tenure of the senior
pastor could influence his or her exercise of leadership behaviors. Also, links
between senior pastors’ leadership behaviors and congregational size have been
demonstrated (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003). Therefore, the study
incorporated the control variables of age, gender, and length of tenure of the
volunteer participant, length of tenure of the senior pastor, and congregational size.
Sample and Procedure
Sample
The sample for this study was drawn from volunteers attending and participating in
28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) congregations in Australia. The
sample consisted of 790 subjects who served in a voluntary capacity within their
congregation and who rated the leadership behaviors of their senior pastor. The
selection of 28 different ACC congregations was designed to provide responses
from volunteers within each of five congregational size categories that ACC
recognizes. ACC, also known as the Assemblies of God in Australia, is a
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 16
fellowship of autonomous churches which had 1,087 registered churches
throughout Australia as of May 17, 2010 (ACC, 2010). The 28 congregations
represent 2.6% of the total number of ACC congregations. ACC conducts an
annual census of all congregations in May. The census collects data on various
church activities, including weekend attendance which is measured as the total
number of attendees at all services from Friday evening to Sunday evening on one
weekend in May each year. ACC categorizes congregational sizes into five
categories: (a) under 100 attendees, (b) 100-199 attendees, (c) 200-499 attendees,
(d) 500-999 attendees, and (c) 1000 and more attendees. In 2010, the average size
of an ACC congregation was 208 attendees. The majority of congregations had less
than 100 attendees. A summary of ACC attendance is displayed in Table 1.
Table 1: ACC Churches by Congregational Size
Year Under 100 100-199 200-499 500-999 1000+ Total
2005 713 162 126 37 24 10622006 734 167 135 31 26 10932007 728 187 143 33 27 11182008 757 170 144 36 26 11332009 754 168 143 36 20 11212010 699 197 125 39 27 1087Note. Adapted from ACC 2010 Church Census Report, by Australian Christian Churches National Office, 2010. Copyright 2010 Australian Christian Churches.
Congregations were approached to participate in the study on the basis that they
contributed to a representative sample of ACC congregational sizes. The 28
participating congregations together represented each of the five ACC
congregational size categories. An average of just over 28 volunteers completed the
survey in each of the 28 participating congregations resulting in a total participation
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 17
of 790 volunteers. A summary of participating congregations and volunteers is
displayed in Table 2.
Table 2: Participating Congregations and Volunteers by Congregational Size
Congregation VolunteersSize n % n %Under 100 8 28.6 127 16.1100-199 6 21.4 129 16.3200-499 6 21.4 185 23.4500-999 4 14.3 198 25.11000+ 4 14.3 151 19.1Total 28 100.0 790 100.0
The sample comprised of 365 males (46.2%) and 425 females (53.8%).
Participating volunteers were well spread over five age categories (Table 3) and
most had served as volunteers in their congregation for more than 5 years (Table 4).
Table 3: Demographics—Volunteer Age Groups
Age group n %
Under 21 90 11.421-30 192 24.331-40 136 17.241-50 123 15.6Over 50 249 31.5
Table 4: Demographics—Volunteer Tenure
Tenure n %
Less than 1 year 68 8.61-5 years 253 22.0More than 5 years 469 59.4
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 18
Procedure
An initial approach was made to the senior pastors of selected potential
participating congregations explaining the study and inviting their participation.
This was followed up with an email detailing the study. As affirmative responses
were received, appointments were made for the researcher and/or research
assistants to attend a Sunday worship service or a midweek leaders meeting in
order to obtain responses from volunteers. During the worship service or leaders’
meeting, a short explanation of the study was made to those in attendance.
Congregational members who served as volunteers in the church were invited to
meet with the researcher and/or research assistants after the service or meeting in
order to participate in the study.
A Volunteer Response Pack was provided to each participating volunteer,
containing: (a) a covering letter, (b) an informed consent form, (c) a personal
demographic form, and (d) the questionnaire. The control variables of age, gender,
and length of tenure of the subject were incorporated into the demographic form.
The researcher and research assistants helped subjects to complete and submit the
survey immediately after the service or meeting.
