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Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) combines premature deaths and loss of
healthy life resulting from illness or disability. (1.4 billion a year)
90% of DALY occur in developing countries WHO reports 50% due to communicable disease
For most of human history, the greatest health threats have been
pathogenic organisms, accidents, and violence.
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EMERGENT DISEASE – Never known before or has been absent for 20 years or more
Spreads Rapidly – modern travel means
Example – FOOT & MOUTH DISEASE
Infectious diseases are still responsible for about 24% of all disease-related deaths.
Majority of these deaths in poorer countries with poor nutrition, sanitation, and vaccination programs.
AIDS now largest single cause of communicable death in the world.
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Risk Assessment & ManagementRisk = probability of exposure x probability of harm
Risk Assessment1) ID potential hazard
2) Probability of occurrence
3) Determine how much damage
(social; env; economic)
Controversy over assessments – WHY?
Disputes over variables such as - # exposed, level of exposure, and impact due to age/health/sex of organism
1) How Serious?
2) Can it be reduced?
3) How can it be reduced?
4) $$ to clean it up?
Risk Management
After Assessment
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4 Main Types of Hazards smoking (case study), unsafe working
conditions, diet, drinking, driving, poverty!
Cultural
Chemical
synthetic chemicals from water & air pollution – human body contains over 500 syn.chemicals not known prior to 1920
ionizing radiation, earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricane, tornadoes
pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites), pollen and other allergens; animals (bees, snakes)
Physical
Biological
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Biological HazardsEpidemiology – the study of factors affecting the health and illness Epidemiology – the study of factors affecting the health and illness
of a populationof a population
Dose Response Curve
Non-Transmittable Disease – – not caused by living organisms and does not spread from person to personCardiovascular disease,
obesity, diabetes, most cancers, bronchitis
Transmissible Disease – – caused by living organisms (bacteria, protozoa, and parasites) and virusesPathogens (disease causing organisms) spread through water, air, food, insects, & body fluids - VECTORS
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TRANSMISSIBLE TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASEDISEASEAccording to the WHO & UNICEF 2 million children in developing According to the WHO & UNICEF 2 million children in developing
countries die each year due to preventable infectious disease.countries die each year due to preventable infectious disease.
80% of the infectious disease is spread through waterborne infections (diarrhea, hepatitis, typhoid fever, and cholera)
Seven Deadliest Infectious Disease:
1)1) Tuberculosis (TB) bacterial diseaseTuberculosis (TB) bacterial disease
2)2) Malaria – protozoaMalaria – protozoa
3)3) Respiratory Disease – mostly pneumonia Respiratory Disease – mostly pneumonia (bacteria and viruses)(bacteria and viruses)
4)4) Diarrheal Disease – bacterial & viruses Diarrheal Disease – bacterial & viruses (unclean water)(unclean water)
5)5) Measles – viralMeasles – viral
6)6) Hepatitis – viralHepatitis – viral
7)7) HIV/AIDS – Viral HIV/AIDS – Viral
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CHEMICAL HazardsImmune Systems – protects the body
against disease Disruptors – viruses, bacteria, parasites, Disruptors – viruses, bacteria, parasites, malnutrition, ionizing radiation, synthetic malnutrition, ionizing radiation, synthetic chemicalschemicals
Nervous System – brain; spinal cord; peripheral nerves Neurotoxins – synthetic chemicals = chlorinated Neurotoxins – synthetic chemicals = chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, PCBs, dioxins); organophosphates hydrocarbons (DDT, PCBs, dioxins); organophosphates (malathion); formaldehyde; heavy metals (mercury, (malathion); formaldehyde; heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium)lead, cadmium)
Endocrine – glands and hormones that regulate body functions
Disruptors – (HAA’s – hormonally active agents) = can Disruptors – (HAA’s – hormonally active agents) = can mimic or block natural hormone responses – many mimic or block natural hormone responses – many synthetic chemicals such as atrazine, DDT, PCB’ssynthetic chemicals such as atrazine, DDT, PCB’s
Endocrine disruptors have major impacts on reproductive systems
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1) Size of the dose over time
2) How often exposure occurs
3) Who is exposed
4) How well the body’s detox system works
5) Genetic make-up of organism
Factors affecting Toxicity
Toxicity – measure of how harmful a substance is.
