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The!War!Artists’!Advisory!Committee:!

Painting!and!Patronage!in!the!Second!World!

War

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Abstract!

The!War!Artists’!Advisory!Committee!of!the!Second!World!War!was!founded!by!

Kenneth! Clark! in! 1939.! Its! establishment! was! provoked! by! contemporary!

concerns!regarding!artists!and!the!production!of!artwork!during!the!war.!It!was!

quickly! recognised! that! during! a! period! of! national! chaos! and! destruction! art!

could! function! beyond! its! aesthetic! appeal.! It! would! serve! to! unite! the! nation!

through! an! emphasis! of! British! characteristics! and! the! promotion! of! concepts!

such! as! of! freedom! of! expression.! This! would! provide! a! stark! contrast! to!

oppressive! Fascist! ideals! and,! therefore,! it! would! distinguish! Britain! from!

Germany!and!provide!motivation!to!the!war!efforts.!Additionally,!the!Committee!

favoured!art!over!photography!as!the!principal!practice!to!record!the!war;!it!was!

believed! that! this! form! of! documentation! was! more! valuable! both! to!

contemporary!Britain!and!as!an!historical!document!to!future!generations.!!

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This! thesis! constitutes! a! thematic! study! of! Dame! Laura! Knight’s! Ruby% Loftus%

Screwing% a% Breech6ring% (1943)! and! Stanley! Spencer’s! Burners% (1940)! from! his!

Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde! series! in! the! context! of! the! aims! and! concerns! of! the!

Committee.! Through! an! assessment! of! the! artists’! interpretations! of! their!

subjects,! it! illustrates! the!extent! to!which! the!paintings! conform! to! the!aims!of!

the!WAAC,!and! thus! it! reveals! the!Committee’s!priorities.!This!assessment!also!

considers! the! interaction! between! art! and! society,! which! was! essential! to! the!

success!of!the!Committee.!Finally,!it!examines!the!artwork!from!the!perspective!

of! the! modernRday! viewer,! focusing! on! the! unintentional! portrayal! of! gender!

inequality!within!the!artwork.!This!serves!to!demonstrate!the!manner!in!which!

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the!paintings!function!in!compliance!with!Clark’s!understanding!of!the!artwork,!

as!an!historical!record!of!both!the!war!and!British!society!of!the!1940s.!!!

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Word!Count:!9738!

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Table!of!Contents!

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Illustrations!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!2!

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List!of!Illustrations!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!8!

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Introduction!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.9!

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Chapter!I:!The!War!Artists’!Advisory!Committee!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!11!

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Chapter! II:! Contemporary! Issues! Concerning! Britain! during! the! Second!

World!War!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!17!

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Chapter!III:!Criteria!of!the!WAAC!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.20!

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Chapter!IV:!Reflection!of!the!Criteria!of!the!WAAC!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.24!

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Chapter!V:!Art!and!Society!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.35!!

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Chapter!VI:!Gender!Issues!within!Society!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!38!!

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Conclusion!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!46!

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Bibliography!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!.!48!!

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Illustrations!!

!!!! !Fig.!1!Dame!Laura!Knight,!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring,%1943,!oil!on!

canvas,!86.3!x!101.9!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!

!Fig.!2!Ernest%Bevin%Visits%No.%11%Royal%Ordnance%Factory,%Newport,%Monmouthshire,%

Wales,%UK,!c.!1943,!photograph!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!

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!!Fig.!3!H.!A.!Rotholz,!Be%in%the%Fashion%–%Cover%Your%Hair,%1940,!photolithograph!on!

paper,!76.3!x!50.5!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!

!!!!!!!!! !!Fig.!4!Cecil!Beaton,!Study%of%a%Girl%Welder,%photograph!(Imperial!War!Museum,!

London).!!

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!!Fig.!5!Stanley!Spencer,!Study!for!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Miss%Kathie%Chalmers%on%Fabricated%Stern,%pencil!on!paper,!50.4!x!41.0!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!

London).!!

!!!!!!!! !!Fig.!6!Stanley!Spencer,!Study!for!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Cathie%McGolwon,%

pencil!on!paper,!50.5!x!40.9!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!

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Fig.!7!Stanley!Spencer,!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:!Burners,%1940,!oil!on!canvas,!

106.7!x!558.8!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!

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Fig.!8!Stanley!Spencer,!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Riveters,%1941,!oil!on!canvas,!

76.2!x!579.1!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!

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Fig.!9!Stanley!Spencer,!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Riggers,%1944,!oil!on!canvas,!

81.2!x!493.5!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!

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List!of!Illustrations!!

Dame!Laura!Knight,!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring,%1943,!oil!on!canvas,!86.3!x!101.9!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!Stanley!Spencer,!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Burners,%1940,!oil!on!canvas,!106.7!x!558.8!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!Ernest%Bevin%Visits%No.%11%Royal%Ordnance%Factory,%Newport,%Monmouthshire,%

Wales,%UK,!c.!1943,!photograph!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!Available!at:!http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205202809!!Stanley!Spencer,!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Riveters,%1941,!oil!on!canvas,!76.2!x!579.1!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!H.!A.!Rotholz,!Be%in%the%Fashion%–%Cover%Your%Hair,%1940,!photolithograph!on!paper,!76.3!x!50.5!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!Cecil!Beaton,!Study%of%a%Girl%Welder,%photograph!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!Available!at:!http://www.iwmprints.org.uk/image/747060/beatonRcecilRaRstudyRofRaRyoungRwomanRwelderRsheRisRposingRforRtheRphotographerRleaningRagainstRaRcolumnRinRtheRbackgroundRaRshipRunderRconstructionRcanRbeRseenRinRaRslipway!!Stanley!Spencer,!Study!for!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Miss%Kathie%Chalmers%on%Fabricated%Stern,%pencil!on!paper,!50.4!x!40.8!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!Available!at:!http://www.wartime.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/25190!!Stanley!Spencer,!Study!for!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Cathie%McGolwon,%pencil!on!paper,!50.5!x!40.9!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London)!!Stanley!Spencer,!Shipbuilding%on%the%Clyde:%Riggers,%1944,!oil!on!canvas,!81.2!x!493.5!cm!(Imperial!War!Museum,!London).!!!!

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Introduction!

This!thesis!will!assess!the!achievements!of!the!War!Artists’!Advisory!Committee!

(WAAC)! against! its! initial! objectives! during! the! Second! World! War,! and! the!

manner!in!which!the!entire!project!reflected!British!society!of!1939!to!1945.!This!

exploration! will! identify! the! intentions! of! the! WAAC,! determine! the! extent! to!

which!the!war!artists’!work!fit!the!criteria!that!can!be!derived!from!the!WAAC’s!

intentions,!and!review!the!insight!and!understanding!that!this!process!offers!the!

modernRday!viewer!of!British!society!and!cultural!attitudes! towards!art!during!

the!war.!

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In!order! to!conduct! this!evaluation,! this!assessment!will!explore!contemporary!

concerns!regarding!artists!during!the!war,!and!the! formation!of! the!WAAC!as!a!

product!of!this!environment.!This!thesis!will!then!proceed!to!consider!significant!

issues!influencing!British!society,!both!within!the!nation!and!on!the!battlefront.!

This! context!will! provide! an! understanding! of! the! circumstances!within!which!

the!WAAC!was!established!and,!therefore,!it!will!illustrate!various!incentives!that!

influenced!the!criteria!of!the!WAAC.%This!will! lead!to!a!thematic!discussion!that!

will!assess!the!extent!to!which!the!artwork!corresponds!with!the!main!intentions!

of! the!WAAC.! In! this! initial! analysis,! the! focus! is!placed!on! the!artwork!and! its!

immediate! reception;! addressing! recognised! national! issues.! This! leads! to! a!

necessary!evaluation!of!the!exhibition!of!artwork!and!the!ways!in!which!art!was!

made! available! to! the!public.! Finally,! having! considered! the!Committee! and! its!

artwork! from! a! contemporary! perspective,! this! thesis! will! conclude! with! an!

assessment!of!the!artwork’s!value!as!an!informative!historical!record.!!!

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This!thesis!will!focus!on!two!critical!WAAC!artworks,!Dame!Laura!Knight’s!Ruby%

Loftus% Screwing% a% Breech6ring% (1943)! (Fig.! 1)! and! Stanley! Spencer’s! Burners%

(1940)! (Fig.! 7)! from! his! Shipbuilding% on% the% Clyde! series,% in! order! to! illustrate!

these! topics! through! their! imagery! of! the! war! effort! on! the! home! front.! By!

identifying!contrasts!and!similarities!between!the!two!pieces!of!art!it!is!possible!

to!evaluate!the!extent!to!which!they!correspond!with!the!intentions!of!the!WAAC,!

and!the!ways!in!which!they!digress!from!the!criteria.!Additionally,!it!is!necessary!

to! consider! that! the! compositions! are! not! just! representations! of! their! subject!

matter,! but! also! a! reflection! of! various! influences! on! the! artist! and,! therefore,!

their!own!personal!interpretation!of!the!scene.!!!

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Alongside! the! assessment! of! these! key! images! it! is! important! to! note! both! the!

authoritative!voice!of! the!Committee!and!the!voice!of! the!general!public.!These!

demonstrate!their!involvement!both!in!the!nation’s!general!concerns!and!in!the!

production! of! artwork! as! a! representation! of! the!war.! They!will! be! cited! from!

various!primary!sources! in!order! to!maintain!authenticity.! In! this!manner! they!

will!help!to!create!a!tangible!sense!of!the!period!and!the!way!in!which!opinions!

and! discussions!were! expressed,! both! publicly! in! broadcasted! statements,! and!

privately!in!letters!to!individual!recipients.!

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Chapter!I:!The!War!Artists’!Advisory!Committee!

From!the!onset!of!the!Second!World!War!in!September!1939,!there!was!a!general!

concern! regarding! the!welfare!of! artists.!Shortly!after! the! start!of! the!war,!The!