A Senior Pastor Response Pack was provided to each participating senior pastor,
containing: (a) a covering letter; (b) an informed consent form; (c) a personal
demographic form; and (4) an adapted version of the questionnaire consisting of 32
items measuring their self-rating of their practice of transactional and
transformational leadership behaviors. The control variable of senior pastor tenure
was incorporated into and ascertained from the personal demographic form.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 19
Measures
The survey questionnaire employed 56 items for measuring the various proposed
effects. The effects measured were: (a) volunteers’ self-assessment of their
volunteer motivation, (b) volunteers’ assessment of the senior pastor’s practice of
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors, and (c) volunteers’ self-
assessment of their trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor. The 56
items consisted of 12 items adapted from Millette and Gagné (2008) to measure
volunteer extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, 32 items adapted from the Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X; Bass and Avolio, 2000) to measure volunteer
assessment of the senior pastor’s practice of transactional and transformational
leadership behaviors, 6 items adapted from Podsakoff et al. (1990) to measure
volunteer trust in the senior pastor, and 6 items adapted from Posner (1992, 2010)
and Posner et al. (1985) to measure volunteer value congruence with the senior
pastor. Control variables were volunteers’ age, gender, and length of tenure, senior
pastors’ length of tenure, and congregational size.
Volunteer Motivation
Volunteers’ assessment of their own motivation to engage in voluntary activity was
measured using an adapted form of the Volunteer Motivation scale (VMS),
developed by Millette and Gagné (2008), and consisting of 12 items loaded onto
the two scales of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation utilizing a 5-point
Likert scale: 0 (completely disagree), 1 (disagree), 2 (not sure), 3 (agree), 4
(completely agree). The reliabilities were α = .76 for extrinsic motivation and α
= .74 for intrinsic motivation.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 20
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors
Volunteers’ assessment of the senior pastor’s transactional and transformational
leadership behaviors was measured using an adapted form of the MLQ-5X Rater
Form consisting of 32 items loaded onto the two leadership scales (Avolio and
Bass, 2004) utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0 (not at all), 1 (once in a while), 2
(sometimes), 3 (fairly often), 4 (frequently, if not always). The reliabilities were α
= .68 for transactional leadership and α = .84 for transformational leadership.
Trust
Volunteer trust in the senior pastor was measured using an adapted form of the
Trust in the Leader scale (TLS), developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), consisting of
six items loaded onto the one scale utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0 (completely
disagree), 1 (disagree), 2 (not sure), 3 (agree), 4 (completely agree). The reliability
was α = .76.
Value Congruence
Volunteer value congruence with the senior pastor was measured using an adapted
form of the Values Congruency Index (VCI), developed by Posner (1992, 2010),
consisting of six items loaded onto the one scale utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0
(completely disagree), 1 (disagree), 2 (not sure), 3 (agree), 4 (completely agree).
The reliability was α = .78.
Descriptive Statistics
The mean scores and standard deviations of the independent, dependent, mediating,
and control variables and correlations among the variables are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Correlations among Study Variables (N = 790)
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Volunteer age 3.32 1.42 –2. Volunteer gender 1.54 .50 .02 –3. Volunteer tenure 2.51 .65 .19** .05 –4. Senior pastor tenure 2.52 .70 -.14** .01 .15** –5. Congregational size 3.15 1.34 -.28** -.01 .06 .53** –6. Transactional leadership 1.69 .58 .03 -.02 .00 .08** -.02 –7. Transformational leadership 3.24 .50 -.07 .03 -.06 -.10** .03 .15** –8. Trust 3.63 .46 -.04 -.01 -.03 -.10** -.03 -.01 .66** –9. Value congruence 3.62 .43 -.01 -.01 .02 -.10** -.01 -02 .61** .77** –
10. Extrinsic motivation 1.27 .78 -.06 -.07 -.03 .01 -.04 .25** .02 -.08** .09** –11. Intrinsic motivation 3.80 .67 -.06 .09* .04 .07 .14** .08** .32** .28** .30** .16*** p < .05. ** p < .01.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 22
Regression Analysis
Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted in order to test the four hypotheses.
Examination of Normal Probability Plots (P-P) and scatterplots confirmed the
normality and homoscedasticity of the regression residuals for the relationships
predicted by all four hypotheses. Examination of the Tolerance and Variance
Inflation Factor (VIF) values for each variable demonstrated the absence of
multicollinearity among the independent and control variables. Congregational size
was dummy coded to provide a series of dichotomous variables in order to measure
its impact on the relationships studied (Hair et al., 2010; Pallant, 2011).
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 was supported. The control variables were entered at Step 1,
explaining 1.3% of variance in extrinsic motivation. After entry of transactional
leadership and transformational leadership at Step 2, the total variance explained by
the model as a whole was 7.7% (F [10, 779] = 6.48, p < .001). The two independent
variables of transactional leadership and transformational leadership explained an
additional 6.4% of the variance of extrinsic motivation after controlling for the
other variables (ΔR2 = .064, ΔF [2, 779] = 26.90, p < .001). In the final model, two
variables were statistically significant, with transactional leadership recording the
higher beta value (β = .26, p < .01) and volunteer age the lower beta value (β = -.08,
p < .05). Transactional leadership predicted extrinsic motivation, but
transformational leadership did not do so. The regression analysis model summary
and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 6 and 7.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 23
Table 6: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H1 – Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership Predicting Extrinsic Motivation
Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P
1 .114a .013 .013 .2422 .277b .077 .064 .000a Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000. b Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000, transactional leadership, transformational leadership. c Dependent variable: extrinsic motivation.
