Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamins

Nutrient Function Life StageGroup

RDA/AI* ULa Selected FoodSources

Adverse effects ofexcessive consumption

SpecialConsiderations

Biotin Coenzyme insynthesis of fat,glycogen, andamino acids

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(μg/d)5*6*

8*12*

20*25*30*30*30*30*

20*25*30*30*30*30*

30*30*30*

35*35*35*

NDb

ND

NDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDND

NDNDND

Liver and smalleramounts in fruits andmeats

No adverse effects of biotin inhumans or animals werefound. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofbiotin are limited, caution maybe warranted.

None

Choline Precursor foracetylcholine,phospholipids andbetaine

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)125*150*

200*250*

375*550*550*550*550*550*

375*400*425*425*425*425*

450*450*450*

550*550*550*

(mg/d)NDND

10001000

200030003500350035003500

200030003500350035003500

300035003500

300035003500

Milk, liver, eggs,peanuts

Fishy body odor, sweating,salivation, hypotension,hepatotoxicity

Individuals withtrimethylaminuria, renaldisease, liver disease,depression andParkinson’s disease,may be at risk of adverseeffects with cholineintakes at the UL.

Although AIs have beenset for choline, there arefew data to assesswhether a dietary supplyof choline is needed at allstages of the life cycle,and it may be that thecholine requirement canbe met by endogenoussynthesis at some ofthese stages.

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.

Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage

GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food

SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption

Special Considerations

Folate

Also known as:Folic acidFolacinPteroylpolyglutamates

Note: Given as dietaryfolate equivalents (DFE).1 DFE = 1 µg food folate= 0.6 µg of folate fromfortified food or as asupplement consumedwith food = 0.5 µg of asupplement taken on anempty stomach.

Coenzyme in themetabolism ofnucleic and aminoacids; preventsmegaloblasticanemia

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(μg/d)65*80*

150200

300400400400400400

300400400400400400

600600600

500500500

(μg/d) NDb

ND

300400

600800

1,0001,0001,0001,000

600800

1,0001,0001,0001,000

8001,0001,000

8001,0001,000

Enriched cerealgrains, dark leafyvegetables, enrichedand whole-grainbreads and breadproducts, fortifiedready-to-eat cereals

Masks neurologicalcomplication in people withvitamin B12 deficiency.

No adverse effectsassociated with folate fromfood or supplements havebeen reported. This does notmean that there is nopotential for adverse effectsresulting from high intakes.Because data on the adverseeffects of folate are limited,caution may be warranted.

The UL for folate applies tosynthetic forms obtained fromsupplements and/or fortifiedfoods.

In view of evidence linkingfolate intake with neuraltube defects in the fetus, itis recommended that allwomen capable ofbecoming pregnantconsume 400 µg fromsupplements or fortifiedfoods in addition to intakeof food folate from avaried diet.

It is assumed that womenwill continue consuming400 µg from supplementsor fortified food until theirpregnancy is confirmedand they enter prenatalcare, which ordinarilyoccurs after the end of thepericonceptional period—the critical time forformation of the neuraltube.

Niacin

Includes nicotinic acidamide, nicotinic acid(pyridine-3-carboxylicacid), and derivativesthat exhibit the biologicalactivity of nicotinamide.

Note: Given as niacinequivalents (NE). 1 mgof niacin = 60 mg oftryptophan; 0–6 months= preformed niacin (notNE).

Coenzyme orcosubstrate inmany biologicalreduction andoxidationreactions—thusrequired for energymetabolism

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)2*4*

68

121616161616

121414141414

181818

171717

(mg/d)NDND

1015

203035353535

203035353535

303535

303535

Meat, fish, poultry,enriched and whole-grain breads andbread products,fortified ready-to-eatcereals

There is no evidence ofadverse effects from theconsumption of naturallyoccurring niacin in foods.

Adverse effects from niacincontaining supplements mayinclude flushing andgastrointestinal distress.

The UL for niacin applies tosynthetic forms obtained fromsupplements, fortified foods,or a combination of the two.

Extra niacin may berequired by personstreated with hemodialysisor peritoneal dialysis, orthose with malabsorptionsyndrome.

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academdies. All rights reserved.

Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage

GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food

SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption

Special Considerations

Pantothenic Acid Coenzyme in fattyacid metabolism

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)1.7*1.8*

2*3*

4*5*5*5*5*5*

4*5*5*5*5*5*

6*6*6*

7*7*7*

(mg/d) NDb

ND

NDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDND

NDNDND

Chicken, beef,potatoes, oats,cereals, tomatoproducts, liver,kidney, yeast, eggyolk, broccoli, wholegrains

No adverse effectsassociated with pantothenicacid from food orsupplements have beenreported. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofpantothenic acid are limited,caution may be warranted.