Artists’! International% Association% Bulletin% distributed! the! results! of! a! survey!

concerning!artists’!employment.1!According!to!the!results,!out!of!the!1,426!artists!

who!participated,! seventyRthree!per! cent!had! found! themselves!unemployed!at!

the!outbreak!of!the!war.2!This!was!due!to!a!significant!decrease!in!art!patronage!

and! employment! prospects! throughout! the! country.3 !Furthermore,! multiple!

private! presses,! such! as! Gregynog! Press,! Perpetua! Press! and! Corvinus! Press,!

collapsed! due! to! the! war! and! this! was! followed! by! the! introduction! of! paper!

rationing!in!April!1940.4!In!addition,!by!April!1940!it!was!estimated!that!a!fifth!of!

museums!and!art!galleries!nationwide!had!closed!since!the!outbreak!of!the!war.5!

Due! to! these! circumstances,! career! opportunities! for! artists! were! severely!

diminished!and!therefore!many!artists,!finding!themselves!unemployed,!enlisted!

in!military!service.!

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According! to! the! painter! David! Bomberg,! writing! to!The%Times,%October! 1939,!

this! negligence! towards! art! was,! “depriving! the! nation! of! part! of! its! richest!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1!Katy!Deepwell,!Women%Artists%Between%the%Wars:%‘A%Fair%Field%and%No%Favour’%(Manchester:!Manchester!University!Press,!2010),!79.!2!Deepwell,!Women%Artists,%80.!3!Brian!Foss,!War%Paint:%Art,%War,%State%and%Identity%in%Britain,%193961945%(New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,!2007)!11.!4!Brian!Foss,!British%Artists%and%the%Second%World%War,%With%Particular%Reference%to%the%War%Artists’%Advisory%Committee%of%the%Ministry%of%Information%(PhD!Thesis,!University!College!London,!1991)!48.!5!Brian!Foss,!“Message!and!Medium:!Government!Patronage,!National!Identity!and!National!Culture!in!Britain,!1939R1945”,!Oxford%Art%Journal,%Vol.!14!No.!2,!1991,!66.!

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heritage”.6!Several! statements! to! this! effect! were! reiterated! and! expanded! in!

various! media,! such! as! newspapers! and! magazines! that! would! have! quickly!

circulated,!creating!a!sense!of!awareness!within!society.7!In!September!1939,!for!

example,!The%Spectator%published!a!letter!written!by!Samuel!Herald!in!which!he!

referred! to! artists! as,! “the! only! truly! unique! being! […! and! therefore]! the! only!

truly!irreplaceable!being”.8!In!a!second!letter,!published!in!October!1939,!Herald!

criticised! the! omission! of! artists! from! the! Schedule! of! Reserved! Occupations.!

Herald!wrote:!!

You!have!the!anomalous!position!of!a!war!waged!to!safeguard!freedom!of!thought!in!which!nothing!whatever!is!being!done!to!preserve!the!few!that!are!capable!of!this!very!unusual!activity.9!!

Furthermore,! in!February!1941,!Britain%To6day! published!an!article! in!which! it!

stated:!

A! civilized! nation,! compelled! to! defend! itself! in!war,!must! strive! to! the!utmost!to!prevent!the!submergence!of!the!most!civilized!elements!within!its!life.10!

These!statements!reveal!a!sense!of!urgency!and!frustration!within!society.!Artists!

were!quickly! established!as! invaluable! to! the!nation! in! such!a!period!and! they!

were! increasingly! associated!with! concepts! such!as! freedom!of! expression!and!

preservers! of! civilisation.! During! the! war,! artists! would! serve! to! stimulate,!

reassure! and! unite! the! nation! through! their! images! of! the!war! effort,! and! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!6!!David!Bomberg,!“Unpublished!Letter!to!the!Editor”,%The%Times,!20!October!1939%cited!by!Brian!Foss,!British%Artists%and%the%Second%World%War,%With%Particular%Reference%to%the%War%Artists’%Advisory%Committee%of%the%Ministry%of%

Information%(PhD!Thesis,!University!College!London,!1991)!89.!7!Foss,!War%Paint,%12.!!8!Samuel!Herald,!“The!Artist!in!War!(Letter!to!the!Editor)”,!The%Spectator,%22!September!1939,!cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,!89.!!9!Samuel!Herald,!“The!Artist!in!War!(Letter!to!the!Editor)”,!The%Spectator,%13!October!1939!cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,%90.!!10!Editor,!“The!Arts!in!WarRTime”,!Britain%To6day,%21!February!1941!cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,%89.!!

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artwork! itself! would! remind! the! nation! of! Britain’s! cultural! heritage.! Artists!

would! also! take! on! a! significant! role! in! postRwar! Britain.11!After! a! period! of!

turmoil,!devastation!and!death!the!country!would!require!cultural!guidance!and!

direction! in! order! to! rehabilitate! and! proceed! as! a! nation! and! so! in! this! way!

artists!were!considered!indispensible.!From!this!perspective!it!was!essential!that!

the! artists! were! provided! with! work! rather! than! risk! their! lives! in! military!

service.!

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Despite! significant! efforts,! the! nation! entered! the! war! without! a! principal!

method!to!accumulate!artwork!that!would!provide!sufficient!coverage!of!the!war.!

The!public! recognition!of! artists’! lack! of! employment!directly! led! to!numerous!

attempts! to! inaugurate! organisations! that! would! provide! work! for! them.!

However,! the!majority! failed! to! establish! themselves,! primarily!due! to! either! a!

lack!of!funds,!governmental!support,!structure!or!objectives!within!their!group.12!

These! organisations! varied! greatly;! operating! on! a! small! scale! were! London!

Transport! and! John!Summers! aircraft! factory,!which! specifically! commissioned!

artists! to! provide! a! recording! of! the! companies’! individual! war! efforts.13!On! a!

larger! scale! there! were! schemes! such! as! ‘Recording! Britain’,! which! was!

established! by! Kenneth! Clark! to! hire! artists! to! produce! artwork,! specifically!

watercolours! and! drawings,! of! the! Home! Front.14!Although! this! scheme! was!

relatively! successful,! amounting! to! over! 1500! pieces! of! art,! it! rapidly! became!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11!Foss,!War%Paint,%12.!12!Ibib,%13.!13!Ibid,%12.!!14!Anonymous,!“‘Recording!Britain’!Collection!at!the!V&A”,!http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/r/recordingRbritainRcollection/!Accessed!on!20th!February!2015!

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apparent!that!it!was!insufficient!to!provide!employment!for!the!artists!and!that!a!

more! extensive! project! would! be! necessary.15!Subsequently,! in! October! 1939!

Clark!wrote!to!Humbert!Wolfe!at!the!Ministry!of!Labour!expressing!his!concern:!!

The! situation! [of! artists]! is! so! serious! that! I! have! been! wondering! if! it!would!not!be!desirable!for!the!Government!to!take!some!action;!rather!a!wider! application! than! the! mere! employment! of! artists! for! camouflage!and! propaganda.! I! have! in! mind! something! like! the! federal! scheme! for!artists! carried! out! in! America! during! the! last! five! years,! though! ours!would!no!doubt!have!to!be!on!a!less!ambitious!scale.!I!studied!this!scheme!both! times! I!was! in! America! and! brought! back! a! number! of! documents!connected! with! it.! I! think! it! is! capable! of! modification! to! suit! our! own!needs.16!

This! realisation! was! fundamental! to! the! establishment! of! the! WAAC! as! an!

organisation!that!would!require!governmental!support!in!order!to!be!successful!

nationwide.!!

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The! WAAC! was! established! with! the! intention! to! commission! a! significant!

number! of! artists! to! create! a! comprehensive! record! of! the!war.! In! light! of! the!

aforementioned!endeavours,! it! is!apparent!that!the!formation!of!the!Committee!

would! have! held! great! resonance! with! contemporary! Britain.! Founded! by! the!

director!of! the!National!Gallery,!Kenneth!Clark,! the!Committee!was!established!

within! the! Ministry! of! Information.! This! followed! the! proposal! for! an!

organisation!that!was!similar!to!that!of!the!British!War!Memorials!Committee!of!

the!First!World!War.17!By!late!September!1939!Clark!had!presented!a!list!to!the!

Ministry! of! Labour,! which! comprised! fiftyRone! proficient! artists! that! were!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15!Foss,!War%Paint,%13.!!16!Kenneth!Clark,!Letter%from%Kenneth%Clark%to%Humbert%Wolfe,!3!October!1939!cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,%140.!17!Foss,!War%Paint,%19.!

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considered!appropriate! for! the! task!of!depicting! the!war.18!The! first!meeting!of!

the!WAAC!was! held! in!November! 1939.19!Prior! to! this!meeting! the! Committee!

had!established!clear!instructions!to!guide!its!operation:!!

To! draw! up! a! list! of! artists! qualified! to! record! the! war! at! home! and!abroad.! In! coRoperation! with! the! Service! Departments,! and! other!Government!Departments,!as!may!be!desirable,!to!advise!on!the!selection!of!artists!from!this!list!for!War!purposes!and!advise!on!such!questions!as!copyright,! disposal! and! exhibition! of! works! and! the! publication! of!reproductions.20!!

Subsequently,! in!December!1939,! a! radio!broadcast! advertised! the! aims!of! the!

Committee!and!requested!artists!to!make!their!work!known!so!that!they!might!

be!considered!for!commission,!whilst!simultaneously!reiterating!the!importance!

of! wartime! artists! to! the! public.21!Finally,! in! February! 1940,! members! of! the!

Committee!and!the!military!services!expanded!the!list!of!artists!until!it!amounted!

to! just! fewer! than! four!hundred!names,!and! this!number!continued! to! increase!

throughout! the!war.22!Despite! this! selection! process,! however,! it! is! also!worth!

noting!that!the!Committee!encouraged!artists!that!had!not!been!commissioned!to!

present! their! work,! with! the! possibility! that! it! might! be! purchased! for! the!

collection.23!Therefore,!although!the!Committee!was!deliberate!in!its!selection!of!

artists,!it!successfully!avoided!creating!an!exclusive!organisation!and!it!promoted!

the!production!of!artwork!throughout!the!nation.!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!18!Ibid,%23.!!19!Richard!Cork,!“Bomberg!and!the!Bomb!Store”,!The%Burlington%Magazine,%Vol.!128!No.!1000,!1986,!493.!!20!WAAC,!Ministry%of%Information.%Artists’%Advisory%Committee.%Terms%of%Reference,%cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,%173.!!21!Foss,!War%Paint,%23.!22!Ibid,%23.!23!Ibid,%27.!

