Diagnosis Dan Screening

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Transcript of Diagnosis Dan Screening

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Diagnosis dan Screening

Dr.Edward Kosasih,MARS,PA,DK

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Diagnosis dan screening

• Diagnostic and screening tests are used everyday by clinicians.

• Tests are used to

(i) make diagnoses (or increase the probability ofa diagnosis);

(ii) judge the severity of an illness; and

(iii) predict its clinical course or likely response to

treatment.Tests should be chosen based on the useful

information that they provide to clinician.

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Screening tests :

• applied to asymptomatic healthy subjects from

the general population.•  An example might be population screening for

cholesterol.

Diagnostic tests :

• are used in patients with specific symptoms toexplain or investigate their most likely cause.

• are particularly useful when clinical uncertaintyexists  – to 'rule in' or exclude the likelihood of a

particular diagnosis. However, sound clinical judgement about suspicious signs andsymptoms remains the best indicator for the useof diagnostic tests.

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• The 'best' test to use is a pre-determined

'gold standard'.

• The gold standard reflects the 'true'

diagnosis in that patient. In many

situations, establishing the true diagnosis

may be invasive, expensive and potentially

unrealistic  – thus we often use diagnostic

tests rather than gold standard

measurements. Examples of somescreening and diagnostic tests and

possible 'gold standards' are listed below :

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Examples of screening and diagnostic tests and possible gold standards

Disease Tests Gold standard

Urinary tract infection urine microscopy urine culture

Congenital heart

disease

exercise ECG coronary angiography

Myocardial infarction ECG or cardiac

enzymes

cardiac biopsy

(only available at autopsy)

Breast cancer mammography biopsy result

Bowel cancer Hemoccult test of stool colonoscopy +/- biopsyHypertension blood pressure

(Korotkoff sounds)

intra-arterial measurement of

pressures

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Skrining

Tujuan : untuk mencegah penyakit atau akibat penyakitdengan mengidentifikasi individu2 pada suatu titikdalam riwayat alamiah ketika proses penyakit dapatdiubah melalui intervensi.

Uji skrining digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi suatupenanda awal perkembangan penyakit sehinggaintervensi dapat diterapkan untuk menghambat prosespenyakit.

Tiga tingkat pencegahan :

• Pencegahan primer

• Pencegahan sekunder

• Pencegahan tertier

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Pencegahan primer

• Ditujukan pd orang2 yg tidak memilikigejala untuk mengidentifikasi faktor risikodini penyakit guna menahan proses

patologi sebelum timbul gejala• Contoh : mengidentifikasi orang2 dalam

tahap awal gangguan toleransi glukosa,dan mengendalikan berat badan sertapola makan mereka untuk mencegahtimbulnya diabetes.

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Pencegahan sekunder

• Ditujukan pd orang2 dalam proses awal

penyakit untuk memperbaiki prognosis.

• Contoh : mengidentifikasi orang2

penginap DM yg tidak terdeteksi atau tidak

teramati untuk meningkatkan toleransi

glukosa guna mencegah penyakit

mikrovaskular yg dapat mengakibatkankerusakan ginjal, dan penyakit lainnya.

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Pencegahan tertier

• Ditujukan pada orang2 yang mengalami

komplikasi untuk mencegah dampak

lanjutan komplikasi tsb.

• Contoh : melakukan skrining pada orang2

untuk mendeteksi riwayat retinopati

diabetik agar mendapat pengobatan laser

untuk mengendalikan perdarahan retinadan mencegah kebutaan.

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Sensitivitas dan spesifitas

• Untuk mengetahui apakah suatu uji skrining

atau diagnosis dapat membedakan antara

individu yang sakit dan yang tidak sakit.

• Validitas uji ditentukan dengan membandingkanhasil uji dengan hasil yang didapat dari uji yang

lebih akurat (dikenal sebagai gold standard )

• Nilai tertentu pd hasil uji yg bersesuaian dgn

hasil gold standard menghasilkan ukuran

sensitivitas dan spesifitas.

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Sensitivitas dan spesifitas

• Sensitivitas : kemampuan suatu uji utk

memberikan hasil positif pd mereka yang

mengidap penyakit.

• Sensitivitas dinyatakan dalam persentase :

o.s. yg terdeteksi oleh uji

Jumlah seluruh o.s. yg ikut uji

X 100

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•  A test which is very sensitive will rarely

miss people with the disease. It is

important to choose a sensitive test if

there are serious consequences formissing the disease. Treatable

malignancies (in situ cancers or Hodgkin's

disease) should be found early — thussensitive tests should be used in their

diagnostic work-up.

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Sensitivitas dan spesifitas

• Spesifitas : kemampuan suatu uji untuk

memberikan hasil negatif pada mereka

yang sehat (tidak sakit).