None

Riboflavin

Also known as:Vitamin B2

Coenzyme innumerous redoxreactions

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)0.3*0.4*

0.50.6

0.91.31.31.31.31.3

0.91.01.11.11.11.1

1.41.41.4

1.61.61.6

(mg/d)NDND

NDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDND

NDNDND

Organ meats, milk,bread products andfortified cereals

No adverse effectsassociated with riboflavinconsumption from food orsupplements have beenreported. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofriboflavin are limited, cautionmay be warranted.

None

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.

Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage

GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food

SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption

Special Considerations

Thiamin

Also known as:Vitamin B1Aneurin

Coenzyme in themetabolism ofcarbohydratesand branched-chain amino acids

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)0.2*0.3*

0.50.6

0.91.21.21.21.21.2

0.91.01.11.11.11.1

1.41.41.4

1.41.41.4

NDb

ND

NDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDND

NDNDND

Enriched, fortified, orwhole-grainproducts; bread andbread products,mixed foods whosemain ingredient isgrain, and ready-to-eat cereals

No adverse effectsassociated with thiamin fromfood or supplements havebeen reported. This does notmean that there is nopotential for adverse effectsresulting from high intakes.Because data on the adverseeffects of thiamin are limited,caution may be warranted.

Persons who may haveincreased needs forthiamin include thosebeing treated withhemodialysis orperitoneal dialysis, orindividuals withmalabsorption syndrome.

Vitamin A

Includes provitamin Acarotenoids that aredietary precursors ofretinol.

Note: Given as retinolactivity equivalents(RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 µgretinol, 12 µg β-carotene,24 µg α-carotene, or 24µg β-cryptoxanthin. Tocalculate RAEs from REsof provitamin Acarotenoids in foods,divide the REs by 2. Forpreformed vitamin A infoods or supplementsand for provitamin Acarotenoids insupplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.

Required fornormal vision,gene expression,reproduction, vegetablesembryonicdevelopment andimmune function

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(μg/d)400*500*

300400

600900900900900900

600700700700700700

750770770

1,2001,3001,300

(μg/d)600600 fruits and leafy

600900

1,7002,8003,0003,0003,0003,000

1,7002,8003,0003,0003,0003,000

2,8003,0003,000

2,8003,0003,000

Liver, dairy products,fish, darkly colored

Teratological effects, livertoxicity

Note: From preformedVitamin A only.

Individuals with highalcohol intake, pre-existing liver disease,hyperlipidemia or severeprotein malnutrition maybe distinctly susceptibleto the adverse effects ofexcess preformedvitamin A intake.

!-carotene supplementsare advised only to serveas a provitamin A sourcefor individuals at risk ofvitamin A deficiency.

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.

Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage

GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food

SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption

Special Considerations

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 comprises agroup of six relatedcompounds: pyridoxal,pyridoxine, pyridoxamine,and 5’-phosphates (PLP,PNP, PMP)

Coenzyme in themetabolism ofamino acids,glycogen andsphingoid bases

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)0.1*0.3*

0.50.6

1.01.31.31.31.71.7

1.01.21.31.31.51.5

1.91.91.9

2.02.02.0

(mg/d) NDb

ND

3040

6080

100100100100

6080

100100100100

80100100

80100100

Fortified cereals,organ meats,fortified soy-basedmeat substitutes

No adverse effectsassociated with Vitamin B6from food have beenreported. This does not meanthat there is no potential foradverse effects resulting fromhigh intakes. Because dataon the adverse effects ofVitamin B6 are limited,caution may be warranted.

Sensory neuropathy hasoccurred from high intakes ofsupplemental forms.

None

Vitamin B12

Also known as:Cobalamin

Coenzyme innucleic acidmetabolism;preventsmegaloblasticanemia

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(μg/d)0.4*0.5*

0.91.2

1.82.42.42.42.42.4

1.82.42.42.42.42.4

2.62.62.6

2.82.82.8

NDND

NDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDND

NDNDND

Fortified cereals,meat, fish, poultry

No adverse effects havebeen associated with theconsumption of the amountsof vitamin B12 normally foundin foods or supplements. Thisdoes not mean that there isno potential for adverseeffects resulting from highintakes. Because data on theadverse effects of vitamin B12are limited, caution may bewarranted.

Because 10 to 30percent of older peoplemay malabsorb food-bound vitamin B12, it isadvisable for those olderthan 50 years to meettheir RDA mainly byconsuming foods fortifiedwith vitamin B12 or asupplement containingvitamin B12.

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Acadeies. All rights reserved.

Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage

GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food

SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption

Special Considerations

Vitamin C

Also known as:Ascorbic acidDehydroascorbic acid(DHA)

Cofactor forreactions requiringreduced copper oriron metalloenzymeand as a protectiveantioxidant

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)40*50*

1525

457590909090

456575757575

808585

115120120

(mg/d) NDb

ND

400650

1,2001,8002,0002,0002,0002,000

1,2001,8002,0002,0002,0002,000

1,8002,0002,000

1,8002,0002,000

Citrus fruits,tomatoes, tomatojuice, potatoes,brussel sprouts,cauliflower, broccoli,strawberries,cabbage andspinach

Gastrointestinal disturbances,kidney stones, excess ironabsorption

Individuals who smokerequire an additional 35mg/d of vitamin C overthat needed bynonsmokers.

Nonsmokers regularlyexposed to tobaccosmoke are encouragedto ensure they meet theRDA for vitamin C.

Vitamin D

Also known as:Calciferol

Note: 1 µg calciferol =40 IU vitamin D

The DRI values arebased on the absenceof adequate exposure tosunlight.

Maintain serumcalcium andphosphorusconcentrations.

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(ug/d)5*5*

5*5*

5*5*5*5*

10*15*

5*5*5*5*

10*15*

5*5*5*

5*5*5*

(ug/d)2525

5050

505050505050

505050505050

505050

505050

Fish liver oils, fleshof fatty fish, liver andfat from seals andpolar bears, eggsfrom hens that havebeen fed vitamin D,fortified milkproducts and fortifiedcereals

Elevated plasma 25 (OH) Dconcentration causinghypercalcemia

Patients onglucocorticoid therapymay require additionalvitamin D.

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.

Dietary Reference Intakes: VitaminsNutrient Function Life Stage

GroupRDA/AI* ULa Selected Food

SourcesAdverse effects ofexcessive consumption

Special Considerations

Vitamin E

Also known as:"-tocopherol

Note: As α-tocopherol.α-Tocopherol includesRRR-α-tocopherol, theonly form of α-tocopherol that occursnaturally in foods, andthe 2R-stereoisomericforms of α-tocopherol(RRR-, RSR-, RRS-,and RSS-α-tocopherol)that occur in fortifiedfoods and supplements.It does not include the2S-stereoisomericforms of α-tocopherol(SRR-, SSR-, SRS-,and SSS-α-tocopherol),also found in fortifiedfoods and supplements.

A metabolicfunction has not yetbeen identified.Vitamin E’s majorfunction appears tobe as a non-specific chain-breakingantioxidant.

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(mg/d)4*5*

67

111515151515

111515151515

151515

191919

(mg/d) NDb

ND

200300

600800

1,0001,0001,0001,000

600800

1,0001,0001,0001,000

8001,0001,000

8001,0001,000

Vegetable oils,unprocessed cerealgrains, nuts, fruits,vegetables, meats

There is no evidence ofadverse effects from theconsumption of vitamin Enaturally occurring in foods.

Adverse effects fromvitamin E containingsupplements may includehemorrhagic toxicity.

The UL for vitamin E appliesto any form of "-tocopherolobtained from supplements,fortified foods, or acombination of the two.

Patients on anticoagulanttherapy should bemonitored when takingvitamin E supplements.

Vitamin K Coenzyme duringthe synthesis ofmany proteinsinvolved in bloodclotting and bonemetabolism

Infants0−6 mo7−12 mo

Children1−3 y4−8 y

Males9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Females9−13 y14−18 y19−30 y31-50 y50-70 y> 70 y

Pregnancy≤ 18 y19-30y31-50 y

Lactation≤ 18 y19-30y31−50 y

(μg/d)2.0*2.5*

30*55*

60*75*

120*120*120*120*

60*75*90*90*90*90*

75*90*90*

75*90*90*

NDND

NDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDNDNDNDND

NDNDND

NDNDND

Green vegetables(collards, spinach,salad greens,broccoli), brusselsprouts, cabbage,plant oils andmargarine

No adverse effectsassociated with vitamin Kconsumption from food orsupplements have beenreported in humans oranimals. This does notmean that there is nopotential for adverse effectsresulting from high intakes.Because data on theadverse effects of vitamin Kare limited, caution may bewarranted.

Patients on anticoagulanttherapy should monitorvitamin K intake.

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary typefollowed by an asterisk (*), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)a. RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

aUL = The maximum level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects. Unless otherwise specified, the UL represents total intake from food, water, andsupplements. Due to lack of suitable data, ULs could not be established for vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, or carotenoids. In the absence of ULs,extra caution may be warranted in consuming levels above recommended intakes.

bND = Not determinable due to lack of data of adverse effects in this age group and concern with regard to lack of ability to handle excess amounts. Source of intake should be fromfood only to prevent high levels of intake.

SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6,Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary ReferenceIntakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may beaccessed via www.nap.edu. Copyright 2001 by The National Academies. All rights reserved.