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It! is! evident! that! the!WAAC!was! organised,!wellRstructured! and! efficient! in! its!

operations.!The!concern!for!the!welfare!of!artists!was!a!principal!motivation!for!

the!establishment!of!the!WAAC,!however,!it!should!also!be!considered!that!once!

the! employment! of! artists! on! a! relatively! large! scale! had! been! achieved,! the!

Committee!started!to!address!issues!within!society.!Furthermore,!the!WAAC!was!

simultaneously!driven!by!the!objective!of!producing!an!historical!documentation!

of! the! war.! These! aspects! will! be! developed! and! explored! in! the! following!

chapters! with! a! consideration! of! the! final! outcome! of! the! artwork! collection!

produced! in! light! of! these! driving! factors.!As! previously! stated,! this! thesis!will!

consider!these!topics!through!an!assessment!of!their!portrayal!in!Knight’s!Ruby%

Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring%and!Spencer’s!Burners.!

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Chapter!II:!Contemporary!Issues!Concerning!Britain!During!the!Second!

World!War!!

From!the!onset!of!the!war!Britain’s!prospects!were!bleak!and!the!country!was!in!

despair! in! the! face! of! impending! defeat.! On! the! home! front! the! nation! was!

confronted!with!The!Blitz,! a! campaign!of! sustained!bombing!by!Germany! from!

September! 1940! until! May! 1941.24!This! had! a! significant! impact! on! Britain;!

London!was!the!primary!target!and!it!was!renowned!for!its!weak!defences!and!

lack! of! shelters.25!This! deliberate! German! targeting! of! the! civilian! population!

killed!more! than! 30,000,! injured!more! than! 51,000! and! left!many! homeless! in!

London! alone.26!This! required! immediate! governmental! attention! to! facilitate!

mass! shelters! and! evacuations,! particularly! of! mothers! and! children. 27 !In!

September!1939,!however,!an!evacuation!scheme!to!reRaccommodate!1.4!million!

civilians,! many! of! whom! were! of! the! urban! lower! class,! did! not! work! in! the!

government’s! favour;! rather! than! boosting! national! morale! it! aggravated!

hostilities!between!the!social!classes.28!Alongside!this!emotional!strain!provoked!

by!the!air!raids,!the!bombings!inevitably!had!a!significant!physical!impact!on!the!

target! cities’! buildings! and! infrastructure.! Many! schools! and! homes! were!

damaged!or! destroyed.!29!The!devastation!of! these!buildings! can!be! considered!

symbolic:!they!represent!the!destruction!of!education,!the!prevention!of!cultural!

advancement!for!future!generations,!and!the!removal!of!that!which!is!associated!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!24!Geoffrey!Field,!“Nights!Underground!in!Darkest!London:!The!Blitz,!1940R1941”,!International%Labor%and%Working6Class%History,!No.%62,%Class%and%Catastrophe:%September%11%and%Other%Working6Class%Disasters,!2002,!11.!25!Field,!“Nights!Underground”,!12.!26!Ibid,!12.!27!Ibid,13.!28!Ibid,!13.!29!Daniel!Griffiths,!“Making!Schools!Liveable!for!Students:!London!after!the!Blitz”,!The%Phi%Delta%Kappan,%Vol.!54!No.!1,!1972,!47.!

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18!

with! safety! and! constancy! for! the! individual.! Furthermore,! the! bombings! also!

affected!buildings!of!historical!significance!and!British!heritage!such!as!St!Paul’s!

Cathedral!and!Buckingham!Palace.30!!

!

Britain!was! largely!unsuccessful!on!the!war!front!until! the!allies’!victories!at!El!

Alamein,! 1942,! and! more! significantly! at! Stalingrad,! 1943.31!! These! triumphs!

considerably! weakened! Hitler’s! unassailable! reputation! and! they! marked! the!

turning!point!of!the!war.!The!Battle!of!El!Alamein!was!the!first!significant!victory!

over! the!German! forces.32!In! celebration!of! this! victory,! on!Winston!Churchill’s!

orders,! church! bells! throughout! Britain! were! rung! for! the! first! time! in! three!

years! on! 8th! November! 1942. 33 !The! victory! marked! a! change! in! Britain’s!

mentality!as!it!was!at!this!point!of!the!war!that!the!nation!realised!that!it!could!

be!successful.34!On!31st!January!1943!the!Nazi!Wehrmacht!were!heavily!defeated!

by! the!Red!Army! at! Stalingrad.35!This! subsequently! led! to! the! expulsion! of! the!

Germans!from!Russia,!which!culminated!in!a!successful!invasion!of!Germany!and!

the! conquering! of! Berlin! in! May! 1945. 36 !! Yet! despite! these! victories! the!

government!was! simultaneously! faced!with! the! issue! of! the! Beveridge! Report,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!30!Aeronautical!Correspondent,!“After!A!Week!of!Bombing”,!The%Times,%16!September!1940.!31!Frederic!Clairmont,!“Stalingrad:!Hitler’s!Nemesis”,!Economic%and%Political%Weekly,%Vol.!38!No.!27,!2003,!2819.!!32!Colin!Baxter,!Review:!“The!Battle!of!Alamein:!Turning!Point,!World!War!II”!by!John!Bierman,!Colin!Smith!in!The%Journal%of%Military%History,!Vol.!67!No.!2,!2003,!603.!33!Helen!Smith,!“Britain!Recalls!Past!Glory!of!ElRAlamein”,!Reuters,!23!October!1992.!34!Editorial,!“Desert!Turning!Point!–!El!Alamein”,!The%Times,%24!October!1992.!35!Clairmont,!“Hitler’s!Nemesis”,!2819.!36!Geoffrey!Roberts,!“Stalin’s!Victory?:!The!Soviet!Union!and!World!War!II”,!History%Ireland,!Vol.!16!No.!1,!2008,!42.!

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19!

which! was! published! on! 1st! December! 1942.37!Following! its! publication,! the!

Stationary! Office! sold! 70,000! copies! of! the! report! on! the! morning! of! 2nd!

December! 1942.38!The! report! focused! on! social! insurance:! it! prioritised! social!

welfare!in!a!proposal!of!extensive!social!reform!in!order!to!address!issues!within!

society.39!These! notions!were! popular! amongst! both! the! public! and! the!media;!

within!months! the!report!had!been!extensively!read!and!cited!and! in!February!

1943! it! was! debated! in! the! House! of! Commons.40!It! stirred! the! nation! and! it!

encouraged! the! belief! that! postRwar! Britain!would! hold! a! promising! future.! In!

this!way!it!put!pressure!on!the!government!to!facilitate!this!improvement!within!

society.!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!37!G.!Ninane,!“Beveridge!Report”,!British%Medical%Journal%(Clinical%Research%Edition),%Vol.!287!No.!6390,!1983,!503.!!38!Anonymous,!“First!Views!on!Social!Plan”,!The%Times,%3!December!1943,!2.!!39!Leo!Wolman,!“The!Beveridge!Report”,!Political%Science%Quarterly,%Vol.!58!No.!1,!1943,!2.!40!Ninane,!“Beveridge!Report”,!503.!

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Chapter!III:!Criteria!of!The!WAAC!

It! is! worthwhile! considering! these! contemporary! issues! alongside! the!

foundations!of!the!WAAC.!Initially!established!to!provide!employment!for!artists!

during!the!Second!World!War,!the!Committee!began!to!commission!artists!with!a!

specific!intention.!The!aim!was!to!create!an!historical!documentation!of!the!war,!

specifically!for!the!education!of!future!generations.!The!primary!focus!was!on!the!

efforts! of! Great! Britain! and! due! to! the! nature! of! the! objectives! of! the!WAAC,!

accuracy! was! critical! to! the! images! produced! by! the! war! artists.! It! was! the!

general! belief! that! art! was! the! most! appropriate! and! effective! medium! for!

portraying! the! war.! As! a! visual! medium! art! is! widely! accessible! and! easily!

understood.! Whilst! photography! can! be! considered! more! accurate,! it! was!

believed!that!through!artistic!interpretation!the!artists!would!be!able!to!capture!

the! atmosphere! and! emotion! of! the! war! subjects! and! this! aspect! would! be!

deficient! in! photography.! In! this!way! the! emotive! qualities!within! the! artwork!

produced!would!provide!a!personal!insight!to!the!viewer.!In!an!introductory!note!

found! in! the!books!constituting! the! series,!War%Pictures%by%British%Artists,!Clark!

explicitly!expresses!these!views!regarding!the!educational!value!of!art:!!

What!did!it!look!like?!They!will!ask!in!1981,!and!no!amount!of!description!or! documentation! will! answer! them.! Nor! will! big,! formal! compositions!like! the! battle! pictures! which! hang! in! palaces;! and! even! photographs,!which!tell!us!so!much,!will!leave!out!the!colour!and!the!peculiar!feeling!of!events! in! these! extraordinary! years.!Only! the! artist!with! his! heightened!powers! of! perception! can! recognise! which! elements! in! a! scene! can! be!pickled!for!posterity!in!the!magical!essence!of!style.!And!as!new!subjects!begin!to!saturate!his!imagination,!they!create!a!new!style,!so!that!from!the!destruction!of!war!something!of!lasting!value!emerges.41!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!41!For!example:!Anonymous,!“The!War:!British!War!Pictures”,!Times%Literary%Supplement,!23!May!1942!cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,%240.!

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It!is!evident!from!this!statement!that!Clark!had!an!appreciation!for!artwork!as!a!

unique!illustration!of!an!event!and,!therefore,!its!value!as!an!historical!record.!!

!