Table 7: Regression Coefficients for H1 – Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership Predicting Extrinsic Motivation
Variable B SE B Β
Step 1Volunteer age -.04 .02 -.07Volunteer gender -.10 .06 -.07Volunteer tenure -.02 .04 -.02Senior pastor tenure .04 .05 .04Congregational size < 100 (omitted) – – –Congregational size 100-199 -.01 .10 .00Congregational size 200-499 -.12 .09 -.06Congregational size 500-999 -.10 .10 -.06Congregational size ≥ 1000 -.17 .11 -.09
Step 2Volunteer age -.04 .02 -.08*Volunteer gender -.09 .05 -.06Volunteer tenure -.01 .04 -.01Senior pastor tenure .00 .05 .00Congregational size < 100 (omitted) — — —Congregational size 100-199 -.02 .10 -.01Congregational size 200-499 -.10 .09 -.05Congregational size 500-999 -.03 .10 -.02Congregational size ≥ 1000 -.15 .11 -.08Transactional leadership .35 .05 .26**Transformational leadership -.04 .06 -.02Note. Step 1 R2 = .013; Step 2 R2 = .077.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 24
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Trust and value congruence were regressed
separately on transactional leadership to determine if it predicted either. In both
cases there was no statistically significant effect of transactional leadership. If
transactional leadership had been shown to have a statistically significant effect on
trust or value congruence, then the following step would have been to test the
mediation of trust and value congruence on the relationship between transactional
leadership and extrinsic motivation. The regression analysis model summaries and
regression coefficients are presented in Tables 8 to 11.
Table 8: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Trust
Stepb R R2 ∆R2 P
1 .001a .000 .000 .967a Predictor (constant) transactional leadership. b Dependent variable: trust.
Table 9: Regression Coefficients for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Trust
Variable B SE B Β
Step 1TRL .00 .03 .00Note. Step 1 R2 = .000.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Table 1: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Value Congruence
Stepb R R2 ∆R2 p
1 .022a .000 .000 .540
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 25
a Predictor (constant) transactional leadership. b Dependent variable: value congruence.
Table 2: Regression Coefficients for H2 – Transactional Leadership Predicting Value Congruence
Variable B SE B β
Step 1Transactional leadership -.02 .03 -.02Note. Model 1 R2 = .000.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 was supported. The control variables were entered at Step 1,
explaining 3% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of transformational
leadership and transactional leadership at Step 2, the total variance explained by the
model as a whole was 13.3% (F [10, 779] = 11.99, p < .001). The two independent
variables of transformational leadership and transactional leadership explained an
additional 10.3% of the variance of IM after controlling for the other variables (ΔR2
= .103, ΔF [2, 779] = 46.37, p < .001). In the final model, five variables were
statistically significant. Transformational leadership recorded the highest beta value
(β = .32, p < .01). The other four statistically significant variables were
congregational size 200-499 (β = .14, p < .01), congregational size ≥ 1000 (β = .13,
p < .05), congregational size 500-999 (β = .12, p < .05), and volunteer gender (β
= .08, p < .05). Transformational leadership predicted intrinsic motivation, but
transactional leadership did not do so. The regression analysis model summary and
regression coefficients are presented in Tables 12 and 13.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 26
Table 3: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H3 – Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership Predicting Intrinsic Motivation
Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P
1 .174a .030 .030 .0022 .365b .133 .103 .000a Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000. b Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000, transformational leadership, transactional leadership. Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.