Dosage – the amount inhaled, absorbed, or
ingested
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EXAMPLES: DDT (synthetic organic pesticide), PCB’s (oils used in
electrical equipment); Mercury (heavy metal)
Many chemicals are used because of their long Many chemicals are used because of their long persistence or resistance to breakdown: plastics, persistence or resistance to breakdown: plastics,
CFC’s, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (DDT)CFC’s, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (DDT)
This also means they have a lasting impact on the environment
Bioaccumulation – chemicals are stored in
specific organs or tissues at levels higher
than normal
Biomagnification – levels of toxins in the
environment are magnified as they pass
through food chains
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DANGEROUS CHEMICALS
•Dangerous chemicals are divided into two broad categories:
Hazardous - Dangerous
-Flammable, explosive, irritant, acid, caustic.
Toxic -Harmful
-Can be general or very specific. Often harmful even in dilute concentrations.
Poison – has an LD50 of 50 mg or LESS
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•Allergens - Substances that activate the immune system.
Antigens - Allergens that are recognized as foreign by white blood cells and stimulate the production of specific antibodies.
•Neurotoxins - Special class of metabolic poisons that specifically attack nerve cells.
-Heavy Metals kill nerve cells.
-Chlorinated Hydrocarbons disrupt nerve cell membranes. (DDT, PCBs, dioxins)
-Organophosphates inhibit signal transmission between nerve cells. (malathion)
Insecticides
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•Mutagens - Agents that damage or alter genetic material.
Radiation (x-ray equipment)
•Teratogens - Specifically cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and development.
Alcohol - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
PCB’s, steroids, lead & mercury
•Carcinogens - Substances that cause cancer.
Cigarette smoke, dioxins, radon gas, asbestos
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100 million Antibiotic doses prescribed each year in the US – many unnecessary
ANTIBIOTICS More than ½ of the antibiotics manufactured in the US are fed to farm animals to stimulate weight gain
RESISTANCEMany protozoans and insects are now immune to most antibiotics & pesticides (rapid evolution)
Humans overuse and therefore add pressure to adapt and change.
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•Solubility - One of most important characteristics in determining the movement of a toxin.
•Chemicals are divided into two major groups:
-Those that dissolve more readily in water.
-Those that dissolve more readily in oil.
Water soluble compounds move rapidly through the environment, and have ready access to most human cells.
RATE OF MOVEMENT & DISTRIBUTION
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•Animal Testing
Most commonly used and widely accepted toxicity test is to expose a population of laboratory animals to measured doses of specific toxins.
-Sensitivity differences pose a problem.
Dose Response Curves
LD50 - Dose at which 50% of the test population is sensitive.
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LD50 = median lethal dose: the amount of a chemical received in one dose that kills exactly 50% of the organisms in a population (typically in a 2 week period of time)
Animal Testing
Takes 2-5 years – costs between 200,000 – 2 mil
Threshold = dosage amount at which no negative effects are seen
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Infectious Agents
Environmentally transmitted infectious disease
contaminated food, water, soil, air
Giardia - protist (water) Salmonella - bacteria (food)
Toxic Heavy Metals
heavy metals that pose hazards to health conditions
by-products of mining, refinging
mercury, lead, nickel often neuro-toxins
Organic Comp.carbon baseded -synthetic organic material
pest control, fertilizers, food additives
ACS reports over 4 million known substances
Radiation
decay of radioactive isotopes measured in sieverts (unit)
nuclear energy, naturally occuring decay (radon)
radon exposure, nuclear accidents, x-rays, atomic fallout
Thermal unwanted heat increase from norm.
natural events,power plants & steam generators
Temp range for life Temp affects DO levels in aquatic environments
Particulatessmall particles of dust released into atmosphere
natural - volcanos, fires un-natural - burning (coal) farming practices
Respiratory problems Normally synergistic effects
Asbestossmall, elongated mineral fragments
industrial use - building materials, insulation in houses, pipes, cars, flooring
repiratory disease, cancer causing (tumors)
What Where example