• Spesifitas juga dinyatakan dlm persentase

Org sehat yang hasil uji negatif

Jumlah seluruh orang sehat yang ikut uji

X 100

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Tabel perhitungan sensitivitas dan

spesifitas

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Contoh : hasil uji skrining DM pd 10.000 org

dengan kadar 180 mg/dl sebagai DM

Hasil uji Diagnosis yang benar

Sakit Tidak sakit Total

Positif 34 (a) 20 (b) 54 (a+b)

negatif 116 (c) 9830 (d) 9946 (c+d)

Total 150 (a+c) 9850 (b+d) (a+b+c+d)

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Perhitungan sensitivitas dan

spesifitasSensitifitas = a / a+c

= 34 /150 = 0,2266 atau 22,66%

Spesifitas = d / b+d

= 9830 / 9850 = 0,9979 atau

= 99,79%Dalam menentukan sensitifitas dan spesifitas, maka

penentuan cutoff point sangat mempengaruhi hasilperhitungan. Misalnya bila cutoff point utk diagnosis DMditurunkan menjadi 130 mg/dl, maka jumlah orang yg

tidak sakit akan berkurang, sehingga nilai spesifitasmenjadi lebih kecil dan nilai sensitivitas menjadi lebihbesar.

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• Penentuan batas nilai normal suatu kadar

kimiawi dalam darah didasarkan pada

evidence epidemiologi, misalnya nilai

cholesterol total <200 mg/dL mengurangiresiko arteriosclerosis.

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Positif palsu dan negatif palsu

• Suatu uji yang sangat sensitif memilikisedikit hasil negatif palsu (c).

• Sensitivitas = a/(a+c), maka nilai c yg kecil

akan menghasilkan sensitivitas mendekati100 %

• Suatu uji dengan spesifitas yang tinggi

memiliki sedikit positif palsu (b).• Spesifitas = d/(b+d), maka nilai b yg kecil

menghasilkan spesifitas mendekati 100%

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Contoh

• Ditentukan batas normal KGD puasa 8 mmol/L

atau PP 11 mmol/L, pada cut-points ini, maka

sensitivitas = 57% and specifitas = 99%.

• Bila cut-point = 5 mmol/L, maka sensitivitas =98%, tetapi spesifitas < 25% — banyak orang

terdiagnose diabetes secara salah (positif

palsu). Sebaliknya bila cut-point > 13 mmol/L,

maka spesifitas hampir 100%, tetapi banyakpenderita diabetes tak terdiagnosis (angka

negatif palsu sangat tinggi).

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Nilai prediktif positif

•  Ad proporsi subjek dengan hasil uji positifyg benar2 sakit menurut diagnosis.

• = a / (a+b)

• Nilai prediktif positif meningkat seiringdengan meningkatnya sensitivitas danspesifitas.

•Bila prevalensi penyakit yang diskriningmeningkat, maka nilai prediktif positif jugameningkat dan sebaliknya.

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Likelihood ratio

• The likelihood ratio for a positive result

(LR+) tells you how much the odds of the

disease increase when a test is positive.

•  The likelihood ratio for a negative result

(LR-) tells you how much the odds of the

disease decrease when a test is negative.

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• The Likelihood Ratio (LR) is the likelihood that a giventest result would be expected in a patient with the targetdisorder compared to the likelihood that that same resultwould be expected in a patient without the targetdisorder.

• For example, you have a patient with anaemia and aserum ferritin of 60mmol/l and you find in an article that90 per cent of patients with iron deficiency anaemia have

serum ferritins in the same range as your patient (=sensitivity) and that 15 per cent of patients with othercauses for anaemia have serum ferritins in the samerange as your patient (1 - specificity). This means thatyour patient's result would be six times as likely (90/15)

to be seen in someone with, as opposed to someonewithout, iron deficiency anaemia, and this is called theLR for a positive test result.

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 Application

• The LR is used to assess how good a diagnostic

test is and to help in selecting an appropriatediagnostic test(s)

• They have advantages over sensitivity andspecificity because they are less likely to changewith the prevalence of the disorder, and can beused to calculate post-test probability for a targetdisorder.

• For example, if you thought your patient'schance of iron deficiency anaemia prior to doing

the ferritin was 50-50, this pre-test probability of50 per cent translates as pre-test odds of 1:1,and the post test odds can be calculated asfollows:

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• Post-test odds = pre-test odds * LR = 1*6 = 6

Post-test probability = post test odds / (post test

odds + 1)

= 6 / (6 + 1) = 86 per cent

•  After the serum ferritin test is done and your

patient is found to have a result of 60 mmol/l, the

post-test probability of your patient having irondeficiency anaemia is therefore increased to 86

per cent, and this suggests that the serum

ferritin is a worthwhile diagnostic test.