Table 4: Regression Coefficients for H3 – Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership Predicting Intrinsic Motivation
Variable B SE B β
Step 1Volunteer age -.01 .02 -.03Volunteer gender .12 .05 .09**Volunteer tenure .03 .04 .03Senior pastor tenure -.01 .04 -.01Congregational size < 100 (omitted) – – –Congregational size 100-199 .06 .09 .04Congregational size 200-499 .20 .08 .13*Congregational size 500-999 .21 .09 .14*Congregational size ≥ 1000 .26 .10 .15**
Step 2Volunteer age -.01 .02 -.02Volunteer gender .11 .04 .08*Volunteer tenure .04 .04 .04Senior pastor tenure .03 .04 .04Congregational size < 100 (omitted) – – –Congregational size 100-199 .11 .08 .06Congregational size 200-499 .22 .08 .14**Congregational size 500-999 .19 .08 .12*Congregational size ≥ 1000 .23 .09 .13*Transformational leadership .43 .05 .32**Transactional leadership .04 .04 .03Note. Step 1 R2 = .030; Step 2 R2 = .133.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 27
Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 was supported. It was tested by conducting initial regression analyses
to determine if transformational leadership predicted trust or value congruence, and
then conducting further regression analyses to determine whether trust and value
congruence had mediating effects on the relation between transformational
leadership and intrinsic motivation. Control variables were not used in these
regressions.
Trust was regressed on transformational leadership to determine if transformational
leadership predicted trust. This regression explained 43.4% of the variance in trust
(ΔR2 = .434, ΔF [1, 778] = 604.39, p < .001). Transformational leadership was
statistically significant, recording a beta value of .66, p < .01. Transformational
leadership significantly predicted trust. The regression analysis model summary
and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 14 and 15.
Table 14: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4 – Transformational Leadership Predicting Trust
Stepb R R2 ∆R2 P
1 .659a .434 .434 .000a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Dependent variable: trust.
Table 15: Regression Coefficient for H4 – Transformational Leadership Predicting Trust
Variable B SE B β
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 28
Step 1Transformational leadership .61 .02 .66**Note. Step 1 R2 = .434.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
In order to test the mediating effect of trust on the relation between
transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation further regression analysis was
conducted. Transformational leadership was entered at Step 1, explaining 10.3% of
variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of trust at Step 2, the total variance
explained by the model as a whole was 11.2% (F [2, 787] = 49.60, p < .001). Trust
explained an additional 1% of the variance of implicit motivation after controlling
for transformational leadership (ΔR2 = .009, ΔF [1, 787] = 8.16, p < .01). In the
final model, transformational leadership (β = .24, p < .01) and trust (β = .13, p
< .01) were statistically significant. The change in the regression coefficient for
transformational leadership indicates the mediation of trust. Transformational
leadership had a regression coefficient of .43 (SE = .05, p < .01) at Step 1 and a
regression coefficient of .32 (SE = .06, p < .01) at Step 2.
The statistical significance of the difference between the two transformational
leadership regression coefficients (.43, .32) was tested by converting the values to a
z score using the formula: z = b1 – b2 / √ SEb1 + SEb2 (Paternoster, Brame,
Mazerolle, and Piquero, 1998). The z score is the standard normal distribution with
a mean of 0 and quantifies the score in terms of the number of standard deviations
from the mean. The result was z = .43 - .32 / √ .0462 + .0602 = 1.47. Using a 95%
confidence level (p = .05), z scores between -1.96 and +1.96 indicate the likelihood
of the null hypothesis (Pallant, 2011). The z score of t = 1.47 falls within this range
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 29
indicating that the change in the transformational leadership coefficient was not
significant although it was substantive.
Because the regression coefficient for transformational leadership was smaller after
entry of trust, but not significantly smaller, and because the betas for
transformational leadership and trust were statistically significant, then trust exerted
a partial mediation on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic
motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the effects of transformational
leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust. The regression analysis
model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 16 and 17.
Table 16: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4 – Transformational Leadership and Trust Predicting Intrinsic Motivation
Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P
1 .321a .103 .103 .0002 .335b .112 .009 .004a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Predictors (constant) transformational leadership, trust. c Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.
Table 17: Regression Coefficient for H4 – Transformational Leadership and Trust Predicting Intrinsic Motivation
Variable B SE B β
Step 1Transformational leadership .43 .05 .32**
Step 2Transformational leadership .32 .06 .24**Trust .19 .05 .13**Note. Step 1 R2 = .103; Step 2 R2 = .112.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 30
Value congruence was regressed on transformational leadership to determine if
transformational leadership predicted value congruence. This regression explained
37.4% of the variance in value congruence (ΔR2= .374, ΔF [1, 788] = 471.44, p
< .001). Transformational leadership was statistically significant, recording a beta
value of .61, p < .01. Transformational leadership significantly predicted value
congruence. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients
are presented in Tables 18 and 19.
Table 18: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4—Transformational Leadership Predicting Value Congruence
Stepb R R2 ∆R2 p
1 .612a .374 .374 .000a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Dependent variable: value congruence.