In! order! to! achieve! a! successful! historical! documentation! of! the! war! the!

Committee!commissioned!almost!four!hundred!artists!to!depict!the!war!effort!on!

both! the! war! front! and! the! home! front,! which! eventually! amounted! to! an!

impressive! collection!of! over! 5,570!works.42!The! artists!were! commissioned! to!

work! throughout! the! country! so! that! their! coverage! of! the!nation!would!be! as!

comprehensive!as!possible.43!They!studied!the!daily!life!of!military!and!domestic!

sitters,!events!and!work!environments,!hospitals,!shelters!and!buildings!affected!

by! bombs.44!This! variety! of! subject! matter! was! crucial! in! order! to! create! an!

extensive!representation!of!the!war!and!therefore!to!the!creation!of!a!thorough!

documentation.!!

!

The! work! of! the! artists! also! encouraged! a! sense! of! national! identity! and!

highlighted! the! importance! of! each! separate! task! undertaken! by! individuals!

within! the! workforce! as! a! whole.! These! depictions! of! courageous! and! hardR

working! individuals! also! served! to! encourage! ambition! within! society,! to!

promote! the! belief! that! these! characteristics! were! common!within! the! British!

population.!Significantly,!the!female!war!effort!was!also!depicted,!demonstrating!

an!acknowledgement!of!their!contribution!despite!the!issue!of!gender!inequality!

at! the! time.! This! interest! in! promoting! a! sense! of! national! identity! was! the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!42!Anonymous,!“The!War!Artists!Advisory!Committee”,!http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/theRwarRartistsRadvisoryRcommittee#!Accessed!on!20th!October!2014.!43!Foss,!War%Paint,%27.!44!Ibid,!27.!

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Government’s!reaction!to!the! issues!of!The!Blitz!and!the!Beveridge!Report,!and!

the!resultant!need!to!create!a!sense!of!unity!and!solidarity!within!the!country.45!

In! this!way,! the! attention! to! the! individual!worker! promoted! a! sense! of! pride!

within! one’s! work;! arduous! tasks! such! as! factory! work! were! suddenly!

considered!worth!recording!and!in!this!manner!it!bestowed!upon!the!workforce!

a!sense!of!significance!within!the!nation,!whilst!emphasising!an!image!of!unity.!

%

This!image!of!national!identity!also!drew!its!strength!through!the!promotion!of!

British! characteristics! and! an! opposition! to! Fascist! ideals.! This! served! to!

highlight!the!differences!between!the!two!nations!and,!therefore,!to!function!as!a!

reminder! to! the!British!public!of! the!motivation!behind! the!war!and!behind! its!

war!efforts.!Both!Germany!and!Britain!approached!contemporary!art!through!a!

reflection!of! their! idealised!pasts! in!order!to!assert!a!view!of! their! identity!and!

their!foundations.46!Political!involvement!in!National!Socialist!Art!in!Germany!led!

to! an! oppressive! environment! in! which! art! was! created.47!This! strict! regime!

required!that!all!artists!were!associated!with!an!organisation!that!then!censored!

their!artwork!and!in!this!way!it!controlled!the!cultural!image!of!the!country.48!On!

the! other! hand,! Britain! demonstrated! an! apparent! lack! of! politics! within! its!

artwork,! which! was! a! deliberate! intention! in! light! of! the! German! approach.!

Britain! embodied! the! concept! of! freedom! of! artistic! expression! in! order! to!

provide! an! additional! contrast! to! the!German!practices.! In! this!way! the!WAAC!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!45!Foss,!Message%and%Medium,!52.!46!Ibid,%53.!47!Ibid,!53.!48!Ibid,!53.!

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identified!itself!as!symbolic!of!everything!that!distinguished!Britain!from!German!

society.!

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Chapter!IV:!Reflection!of!the!criteria!of!the!WAAC!

The!two!artworks!that!this!thesis!considers!can!each!be!assessed!against!the!two!

main!criteria!of!the!WAAC:!the!concern!for!accuracy!and!the!portrayal!of!national!

identity.!Although!the!two!paintings,!Spencer’s!Burners%and!Knight’s!Ruby%Loftus%

Screwing% a% Breech6ring,% are! both! images! of! production! during! the! war,! they!

notably! differ! in! emphasis.! This! is! due! to! the! nature! in! which! they! were!

commissioned,! which! is! immediately! reflected! in! their! titles.! The! Ministry! of!

Munitions! commissioned! Knight! specifically! to! produce! a! single! painting! that!

would! immortalise!Loftus.49!As!a! result,! the!painting! is!a!portrait!of!Loftus!and!

the!emphasis!is!on!the!individual!operating!the!machinery.!In!contrast!to!this,!the!

Ministry!of! Information!commissioned!Spencer!with! less!specific!requirements:!

to!provide! a!documentation!of! the!Glasgow! shipyards’! participation!within! the!

war! effort.50!The! latter! commission! allowed! Spencer! considerable! flexibility! in!

his!interpretation!of!the!subject!matter,!which!resulted!in!the!Shipbuilding%on%the%

Clyde! series.!The! series! consists!of! eight! canvases! that!depict! the!various! skills!

and!processes!that!constitute!the!collective!operation!of!constructing!a!ship.!As!

the!titles!of!the!works,!such!as!Plumbers,%Riveters!and!Burners,!suggest,!Spencer!

devotes! each! panel! to! a! singular! activity.! Unlike! Knight’s! painting! of! Loftus,!

Spencer! places! the! primary! emphasis! on! the! procedure! rather! than! the!

individual!workman!behind!it.!The!panels!are!nevertheless!an!acknowledgement!

of!the!skills!of!the!labourers,!but!with!a!focus!on!their!efforts!as!a!group!and!the!

larger! operation! that! their! teamwork! would! achieve.! From! this! perspective,!

although!each!panel!has!a!specific!subject,!the!series!functions!as!a!whole!and!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!49!Janet!Dunbar,!Laura%Knight%(London:!Collins,!1975),!160.!50!Anonymous,!“BBC1”,!Times,%12!August!1994.!!

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25!

panels! relate! to! each! other,! as! they! constitute! a! larger! picture! R! that! is! the!

construction!of! a! ship.! In! view!of! these!differences!between! the! two!paintings,!

they! convey! diverse! messages! to! the! public.! Knight’s! painting! emphasises! the!

individual’s!potential!and!ability,!whilst!the!paintings!of!Spencer’s!series!reflect!

the!belief!of!contemporary!Britain;!that!the!unity!and!cooperation!of!individuals!

would!constitute!the!nation’s!success.!

!

The! accuracy! of! the! two! works! can,! to! some! extent,! be! determined! by! a!

consideration!of!the!images!in!relation!to!their!titles.!The!title!Burners%places!the!

sole! emphasis! on! the! operation! depicted.! The! painting% can! be! considered!

relatively!accurate!due!to!the!fact!that!it!is!possible!to!identify!the!task!portrayed!

and!the!specific!components!and!pieces!of!equipment!that!are!used.!The!process!

of!burning!was! “the!use!of!oxyRacetylene! flame! to!cut! the! thick!sheets!of!metal!

into! shape”! and! this! can! easily! be! identified! in! the! composition.51Spencer!

accurately! depicts! the! cutting! torches! with! their! angled! heads,! the! sparks!

produced!as!a! result!of! this!procedure,! and! the! intense! concentration! required!

for!each!specific!assignment!in!order!to!achieve!the!necessary!precision.!In!this!

way,!through!the!portrayal!of!the!individual!task!and!the!attention!to!detail,!the!

painting!highlights!Spencer’s!knowledge!of! the!craftsmanship! required!and! the!

paintings!can!be!considered!as!demonstrative!of!his!respect!for!the!craftsmen.!!

!

Similarly,!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring!also!specifies!the!procedure!that!is!

being! undertaken! and! contemporary! views! help! to! determine! the! extent! of! its!

accuracy.! The! painting! depicts! Loftus! working! on! the! production! of! a! Bofors!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!51!Kenneth!Pople,!Stanley%Spencer:%a%Biography%(London:!Collins,!1991),!415.!!

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gun.52!This! in! itself!would!have!held!a!particular! resonance!with!contemporary!

society;!as!the!most!advanced!assignment!in!the!factory!the!task!was!known!to!

be! highly! complex.53!It! required! a! high! level! of! precision! as! any! inaccuracies!

could!result!in!considerable!repercussions!and!so!Loftus’!skill!was!paramount.54!

Prior! to! the! war,! male! factory! workers! had! required! four! years! of! training! in!

order!to!be!capable!of!this!level!of!manufacturing.55!Loftus,!however,!was!capable!

of! the! task! after! only! two! years! of! training! and! so! this! naturally! sparked!

controversy!in!contemporary!Britain!due!to!the!change!in!female!roles!in!society!

and!the!refusal!to!accept!women!as!capable!within!the!industry.!Not!only!is!the!

image!of!a!woman!undertaking!a!“man’s”!task,!but!Knight!also!takes!it!one!step!

further!with!a!portrait!of!a!lady!who!was!considered!an!outstanding!worker.!In!

this!way!Knight! challenges! the! ideology!of! the! superior! skill!of!men!within! the!

factory!as!she!emphasises!the!undervalued!abilities!of!women.!!

!

This! controversial! nature! of! the! painting! provoked! both! positive! and! negative!

reactions,!which!are!valuable!in!determining!the!accuracy!of!the!image.!In!a!letter!

addressed! to!Knight! from!Mr!Hyde,! an! ordnance! engineer,! he! commended!her!

precision! and! attention! to! detail! and! contemporaries! echoed! this! response.56!

These! reactions! suggest! that! Knight’s! image! is! an! accurate! depiction! and!

therefore! it! complies! with! the! criteria! of! the! WAAC.! Furthermore,! Hyde!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!52!Dunbar,!Knight,%160.!53!Anonymous,!“Ruby!Loftus!Screwing!a!BreechRring”!http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/15504!Accessed!on!27th!September!2014.!!54!Dunbar,!Knight,!160.!55!Ibid,!160.!!56!Anonymous,!“Ruby!Loftus”!http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/15504!