Table 19: Regression Coefficients for H4—Transformational Leadership Predicting Value Congruence
Variable B SE B β
Step 1Transformational leadership .53 .02 .61**Note. Step 1 R2 = .374.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
In order to test the mediating effect of value congruence on the relation between
transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, further regression analysis
was conducted. Transformational leadership was entered at Step 1, explaining
10.1% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of value congruence at Step
2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 10.5% (F [2, 787] =
46.38, p < .001). Value congruence explained an additional .4% of the variance of
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 31
implicit motivation after controlling for transformational leadership (ΔR2= .004, ΔF
[1, 787] = 3.87, p < .05). In the final model, transformational leadership (β = .27, p
< .01) and value congruence (β = .08, p < .05) were statistically significant. The
change in the regression coefficient for transformational leadership indicates the
mediation of value congruence. Transformational leadership had a regression
coefficient of .43 (SE = .05, p < .01) at Step 1 and a regression coefficient of .36
(SE = .06, p < .01) at Step 2.
The statistical significance of the difference between the two transformational
leadership regression coefficients (.43, .36) was tested by converting the values to a
z score using the formula: z = b1 – b2 / √ SEb1 + SEb2 (Paternoster, Brame,
Mazerolle, and Piquero, 1998). The result was z = .43 - .36 / √ .0462 + .0582 = .95.
Using a 95% confidence level (p = .05), z scores between -1.96 and +1.96 indicate
the likelihood of the null hypothesis (Pallant, 2011). The z score of t = .95 falls
within this range indicating that the change in the transformational leadership
coefficient was not significant although it was substantive.
Because the regression coefficient for transformational leadership was smaller after
entry of value congruence, but not significantly smaller, and because the betas for
transformational leadership and value congruence were statistically significant,
then value congruence exerted a partial mediation on the relation between
transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but
not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation
occurred through value congruence. The regression analysis model summary and
regression coefficients are presented in Tables 20 and 21.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 32
Table 5: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4 – Transformational Leadership and Value Congruence predicting Intrinsic Motivation
Stepc R R2 ∆R2 P
1 .318a .101 .101 .0002 .325b .105 .004 .050a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Predictors (constant) transformational leadership, value congruence. c Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.
Table 6: Regression Coefficient for H4 – TFL, VC, and I Transformational Leadership and Value Congruence Predicting Intrinsic Motivation
Variable B SE B β
Step 1Transformational leadership .43 .05 .32**
Step 2Transformational leadership .36 .06 .27**Value congruence .13 .07 .08*Note. Step 1 R2 = .101; Step 2 R2 = .105.* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Transformational leadership significantly predicted trust and value congruence.
Trust and value congruence both exerted partial mediation on the relation between
transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but
not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation
occurred through trust and value congruence.
Summary of Findings
The goal of this study was to examine the relationships between the transactional
and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors of church congregations
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 33
and the levels of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation experienced by volunteers
within those congregations. It also sought to investigate whether volunteer trust in
and value congruence with senior pastors mediated the relationships between
leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation. The study expanded on previous
theoretical understanding of transactional and transformational leadership in church
congregations and similar nonprofit organizations and of volunteer motivation by
testing the impact of leadership behaviors on motivation. Previous studies which
employed self-determination theory to examine volunteer motivation or which
examined transactional and transformational leadership in church and nonprofit
settings, had not tested the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer
motivation. Table 22 summarizes the findings of the study.
Table 7: Summary of Multivariate Results
Variable TrustValue
congruenceIntrinsic
motivationExtrinsic
motivationTransformational leadership + + + –Transactional leadership – – – +Trust +Value congruence +Note. + = significant positive relationship, and – = no significant relationship.
Transactional Leadership Behaviors Predict Volunteers’ Extrinsic Motivation
The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the transactional
leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predict volunteer extrinsic
motivation, but that transformational leadership behaviors do not do so. Correlation
analysis also indicated a significant positive correlation between transactional
leadership and extrinsic motivation. These results are consistent with transactional
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 34
leadership theory which posits that such leadership establishes an exchange
relationship with followers offering rewards for services rendered (Bass, 1985;
Burns, 1978). They are also consistent with self-determination theory which
connects extrinsic motivation to external and instrumental motivators (Deci and
Ryan, 2000, 2008). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior
pastors is likely to reinforce extrinsic motivation among volunteers within church
congregations.
It is noteworthy that survey subjects rated senior pastors low in transactional
leadership (M = 1.69) and high in transformational leadership (M = 3.24), and
themselves low in extrinsic motivation (M = 1.27) and high in intrinsic motivation
(M = 3.80). These results indicate that volunteers perceived senior pastors as more
typically exercising transformational rather than transactional leadership behaviors
and themselves as more typically experiencing intrinsic rather than extrinsic
motivation.