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27!

proceeded!to!describe!a!similar!situation!concerning!the!reception!of! images!of!

female! workers. 57 !Hyde! had! previously! provided! photographs! of! women!

working! on! weaponry! to! the! Ministry! of! Munitions.! When! the! images! were!

exhibited!in!London!complaints!were!made!declaring!the!photos!as!false!on!the!

basis!that! it!was!implausible!that!women!could!be!capable!of!doing!the!work.58!!

As!a!result,!the!Ministry!of!Munitions!sent!twentyRsix!officials!to!assess!the!work!

in!progress!and! therefore!validate! the! images.59!In! this!way! the! letter!provides!

valuable!insight!to!contemporary!attitudes!and!it!illustrates!the!environment!in!

which!Knight’s!painting!would!have!been!received.!

!

Moreover,! although! there!were! negative! criticisms,! it! is! notable! that! these! did!

not!concern!Knight’s!capability,!but!rather! the!machinery! that!was!depicted.! In!

1943! an! engineer!wrote! to!The%Times%expressing! dissatisfaction! regarding! the!

operation! portrayed. 60 !The! engineer,! who! noticeably! wished! to! remain!

anonymous,!argued!that:!

Knight’s! study! shows! Loftus! screwing! a! breech! ring! in! a! screwRcutting!lathe! similar! in! design,! though! not! in! strength,! to! those! constructed! by!Whitworth’s!over!a!century!ago,!and!those!who!have!experience!of!such!an!operation!will!agree!that!it!is!an!extremely!highly!skilled!one.!I!would!however! suggest! that! in!order! to! avoid! too!much! comfort! to! the! enemy!and!despair!in!the!minds!of!our!American!and!Russian!allies,!you!should!give! equal! prominence! to! a! statement! that! more! modern! methods! of!machining!are!now!used!for!such!processes,!even!in!our!Royal!Ordnance!Factories.!61!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!57!Dunbar,!Knight,%162.!58!Ibid,!162.!59!Ibid,!162.!60!Engineer,!Letter!to!the!Editor!of!The%Times,!“An!Academy!Picture”,!The%Times,%13!May!1943,!5.!!61!Ibid,!5.!

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However,! these! points! are! immediately! rebutted! by! a! response! from! W.! P.!

Eastwood,!Managing!Director!of!George!Swift!and!Sons,!a!company!specialising!

in!machine! tools.! Eastwood! states! that! the! lathe! in! question! had,! in! fact,! been!

modified!in!order!to!accommodate!lessRskilled!labourers.62!This!modified!version!

was!also!more!efficient!in!its!production!as!it!reduced!the!time!that!it!took!for!the!

female! factory! workers! to! manufacture! the! component.! Eastwood,! further!

validating! his! argument,! proceeded! to! state! that,! on! visiting! the! factory,! both!

American! and! Russian! representatives! had! confirmed! their! approval! of! the!

innovative! practices! that! allowed! women! to! complete! more! complex! tasks.!

Despite!these!criticisms,!therefore,! it! is!clear!that!Knight!successfully!portrayed!

the! subject! matter! and! the! message! of! the! artwork! remains! positive! and!

inspirational,! demonstrating! the! prospects! that! Britain! could! achieve! through!

unity!and!cooperation!between!the!sexes.!

!

The!specific!nature!of!the!title,!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring,! immediately!

identifies! the! sitter.! By! stating! that! the! image! is! a! depiction! of! Loftus! one! can!

immediately!determine!whether!her!resemblance!is!accurate,!not!only!physically!

but!also!in!terms!of!her!uniform.!This!is!significant!due!to!her!reputation!and!her!

inspirational!status,!and!therefore!the!necessity!for!her!image!to!be!identifiable!

to!contemporary!society.!After!the!completion!of!this!painting,!Knight!and!Loftus!

received! extensive!media! coverage,!which!will! be! explored! in! greater! detail! in!

Chapter!V.!This!coverage!has!enabled!a!direct!comparison!between!photographs!

of! Loftus! and! Knight’s! depiction.! In! light! of! the! photograph! taken! of! Loftus!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!62!W.!P.!Eastwood,!Letter!to!the!Editor!of!The%Times,%“An!Academy!Picture”,!The%Times,%19!May!1943,!5.!!

!

!!

29!

engaging!with!the!Minister!of!Labour,!Ernest!Bevin!(Fig.!2),!during!a!visit!to!No.!

11!Royal!Ordnance!Factory!in!Newport,!it!is!evident!that!the!painting!of!Loftus!is!

a!remarkably!close!likeness.!The!overalls! in!the!painting!directly!correlate!with!

those!worn!in!the!photograph!and!her!fashionable!hairstyle!is!similar!in!the!two!

images.! It! is! noticeable,! however,! that! in! the! painting! Knight! appears! to! have!

exaggerated! Loftus’!makeup,! specifically! her! red! lipstick.! In! light! of! the! setting!

this!creates!an!overt!image!of!femininity.!It!highlights!her!status!and!capability!as!

a!woman!within!the!contrasting!work!environment!of!masculine!machinery!and!

thus!promotes!the!female!contribution!to!the!war!effort.!

!

Although! Spencer’s!work! received! less!media! coverage! than! Knight’s! painting,!

photographers!such!as!Cecil!Beaton!and!Leonard!McCombe!were!commissioned!

to!record!the!shipyards!and!Spencer!at!work.63!These!images!therefore!facilitate!

a!similar!comparison!between!the!photographs!and!the!artist’s!interpretation!of!

the!subject!matter.!Whilst!Spencer!has!captured!the!technicalities!of!the!task,!he!

appears! to!have! idealised! the! scene!with! the!omission!of! the! filth!and!physical!

hardship! of! working! in! such! conditions.! ! This! becomes! increasingly! apparent!

when!compared!with!the!photographs,!which!convey!the!reality!of!the!industrial!

environment.! It!consists!of!excessive!smoke!and!discomfort!due! to!exposure! to!

the!elements!and!the!physical!exertion!required.!Spencer,!however,!has!altered!

this! perception! of! the! shipyards! and! this! is,! in! part,! achieved! through! his!

application!of!buoyant! colours.!The!vibrant!palette!holds!positive! connotations!

and! thus! it!makes! the!work! setting! appealing! to! the! viewer.! It! is! notable! that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!63!Stanley!Spencer,!“Photographs”,!Spencer%in%the%Shipyard:%Paintings%and%Drawings%by%Stanley%Spencer%and%Photographs%by%Cecil%Beaton%from%the%Imperial%

War%Museum%(Arts!Council!of!Great!Britain,!1981).!

!

!!

30!

Knight!has!used!similar!tones!in!her!painting!and!in!this!manner!the!two!images!

convey!the!positive!spirit!of!the!nation!and!they!encourage!the!public!to!join!the!

workforce.! From! this! perspective,! although! this! aspect! of! the! works! can! be!

considered!as! inaccurate,! it! complies!with! the!criteria!of! the!WAAC!through! its!

promotion!of!national!identity.!!

!

In!Spencer’s!Burners!the!workmen!lack!a!uniform!as!they!are!depicted!in!various!

Harris! Tweed! outfits,! as! if! they! have! volunteered! for! the! work.64!This! can! be!

considered! unrealistic! for! various! reasons;! firstly,! although! Harris! Tweed!was!

popular! in! Scotland,! it!was! relatively! expensive! and! so! it!was! improbable! that!

labourers!would!have!been!able!to!afford!these!items.65!Secondly,!in!light!of!the!

recent! Great! Depression,! with! its! economic! crisis! and! lack! of! employment!

throughout! the! nation,! the! workmen! would! have! been! driven! by! necessity! to!

earn! a! living. 66 !However! these! underlying! aspects! have! been! lost! in! the!

dramatisation!of!the!subject!and!the!cartoonRlike!qualities!of!the!workers,!and!so!

in!this!respect!the!work!is!not!a!direct!representation.67!It!once!again,!however,!

depicts! the! workforce! in! a! positive! light,! transforming! the! shipyards! into! a!

welcoming!domestic!setting.!On!the!other!hand,!in!Knight’s!painting!the!workers!

are!accurately!depicted!in!overalls!and!this!serves!to!convey!a!different!message:!

it! creates! an! image! of! unity! as! it! removes! any! implications! of! the! individual’s!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!64!Roger!Tolson,!“‘Welders’!from!‘Shipbuilding!on!the!Clyde’”,!Art%from%Different%Fronts%of%World%War%One%

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/wars_conflict/art/art_frontline_gal_03.shtml%Accessed!on!5th!December!2014.!!65!Alex!Ferguson,!“Stanley!Spencer”,!Art%Quarterly,%Spring!2007.!66!Laura!Gascoigne,!“Heat!and!Clangour”,!Spectator,%Vol.!294!No.!9161,!2004,!52.!67!Robert!Clark,!Review:!“Visual!Arts!Shipbuilding:!Imperial!War!Museum!North,!Salford!4/5”,!The%Guardian,!3!March%2004,!28.!

!

!!

31!

social!status.!In!this!manner,!despite!the!contrasting!representations,!both!artists!

are!successful!in!portraying!a!positive!image!of!the!workforce.!

!

Spencer’s! labourers! seem! to!be!working!without!hierarchy!and! this! element! is!

consistent!throughout!the!series,!with!the!exception!of!the!painting!Riveters%(Fig.!

8).! In! this! painting! three! managers! are! depicted! on! the! far! right! of! the!

composition!wearing! suits! and!bowler!hats.68!! It! is! notable,! however,! that! they!

are! not! directly! influencing! the! work! of! the! labourers! but,! rather,! they! are!

discussing!proposals!for!the!construction!or!design!of!the!ship.!This!detachment!

from! the! workforce! is! further! emphasised! by! their! placement! within! the!

composition!and! the!manner! in!which! they!are! standing,! facing!away! from! the!

shipyard! workers.! In! this! way! their! influence! over! the! labourers! is!

simultaneously! acknowledged! as! significant,! yet! detached! from! the! scene.!

Similarly,! in! Knight’s! work! there! is! a!man! depicted! in! the! background! behind!

Loftus!who!seems!to!be!influencing!the!workers.!The!woman!that!he!is!standing!

next!to,!however,!is!looking!in!the!opposite!direction!and!so!this!lack!of!attention!

to!his!presence!signifies!that!he!has!little!authority!over!the!women.!This!absence!

of! hierarchy! in! the! two! images! can! be! considered! as! symbolic! in! the!

establishment!of!British! identity.!Whilst! there!are!elements!of!hierarchy! in! the!

works,!they!have!successfully!omitted!an!impression!of!inequality!or!oppression!

and,!therefore,!they!convey!a!message!of!liberty!within!the!national!workforce!in!

stark!contrast!to!Fascist!ideals.!!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!68!Gascoigne,!“Heat!and!Clangour”,!52.!

!

!!

32!

In!view!of!this!initial!inspection,!it!is!apparent!that!both!images!contain!aspects!

that!portray! the!subject!matter! inaccurately.!The!WAAC!had!specifically!stated,!

however,! that! it! was! this! personal! reaction! to! the! subject! matter! and! this!

recording! of! the! atmosphere! that! set! artists! apart! from! photographers.! It! is!

necessary,!therefore,!to!consider!the!works!from!the!artists’!perspectives!as!this!

can!provide!validity!to!their!artistic!interpretation.!Spencer!had!a!unique!outlook!

on! his! surroundings;! in! describing! his! experience! at! Lithgow’s! shipyards! he!

states:!

Men! and! people! generally! make! a! kind! of! “home”! for! themselves!wherever! they!are!or!whatever! their!work!which!enables! the! important!human! elements! to! reach! into! and! pervade! in! the! form! of! mysterious!atmospheres!of!a!personal!kind!the!most!ordinary!procedures!of!work!or!place.!Many!of! the!places!and!corners!of!Lithgow’s! factory!moved!me! in!much!the!same!way!as!I!was!by!the!rooms!of!my!childhood.69!

From!this!comparison!it! is!evident!that!Spencer!found!comfort! in!Port!Glasgow!

that! was! reminiscent! of! his! childhood! in! Cookham.! Spencer! recognised!

similarities! between! his! hometown! and! the! shipyards! in! order! to! create! an!

environment! that!was! familiar! and,! therefore,! so! that!he!might!understand! the!

setting.!This!perception!of!the!subject!matter!provides!an!explanation!for!certain!

aspects!of! the!paintings! that!can!be!considered! inaccurate.! It! seems! that! in! the!

same!way!that!Spencer!viewed!Port!Glasgow!as!a!second!home,!he!also!saw!the!

workers!as!an!extended!family.!He!believed!that,!“Their!work!should!be!a!part!of!

their! loveRlife,! not! an! interruption! of! it.”. 70 !This! belief! is! reflected! in! the!

workmen:!he! affectionately! clothes! the!workers! in! tweed!and!knitted! jumpers,!

thus!conveying!both!an!image!of!domesticity!and!the!message!that!the!workmen!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!69!Keith!Bell!et!al.,!Men%of%the%Clyde:%Stanley%Spencer’s%Vision%at%Port%Glasgow!(Edinburgh:!Scottish!National!Portrait!Gallery,!2000),!52.!!70!Collis!Maurice,!Stanley%Spencer:%a%Biography%(London:!Harvill!Press,!1962),!165.!

!

!!

33!

are! motivated! by! love! for! their! work! in! a! reassuring! image! of! preparedness.!

Thus,! it! is! evident! that! Spencer! portrayed! the! shipyards! accurately! from! his!

perspective.! He! focuses! on! the! positive! aspects! of! the! shipyards! and! thus!

captures! the! feel! of! the! environment.! It! can!be! argued,! therefore,! that! Spencer!

has!not!allowed!his!artistic!interpretation!to!get!in!the!way!of!the!documentary.!

Instead,!he!has!allowed!this! interpretation!to!enhance!the!subject;! to!provide!a!

personal! insight!to!the!atmosphere!of!the!working!conditions!whilst!promoting!

an!image!of!national!identity.!!

!

Likewise,! whilst! Knight’s! painting! contains! inaccuracies,! it! is! evident! that! she!

was!working! from! the!perspective! of! a! female! artist! trying! to! gain! recognition!

within! a! masculine! environment,! and! so! she! understood! the! dynamics! of!

inequality!between!men!and!women,!which!will!be!explored!in!greater!detail!in!

Chapter!VI.!It!is!necessary!to!consider!both!the!production!of!the!painting!and!its!

composition.!As!previously!stated,!the!work!was!commissioned!with!the!intent!of!

immortalising! Loftus! in! recognition! of! her! efforts.! This! accolade! is! not! only!

flattering!towards!Loftus!but!it! is!also!inspirational!to!the!nation,!specifically!to!

other! women! who! had! undertaken! new! roles! in! order! to! provide! for! their!

country.! It! represents! the! Government’s! gratitude! for! their! labour! and! it!

encourages! a! sense! of! selfRimportance! within! the! workforce! regardless! of!

gender,!thus!creating!a!sense!of!inclusion!within!Britain.!The!painting!symbolises!

an!element!of!dependency!between!men!and!women!of!the!war!effort.!The!men!

on!the!war!front!had!to!rely!on!the!production!of!weaponry!by!women,!and!so!it!

epitomises!the!necessity!for!unity!and!trust!between!the!sexes.!!!

!

!

!!

34!

In!the!same!way!that!the!commission!signified!advancement!of!the!female!status!

within!society,!it!also!reflected!the!symbolism!of!Knight’s!progression!as!a!female!

artist!within!a!masculine!domain.!Previously!the!appropriate!subject!matter!for!

female! artists! had! been! still! life! and! literary! illustrations.71!Yet! despite! these!

conventions,! Knight!was! applauded! for! this! painting! of! Loftus! and! evidence! of!

her!success!lies!in!the!subsequent!commissions!requested!by!the!WAAC,!such!as!

the!paintings!Take%Off!(1943)%and!The%Nuremberg%Trial!(1946).72!In!this!manner,!

through!the!subject!matter!and!the!process!of!the!commission!itself,!the!creation!

of!the!painting!reflects!the!way!the!nation!was!uniting!and!rising!above!previous!

prejudice!in!this!difficult!period.!Thus!the!accomplishment!of!the!painting!serves!

as!a!morale!boost!to!the!nation,!female!workers!and!aspiring!female!artists.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!71!Anne!Caborn,!“Five!from!the!Closet”,!The%Guardian,%5!September!1989.!72!Anonymous,!“Take!Off”!http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/15505!Accessed!on!14th!January!2014.!

!

!!

35!

Chapter!V:!Art!and!Society!

The!relationship!between!art!and!society!was!crucial!to!the!impact,!and!therefore!

the! success,! of! the! policies! of! the! WAAC.! A! minor,! yet! significant,! aim! of! the!

Committee! was! to! encourage! interaction! between! the! public! observer! and!

artwork.73!Without! this! interaction! the! efforts! to! promote! national! identity!

would!be!rendered!futile.!In!order!for!this!to!be!successful,!therefore,!art!needed!

to! be! accessible! to! the! wider! public,! irrespective! of! social! status,! in! order! to!

include!the!population!as!a!whole.!

!

Clark!considered!his!position!as!chairman!of!the!WAAC!as!a!platform!that!could!

be! utilised! to! influence! the! artistic! education! of! the! nation;! he! believed! that,!

“Public! taste! can! be! educated”. 74 !This! education! would! serve! to! form! a!

foundation! for! the! promotion! of! a! united! national! culture,! and! in! this! way! it!

would!provide! support! to! contemporary!Britain!during! the! challenging!period.!

Prior!to!1942,!the!audience!for!art!exhibitions!was!generally!limited!to!the!upper!

class.75!With!the!progression!of!the!war,!however,!there!was!a!significant!shift!in!

cultural! pursuits,! especially! by! those! of! the! middleRclass.76!The! nation! was!

deprived!of! the!majority!of! their!usual!pastimes!and!as!a! result! the!population!

turned!to!art!as!a!source!of!entertainment!and!cultural!stability.77!This!coincided!

with! the! purposes! of! Clark! and! the! WAAC! and,! consequently,! by! 1943! it! had!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!73!Foss,!Message%and%Medium,%65.!74!Kenneth!Clark,!“Art!After!the!War”,!World%Review,%c.!1945!cited!by!Foss,!British%Artists,%133.!!75!Foss,!Message%and%Medium,%63.!76!Ibid,!63.!77!Ibid,%56.!

!

!!

36!

become! a! national! aim! to! encourage! these! cultural! interests.78!Furthermore,!

there!was!a!contemporary!awareness!regarding!the!contrast!of!the!amount!of!art!

that!was!available! to! those! that! lived! in!London! in!comparison!with! those! that!

lived! in! the! surrounding! areas.79!The! art! critic! Eric! Newton! observed! in! 1941!

that,! “The!cultural!gap!between!London!and!the!smaller!provincial! towns! is! far!

greater! in! visual! than! in! any! of! the! other! arts”.80!This! issue! obstructed! the!

establishment! of! a! sense! of! unity! and! inclusion! both! within! the! nation! and!

between! cities! and! neighbouring! towns.! The! WAAC! addressed! the! issue! by!

means! of! a! rise! in! mobile! war! art! exhibitions! throughout! the! war,! which!

amounted!to!a!considerable!150!installations!of!nine!exhibitions.81!Through!this!

process! of! actively! increasing! the! availability! of! art! to! the! general! public! the!

WAAC!demonstrated!the!sincerity!with!which!they!valued!the!importance!of!the!

population! as! a! whole,! thus! further! promoting! a! sense! of! national! unity!

regardless!of!social!status.!!!!

!

On!their!completion,!both!Burners!and!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring%were!

made!accessible!to!the!public.!By!immediately!exhibiting!the!works!the!impact!of!

the! images!was! directly! relevant! to! contemporary!Britain.! In! the! case! of! these!

two! paintings! they! showcased! the! national! war! effort! on! the! home! front,!

illustrating! the! diligent! and! resourceful! nature! of! British! civilisation.! Once!