Transactional Leadership Behaviors, Trust, and Value Congruence Predicting
Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation
The results of regression analysis indicate that the transactional leadership
behaviors of senior pastors did not significantly predict volunteer trust in or value
congruence with senior pastors. Correlation analysis also indicated no significant
positive correlation between transactional leadership and trust or value congruence.
Because transactional leadership did not have a statistically significant effect on
trust or value congruence, these two variables did not have a mediating effect on
the relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 35
These results are not consistent with the findings of Jung and Avolio (2000) that
transactional leadership predicts trust and value congruence and that these variables
mediate the impact of transactional leadership on follower performance. They are
also not consistent with transactional leadership theory which posits that
transactional leaders build follower trust and value congruence by engaging in
consistent behavior, honoring agreements, sharing mutual values, and
acknowledging the abilities and contributions of followers (Bass, 1985; Podsakoff
et al., 1990).
The absence of a relationship between transactional leadership and trust and value
congruence is likely to be related to the low mean obtained for transactional
leadership (M = 1.69). Survey subjects perceived senior pastors as more typically
engaging in transformational (M = 3.24) rather than transactional leadership
behaviors. It is possible that this significant difference in ratings of
transformational and transactional leadership is in part related to an implicit
leadership theory commonly held by church volunteers (Offermann, Kennedy, and
Wirtz, 1994). Transactional leadership behaviors are practiced by effective senior
pastors in order to enable volunteers to clearly understand their task descriptions
and the desired outcomes that result from the performance of these tasks (Butler
and Herman, 1999; Druskat, 1994; Son, 2003). This is an integral component of
congregational leadership which is augmented by transformational behaviors (Bass,
1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009) and should likely
have been rated more highly by subjects (Onnen, 1987).
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 36
Offermann et al. (1994) observed that “individuals possess their own naïve, implicit
theories of leadership and are readily willing to determine their boundaries and
characteristics” (p. 44). Such theories are developed through socialization and past
experiences, and represent cognitive schemas specifying traits and behaviors that
followers expect from leaders. They are stored in memory and activated when
followers interact with a person in a leadership position (Epitropaki and Martin,
2004). These implicit leadership theories provide the basis for follower
understanding of and response to leader behavior. The possibility that
transformational leadership is the implicit leadership theory for senior pastors
among congregational members is consistent with previous findings that church
volunteers prefer clergy to exercise transformational leadership behaviors (Bae,
2001; Druskat, 1994; Callahan, 1996; Choi, 2006; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008)
and with Christian understandings of leadership as being charismatic and virtuous
(e.g., 1 Corinthians 11:1; Barrett, 1971; Fee, 1987; Morris, 1980).
The existence of an implicit theory of transformational leadership held by church
volunteers in regard to clergy is supported by Onnen’s (1987) finding that laity in
churches seemed to perceive all clergy as being transformational even when the
church was not growing or was declining. She suggested that a “halo” effect was
likely to be present when laity rated clergy. A halo effect is present when a rater
has a general conception of a person as being at a certain level and therefore
possessing certain qualities. In the case of clergy, the role is identified with
charisma and virtue as ministers seek to motivate laity through weekly preaching
and related activities and are understood to exemplify Christian values. The
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 37
position of senior pastor is likely to attract a “halo” which results in higher
transformational and lower transactional ratings of the incumbent by volunteers,
regardless of the actual performance of the senior pastor.
Transformational Leadership Behaviors Predicting Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation
The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the transformational
leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predict volunteer intrinsic
motivation, but that transactional leadership behaviors do not do so. Correlation
analysis also indicated a significant positive correlation between transformational
leadership and intrinsic motivation. These results are consistent with
transformational leadership theory which posits that such leadership establishes a
moral and inspirational relationship with followers which motivates them to work
for transcendental goals and for aroused higher-level needs for self-actualization
(Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). They are also consistent with self-determination theory
which connects intrinsic motivation to internal motivators to fulfill the needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). The practice
of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to reinforce
intrinsic motivation among volunteers within church congregations.
Transformational Leadership Behaviors, Trust, and Value Congruence Predicting
Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation
The results of regression analysis indicate that the transformational leadership
behaviors of senior pastors significantly predicted volunteer trust in and value
congruence with senior pastors. Correlation analysis also indicated significant
positive correlations between transformational leadership and trust and value
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 38
congruence. Further regression analysis indicated that both trust and value
congruence exerted a partial mediation on the relation between transformational
leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the
effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust
and/or value congruence.