Spencer’s!Burners%was!completed! in!1940!it!was!displayed! in!the!garden!of! the!

White!Hart!Inn,!Leonard!Stanley,!where!the!work!was!executed,!so!that!the!local!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!78!Ibid,%69.!79!Ibid,%66.!80!Ibid,!66.!81!Ibid,!66.!

!

!!

37!

residents!might!see!it.82!It!was!then!displayed!at!a!War!Artists!Exhibition!at!the!

National! Gallery,! London! and! afterwards! it!was! transported! to! the!Museum!of!

Modern!Art,!New!York,!in!order!to!illustrate!the!nature!of!the!British!war!effort!

to!the!American!people.83!

!

Similarly,!Knight’s!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring%also!gained!a!high!media!

profile! through! extensive! exposure! and! promotion.! Completed! in! 1943,! the!

painting! was! displayed! at! the! Royal! Academy! of! Art! where! it! was! given! a!

prominent!position!within!the!summer!exhibition.84!Before!the!exhibition!made!

it! accessible! to! the! public,! Knight! was! invited! to! make! a! newsreel! film! with!

British! Paramount! News! regarding! her! work.85!Images! of! both! the! work! and!

Loftus!were! reproduced!and!circulated! in!national!newspapers!and!Loftus!was!

also! interviewed!by!BBC! radio.86!Thus!Loftus! immediately!became! famous;! she!

was!recognised!for!her!skill!as!a!factory!worker!and!in!a!tribute!to!the!workforce!

she!became!an! inspirational! figure! for!other! female! labourers.! In! this!way! it! is!

evident! that! the! two!paintings!served!a!purpose!beyond!their!aesthetic!appeal:!

their!images!were!manipulated!to!influence!society!in!accordance!with!the!aims!

of!the!WAAC.!!

!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!82!Pople,!Stanley%Spencer,%415.!83!Ibid,!415.!84!Anonymous,!“Picture!of!the!Year”,!History!http://www.loftusgardenvillage.co.uk/history.php!Accessed!3rd!March!2015!85!Roger!Cucksey,!Sarah!Griffiths,!“The!Story!of!the!Picture”,!Wartime%Newport:%The%Home%Front%

http://www.wartimenewport.virtuallyhere.co.uk/pages.php?page_id=56!!Accessed!14th!January!2015.!86!Anonymous,!“Picture!of!the!Year”!http://www.loftusgardenvillage.co.uk/history.php!

!

!!

38!

Chapter!VI:!Gender!Issues!within!Society!

The!previous!chapters!of!this!thesis!have!primarily!been!concerned!with!a!study!

of!the!artwork!of!the!WAAC!in!relation!to!contemporary!views!and!their!impact!

and!relevance!within!society!during!the!war.!They!have!provided!assessments!of!

the!works!at!the!time!and!whether!they!were!successful!against!the!WAAC’s!own!

criteria.! This! chapter!will! assess! the! collection! from! a! different! perspective;! it!

will! focus!on! the!value!of! the!collection!as!an!historical!record! for! the!presentR

day! individual! to! look! back! on.! It!will! concern! the! legacy! of! the! collection! and!

what!this!legacy!can!achieve,!which!was!an!unintentional!byRproduct!at!the!time!

of!its!establishment.!At!the!time!of!the!artwork’s!production,!the!WAAC!did!not!

consider! gender! as! an! issue! that! needed! to! be! addressed.! Yet! the! artworks!

provide!valuable!insights!in!to!society!that!the!WAAC!did!not!realise!that!it!was!

portraying! as! they! provide! a! window! on! attitudes! towards! gender! that! the!

Committee! was! not! even! aware! that! it! had.! Nevertheless,! despite! this!

unintentional!aspect!of!the!body!of!work,!it!is!necessary!to!understand!that!Clark!

realised! the! educational! value! of! art.! He! understood! that! art! as! an! historical!

record!could!be!viewed!by!later!generations!in!order!to!comprehend!something!

of!the!past.!From!this!perspective,!one!can!consider!that!Clark!would!be!satisfied!

that!this!collection!is!enlightening!in!terms!of!the!society!that!it!was!made!in,!and!

so!it!fulfils!one!of!his!fundamental!purposes:!for!the!artwork!to!be!educational.!!!

!

The! issue! of! gender! inequality! can! be! assessed! through! several! factors:! a!

consideration! of! the! limitations! placed! on! women! within! society! and! the!

workforce,! the! influence! of! the!WAAC! and! its! views,! the! conditions! of! artistic!

employment! and! the! reflection! of! these! issues! in! art! such! as! the! portrayal! of!

!

!!

39!

sitters! according! to! their! gender.! The! restrictions! placed! on! women! within!

society!were!imposed!from!a!young!age.!Their!education!was!limited!to!subjects!

that! were! deemed! appropriate,! such! as! the! humanities! rather! than!

mathematically!orientated! subjects,! consequently! affecting! their! career!options!

and! limiting!their!opportunities.87!The!effect!of! these! limitations!can!be!seen! in!

the!disproportionate!ratio!of!male!to!female!students!in!the!Slade!School!of!Fine!

Art,!London,!which!maintained!a!consistent! imbalance!between!1912!and!1946!

of!three!female!students!for!every!male!student.88!Although!the!education!of!the!

population! cannot! be! based! on! the! figures! of! one! school,! it! does! indicate! the!

proportions!that!should!be!expected!in!the!employment!of!artists.!It!implies!that!

there! should!be!either!a! significant!majority!of! female!artists! active!during! the!

war,!or!at!the!very!least,!parity!between!the!two!sexes.!However,!this!ratio!does!

not!correspond!with!the!proportion!of!female!to!male!artists!that!were!employed!

by!the!WAAC.!!

!

It! is! evident! that! Clark,! as! chairman! of! the!WAAC,! held! considerable! authority!

over!the!proceedings!of! the!Committee!and!so!his!predisposition!towards!male!

artists!may,!in!part,!be!accountable!for!the!imbalance!of!the!artists!employed!by!

the!WAAC.!An!example!of!his!bias!was!demonstrated!in!an!article,!published!in!

1942!in!the!Studio,! in!which!Clark!commends!the!war!art!produced!by!eighteen!

male! artists,! with! only! a! brief! mention! of! three! female! artists;! Dame! Laura!

Knight,! Evelyn! Dunbar! and! Frances! Macdonald,! in! which! Clark! apologises! for!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!87!Deepwell,!Women%Artists,%37.!88!Ibid,%49.!!

!

!!

40!

their! exclusion! from! the! article! despite! their! talent.89!This! attitude! of! overR

looking! female! artists! in! favour! of! male! artists! is! reflected! throughout! the!

operation! of! the!WAAC.! The! contracts! assigned! to!women! by! the!WAAC!were!

palpably! inconsistent! with! their! career! plans! and! the! many! established!

professional!female!artists!whose!works!were!considered!worthy!of!exhibition!at!

recognised! societies.90!Furthermore,! thirtyRthree! male! artists! employed! during!

the!First!World!War!were!also! issued! contracts!during! the!Second!World!War,!

whilst! in! comparison! no! female! artists! received! this! privilege! despite! the! fact!

that! many! were! still! active.91!The! work! of! female! artists! produced! during! the!

Second!World!War! represented! less! than! ten! per! cent! of! the! collection! at! the!

Imperial!War!Museum.92!Whilst! this!was!an! improvement!on! the!mere! five!per!

cent!of!the!First!World!War,!it!did!not!reflect!a!changing!attitude!towards!women!

due!to!the!nature!of!the!commissions.93!!

!

Female!artists!during!the!war!were!assigned!to!restricted!subject!matter! in!the!

same!way!that!the!subjects!available!to!girls!were!limited!during!their!education.!

Essentially,! female! artists! were! constrained! to! contracts! concerning! the! home!

front! as! the! battlefront! was! considered! masculine! territory.! This! division!

effectively!confined!their!skills!and!capabilities!to!the!production!of!artwork!that!

was!considered!gender!appropriate;! such!as!portraits!of!women!and! images!of!

their!war!work!as!opposed!to!images!of!military!combat.!Noticeably,!the!majority!

of! the! 120! artists! assigned! shortRterm! contracts! remained! in! Britain,! yet! only!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!89!Foss,!War%Paint,%30.!!90!Ibid,!30.!91!Deepwell,!Women%Artists,%81.!92!Ibid,%89.!93!Ibid,%89.!

!

!!

41!

thirteen! of! these! artists!were! female! despite! the! fact! that! this!was! considered!

their! appropriate! location.94!!Moreover,! images!of!women’s! contribution! to! the!

war! effort! amounted! to! twoRthirds! of! the! artwork! produced! by! these! thirteen!

female! artists.95!It! is! apparent! that! this!was! justified! by! the! belief! that!women!

had! restricted! interests!and! that! they!should!be!employed!accordingly.96!There!

existed!the!common!belief!that!whilst!women!were!intuitive,!compassionate!and!

diligent,! the!majority!were! incapable!of!being!geniuses!due!to!their!gender!and!

their!lack!of!artistic!vision.97!In!this!way,!successful!female!artists!were!regarded!

as!an!exception!to!this!concept,!rather!than!as!an!example!of!what!women!could!

achieve,!thus!removing!the!possibility!of!altering!this!perception.!!

!

This! discriminatory! treatment! of! women! is! also! reflected! in! their! reduced!

salaries.!Whilst!male!artists!had!received!in!the!region!of!£650!for!commissions!

that! would! require! six! months! of! work,! Evelyn! Dunbar! was! paid! £325! for! a!

commission! of! the! same! duration,! recording!women’s! efforts! in! the! Red! Cross!

and!Land!Army.98!This!inconsistency!was!constant!throughout!the!war;!however,!

Knight!was!a!prime!example!of!a!female!artist!that!challenged!this!inequality.!The!

WAAC!contacted!Knight!in!1939,!requesting!a!poster!illustrating!the!efforts!of!the!

Women’s! Land! Army.99!This! was! followed! by! a! series! of! commissions,! each!

complying!with!the!concept!of!gender!appropriate!subject!matter.!Knight’s!work,!

however,!was!valued!highly!by!the!Committee!and!so!the!artist!began!to!question!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!94!Foss,!War%Paint,%30.!95!Deepwell,!Women%Artists,%81.!96!Foss,!War%Paint,%30.!!97!Deepwell,!Women%Artists,%114.!!98!Ibid,%89.!99!Ibid,%157.!

!

!!

42!

her!salary!and!the!Committee!responded!accordingly.!She!successfully!raised!her!

fee! on! consecutive! occasions,! including!her! commission! for! an! image!of! Loftus!

for!which!she!was!offered!75!guineas.100!At!this!point!Knight!wrote!to!the!WAAC,!

negotiating! a! raise! in! order! to! cover! the! necessary! expenses! required! by! the!

commission!such!as!travel!and!accommodation.101!The!Committee!complied,!and!

so,! to!an!extent!Knight!had!made!some!progress!as!her!skills!as!an!artist!were!

recognised!and!considered!worthy!of!a!higher!fee.!This!persistence!culminated!in!

her! painting,% The%Nuremberg%Trial! (1946)! and! its! supplementary! sketches,! for!

which! Knight! was! paid! £500,! the! highest! fee! awarded! to! a! female! artist.102!

Therefore,! although! there! was! a! level! of! awareness! within! the! Committee!

concerning! the! inequality! between! the! sexes,! the! issue! was! not! willingly!

addressed!and!significant!solutions!were!not!enforced!as!the!WAAC!consistently!

offered! inferior!rates!of!pay!and!maintained!their!restrictions!regarding! female!

capabilities.!!

!

This! context! of! gender! inequality! provides! a! valuable! insight! in! to! the!

circumstances!within!which!art!was!created!during!the!Second!World!War.!It!is!

evident!that!Knight’s!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%Breech6ring%conforms!to!the!aspects!

that!were!typical!of!work!produced!by!female!artists,!such!as!the!subject!matter!

and!the!previously!discussed!inferior!fee.!The!painting,!however,!simultaneously!

reflects! and! challenges! the! underlying! gender! issues! within! contemporary!

society.! This! is! achieved! by! the! contrasting! feminine! and! masculine! elements!

within! the! composition.! On! closer! inspection,! it! is! evident! that! Knight!went! to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!100!Dunbar,!Laura%Knight,%162.!101!Ibid,%162.!102!Ibid,%88.!

!

!!

43!

considerable!effort!to!ensure!that!Loftus!maintained!her!feminine!identity!within!

the! factory.! Despite! her! surroundings! and! the! strenuous! nature! of! her! work,!

Loftus!is!presented!as!very!composed!and!attractive,!with!her!lipstick!still!intact!

and!not!a!hair!out!of!place,! thus!emphasising!her!femininity.!This! is! juxtaposed!

with!the!practicality!of!her!rolledRup!sleeves,!the!stains!on!her!coveralls,!and!the!

masculinity! of! the! heavy!machinery! and! the! working! environment.! Yet! Loftus!

commands!control!of!the!scene,!and!the!machinery,!with!her!intense!focus!on!the!

task!before!her.!By!placing!these!feminine!and!masculine!elements!harmoniously!

alongside! each! other!Knight! demonstrates! the! capability! of!women! in! areas! of!

work!that!had!previously!been!considered!unsuitable.!From!this!perspective!it!is!

apparent!why!this!image!of!Loftus!was!inspirational!to!the!nation.!The!painting!

demonstrates!recognition!of!Loftus’!efforts!within!the!workforce,!applauding!her!

competence!as!a!woman!within!a!masculine!role!and!thus!supporting!the!change!

in!gender!roles!within!society.!!

!

The!image!also!functions!as!an!advertisement!in!a!similar!way!to!contemporary!

posters.!The!painting!encourages!women!to!enter!the!workforce!and!the!factory!

setting,!and!this!is!approached!through!an!appeal!to!fashionable!interests.!This!is!

achieved! through! the! attractive! qualities! within! the! composition,! such! as! the!

headgear! that! Loftus! is! depicted! wearing.! The! hair! turban! portrayed! in! the!

painting! had! been! recently! introduced! to! replace! the! previously! disliked!

mobcap.103!This!new!turban!was!available! in!eight!different!colours! in!order! to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!103!Anonymous,!“Our!London!Correspondence:!The!New!Pacific!Landings”,!The%Manchester%Guardian,%2!July!1943.!

!

!!

44!

encourage! women! to! prioritise! safety! and! cover! their! hair.104!Furthermore,!

Loftus!appears!to!have!adjusted!to!the!factory!work!with!ease!and!maintains!her!

feminine! charm! despite! the! working! conditions.! This! is! comparable! to! the!

approach! of! posters! at! the! time,! such! as! Be% in% the% Fashion% –% Cover% Your% Hair%

(1940)! (Fig.! 3),! designed! by!H.! A.! Rotholz.! The! imagery! immediately! creates! a!

powerful!message! to! the! viewer.! It! targets! the! importance!of! safety!within! the!

factories!by!demonstrating!a!variety!of!adequate!headgear!that!was!considered!

both!practical!and!stylish.!Created!prior!to!Knight’s!painting!of!Loftus,!the!poster!

raises! awareness! for! the! issue! at! hand! and! simultaneously! provides! a! popular!

solution.!!

!

Although! it! is! less! obvious,! aspects! of! gender! inequality! are! also! present! in!

Spencer’s! work.! Amongst! Beaton’s! recordings! of! the! shipyards! there! is! a!

photograph!of!a! female!welder! captioned!Study%of%a%Girl%Welder! (Fig.!4).105!It! is!

notable! that!Spencer!produced!drawings!of! female!welders!such!as!Miss%Kathie%

Chalmers%on%Fabricated%Stern%(Fig.! 5)! and!Cathie%McGolwon%(Fig.! 6),! and! so!one!

can!conclude!that! female!welders!were!not!uncommon.!Spencer!excludes!these!

studies! from! the! painting,! however,! as! the! final! composition! solely! consists! of!

male! workers.! On! the! other! hand,! women! are! portrayed! in! Riggers% (Fig.! 9).%

Whilst! this!depiction!acknowledges! the! female!contribution! to! the!war!effort! it!

simultaneously!reduces!the!women!to!typically!female!roles!as!they!are!depicted!

operating! sewing! machines.! In! this! manner! the! series! appears! to! have! been!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!104!Ibid.!105!Spencer,!“Drawings”,!Spencer%in%the%Shipyard.!

!

!!

45!

influenced! by! the! previously! mentioned! notions! regarding! roles! that! were!

considered!gender!appropriate.!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!!

46!

Conclusion!

This! study! set! out! to! assess! the! achievements! of! the! WAAC! against! its! initial!

intentions.! It! has! been! conducted! through! an! evaluation! of! the! Committee,!

comprising!considerations!of!its!formation,!the!environment!within!which!it!was!

established,!and!its!intentions!as!the!main!patron!of!art!during!the!Second!World!

War.! These! aspects! of! the! Committee! have! provided! an! insight! in! to! and!

understanding!of!the!aims!of!the!WAAC.!In!the!context!of!these!factors,!this!study!

has!made!a!focused!evaluation!of!two!paintings,!Knight’s!Ruby%Loftus%Screwing%a%

Breech6ring% and! Spencer’s! Burners.! This! has! included! a! consideration! of! their!

production! and! reception! in! order! to! evaluate! their! concordance! with! the!

Committee’s!criteria.!!

!

This! assessment! has! confirmed! that! the! artworks! commissioned! by! the!WAAC!

conform!to!their!main!criteria;!that!the!images!should!be!accurate!depictions!of!

their! subject! matter,! promote! national! identity! and! function! as! an! historical!

document.!It!has!revealed!the!Committee’s!priorities!and!shown!that!the!purpose!

of! the! artwork! was! considered! more! significant! than! its! accuracy.! This! was!

initially!evident! from!the!WAAC’s!decision!to!employ!notably!more!artists! than!

photographers!to!document!the!war.!Additionally,!on!close!inspection!of!Knight’s!

and!Spencer’s!paintings! it!has!been! shown! that,! although! there!are! similarities!

between! the! paintings! and! the! photographs,! accurate! elements! of! the! images!

were!waived! in!preference! to! the!promotion!of!an! image!of!Britain.!The!WAAC!

also!went! to!extensive!efforts! to!ensure! that! the!artwork!was!accessible! to! the!

public! in!order!to!achieve!a!sense!of!national!unity!within!the!population.!Thus!

this! thesis!has!determined! the!extent! to!which! the! images!correspond! to! these!

!

!!

47!

two! criteria! and! it! has! identified! the! primary!motivations! behind! the!WAAC’s!

operations.!!

!

This!highlights!the!importance!of!artwork!in!wartime!Britain,!and!the!manner!in!

which! it! was! used! to! educate! society! and! project! notions! such! as! unity! and!

national! identity.! Moreover,! this! study! in! itself! has! highlighted! the! value! of!

historical! artwork! to! the!modernRday! viewer.! It! has! demonstrated! the! way! in!

which! the! study! of! artwork! from! previous! generations! can! be! considered!

superior! to! literary! texts! and! photographic! documentation.! Through! the!

production! of! a! piece! of! art,! artists! and! patrons! unintentionally! convey! their!

subconscious!perceptions!regarding!the!subject!matter.!It!is!the!interpretation!of!

this! that! creates! an! authentic! account! of! the! society! and! environment! within!

which! the! art! was! created.!This! approach! could! also! be! extended! to! the!

assessment! of! artwork! pertaining! to! different! historical! periods,! especially! in!

times!of!turmoil!or!destruction!that!threaten!civilisation.! In!this!way!art!can!be!

used!to!reveal!contemporary!values!and!social!concerns.!Therefore,!in!assessing!

artwork! in! this! manner,! this! thesis! has! demonstrated! the! validity! of! Clark’s!

intention!regarding!art!and!historical!documentation.!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!!

48!

!

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