These results are consistent with the findings of Podsakoff et al. (1990), Shamir et
al. (1993), and Jung and Avolio (2000) that transformational leadership predicts
trust and value congruence and that these variables mediate the impact of
transformational leadership on follower performance. They are also consistent with
transformational leadership theory which posits that transformational leaders
inspire follower trust and value congruence by means of personal example and
vision-casting (Bass, 1985; Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Podsakoff et al. 1990).
Survey subjects rated senior pastors high in transformational leadership (M = 3.24),
and themselves high in intrinsic motivation (M = 3.80), trust (M = 3.63), and value
congruence (M = 3.62). As well as the significant positive correlations between
transformational leadership and trust and value congruence, there were also
significant positive correlations between trust and value congruence, trust and
intrinsic motivation, and value congruence and intrinsic motivation. These results
indicate that volunteers perceived senior pastors as typically exercising
transformational leadership behaviors and themselves as typically experiencing
trust in and value congruence with senior pastors, as well as intrinsic motivation.
Overview of Findings
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 39
Senior pastor transactional leadership behaviors have positive relationships with
volunteer extrinsic motivation and transformational leadership behaviors have
positive relationships with intrinsic motivation. Volunteer trust in and value
congruence with senior pastors has a partial mediation effect on the relationship
between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, but not on the
relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation.
These results are consistent with transactional and transformational leadership
theory (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978) and with self-determination theory (Deci and
Ryan, 2000, 2008). They are also consistent with previous studies which have
found that transactional and transformational leadership have positive
organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit organizations (Bae;
2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996;
Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007;
Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;
Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and that trust and value congruence have
mediating effects on the impact of transformational leadership on follower
performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993).
The contribution of this study has been to identify positive relationships between
leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, as well as mediating effects of trust
and value congruence.
Revised Study Model
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 40
A revised study model is presented in Figure 2. It emphasizes the relationship
between the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior
pastors and the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The
relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation can be
direct or mediated by volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior
pastor. The relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation
is direct and not mediated.
Figure 2: A revised model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.
Theoretical Implications
This study contributed to the leadership and motivation literature by: (a) connecting
transactional and transformational leadership theory with self-determination theory
in order to examine the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer
Senior pastor transactional leadership
behaviorsVolunteer extrinsic
motivation
Senior pastor transformational
leadership behaviors
Volunteer intrinsic motivation
Volunteer trust in senior pastor
Volunteer value congruence with
senior pastor
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 41
motivation in a nonprofit setting, and thereby demonstrating (b) positive
relationships between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation and
transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, and (c) mediation effects of
trust and value congruence on the relationship between transformational leadership
and intrinsic motivation.
No previous study had examined relationships between transactional and
transformational leadership and volunteer motivation in a nonprofit setting. Self-
determination theory had previously linked volunteer intrinsic motivation to
situational variables including social environment and work context (Deci et al.,
1994; Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). Environmental conditions that supported
satisfaction of volunteers’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were
found to predict intrinsic motivation. Millette and Gagné (2008) suggested that
leadership behaviour was likely to be an important factor impacting on volunteer
motivation while noting that such research had not been conducted. This study
employed self-determination theory to conceptualize volunteer motivation, and
demonstrated that transactional leadership predicts extrinsic motivation and
transformational leadership predicts intrinsic motivation. This finding builds on and
adds to existing understanding that transactional and transformational leadership
have positive organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit
organizations (Bae; 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999;
Callahan, 1996; Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994;
Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Johnson, 2007; Knudsen, 2006; Onnen, 1987;
Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003).
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 42
While previous studies had identified that trust and value congruence increase
followers’ responsiveness to a leader and task performance (Jung and Avolio,
2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993), none had investigated mediation
effects of these variables on the relationship between leadership behavior and
volunteer motivation. This study demonstrated mediation effects of trust and value
congruence on the positive relationship between transformational leadership and
intrinsic motivation. The relationship between transformational leadership and
intrinsic motivation and the mediation effects of trust and value congruence
indicate that transformational leadership augments the impact of transactional
leadership on volunteer motivation. Such an augmentation effect had previously
been demonstrated in relation to follower performance (Bass, 1985; Judge and
Piccolo, 2004), but not to volunteer motivation. The exercise of transformational
leadership behaviors will augment the impact of transactional leadership behaviors
on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations by inspiring trust, value
congruence, and intrinsic motivation.
Practical Implications
Nonprofit organizations that depend on volunteer workers require leaders who can
inspire intrinsic motivation in volunteers (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Riggio et
al., 2004). The organizational problems of shorter tenure and poorer task
performance are less likely to occur among volunteers in nonprofit organizations
where leaders exercise transformational leadership behaviors directed towards the
enhancement of volunteer trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 43
Therefore, this study provides the following practical implications for nonprofit
organizations: (a) leader selection criteria should incorporate evidence of effective
demonstration of transformational leadership behaviors; (b) leader training should
incorporate transformational leadership behaviors that enhance volunteer trust,
value congruence, and intrinsic motivation; and (c) leadership strategies should
incorporate the goal of building volunteer intrinsic motivation.
Self-determination theory posits that volunteers are motivated to satisfy their innate
psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. As these needs are
met through voluntary activity, a volunteer is more likely to be intrinsically
motivated and to provide higher quality task performance over a longer period of
time (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Millette and Gagné, 2008). This study has shown that
transformational leadership predicts trust, value congruence, and intrinsic
motivation, and augments the impact of transactional leadership. Therefore,
evidence of effective demonstration of the four interrelated transformational
leadership behaviors of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual
stimulation, and individualized consideration should be added to the transactional
leadership behaviors of contingent reward and management by exception
(Yammarino and Bass, 1990) as core criteria for leader selection.
Training in transformational leadership behaviors should be provided to intending
and incumbent organizational leaders. The findings of this study provide
components of a transformational leadership training program. It should include
training in how transformational leaders motivate volunteers and enhance their task
performance. This would counter the tendency to mystify transformational
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 44
leadership by mainly focusing on the leader’s charismatic qualities and personal
characteristics (Jung and Avolio, 2000). Leaders should also be educated in self-
determination theory and assisted in devising and implementing strategies to
inspire volunteers’ intrinsic motivation. Practical training in critical behaviors that
build trust, enhance value congruence, and increase intrinsic motivation should be
built into a transformational leadership training program.
Study Strengths and Weaknesses
A key strength of this study is that it adds to the field of research regarding
leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. Previous research had not studied
transactional and transformational leadership behaviors as predictors of volunteer
motivation (Millette and Gagné, 2008). This study was able to identify positive
relationships between leadership behaviors and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
among volunteers.
Another strength of this study was the sample which consisted of 790 subjects from
28 different churches across a range of congregational sizes and rating the
leadership behaviors of 28 different senior pastors. Although the congregations
were selected to represent different size categories, the subjects were self-selected.
The sample size and its representativeness suggest the findings may generalize to
the broader population of church congregations and nonprofit organizations.
A general weakness of this study was the self-reporting of volunteers’ motivation.
The low rating of extrinsic motivation and the high rating of intrinsic motivation
across subjects might indicate that the existence of socially desirable responses. In
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 45
order to limit social desirability response bias, subjects were guaranteed response
confidentiality and anonymity. However, some subjects may have responded
according to who they would like to be rather than who they actually are. If so, this
would likely result in higher intrinsic motivation self-ratings and lower extrinsic
motivation self-ratings.
A related weakness was the possible existence of an implicit theory of
transformational leadership—a “halo” effect—at work in volunteers as they rated
the leadership of senior pastors. It is likely that subjects gave higher ratings of
senior pastors’ transformational leadership and lower ratings of transactional
leadership because of their implicit perceptions of the appropriate characteristics of
the position of senior pastor.
Another weakness was the quantitative and cross-sectional design of the survey. As
a quantitative study, it lacked the qualitative data that might be obtained from
interviews and observations. This placed a limit on understanding why subjects
provided the ratings that they did. The cross-sectional design did not allow for
changes in the key variables and relationships over time.
Directions for Future Research
The results of this study indicate that future research should examine the existence
of implicit theories of leadership held by congregational members in regard to
clergy and the impact of such perceptions on their ratings of transactional and
transformational leadership behaviors. Studies incorporating leaders’ self-ratings
and peer ratings, as well as volunteer ratings, of nonprofit organizational leaders’
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 46
behaviors are likely to provide greater insight into the exercise of transactional and
transformational leadership behaviors.
The relationships between transactional and transformational leadership, trust and
value congruence, and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation could be further explored
by conducting similar studies in other nonprofit and for-profit organizations. Such
studies across other organizations and industries would be needed to verify the
findings of this study and to demonstrate whether they can be generalized.
A longitudinal study could examine whether the relationships change over a longer
period of time with increasing incumbent tenure. A related longitudinal study could
examine whether interventions in the form of transformational leadership training
produced stronger relationships with trust, value congruence, and intrinsic
motivation.
Finally, future studies should include qualitative research in a mixed methods design
with interviews among volunteers in church congregations and other nonprofit settings.
In-depth interviews of a subsample of subjects would provide a richer perspective on
why volunteers continue in their roles and what leadership behaviors contribute to the
enhancement of intrinsic motivation.
Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 47
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