DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for InteriorsOrganization of the Design Guide for Interiors The Design...

DesignGuideforInteriors

DG 1110-3-122SEPTEMBER 1997

Foreword

The USACE Design Guide for Interiors provides acomprehensive reference document to assist USAC Edesigners; Major Army Commands; Directorates ofPublic Works; facility users; and contract architectural,engineering, and interior design firms in the developmentof excellent interiors. It complements other criteria suchas Architectural and Engineering Instructions, DesignCriteria, DA Standard Designs, Engineering Regulations(ER), and selection resources, and is applicable to newconstruction, renovation, and maintenance and repair ofbuilding interiors.

This design guide was prepared by the U.S. ArmyEngineer District, Omaha, Technical Center of Expertisefor Interior Design, utilizing a contract with Leo A. DalyPlanning/Architecture/Engineering/Interiors , Omaha,Nebraska.

Following initial distribution, copies of this documentwill be available from the USACE Publications Depot,2803 52nd Avenue, Hyattsville, Maryland 20781;telephone number 301-394-0081. This documentsupersedes the Design Guide for Interiors,December 1982.

We will continue to work to improve interior designcriteria and the process for procuring interior finishes andfurnishings. This design guide is a living document andusers are requested to address recommendations forchanges and improvements, with their rationale forproposed changes, to HQUSACE, ATTN: CEMP-EA,Washington, DC 20314-1000.

For The Director Of Military Programs

Kisuk Cheung, P.E.Chief, Engineering DivisionDirectorate of Military Programs

Guide to Excellent Interiors

Introduction

Human Behavior and the Interior Environment

Design Basics

Light and Color

Building Systemsand Components

Materials

Furnishings

Appendix A: Army Interior Design Process

Appendix B: Planning for AdministrativeWork Environments

Glossary

Bibliography

Contents

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Chapter

Index

GuidetoExcellentInteriors

iGuide to Excellent Interiors

Lobby, Gunter AFB

Dining, Reynolds Army Hospital

Shop, Mountain Home AFB

Medical, Reynolds ArmyHospitalMedical, Reynolds ArmyHospital


Value of Interior DesignWe all expect a facility to be functional and maintainable.Achieving coordination of the building interior andfurnishings, meeting human ergonomic and psychologicalneeds, and providing optimum aesthetic effect areidentifiable and attainable goals for every interior designproject.

People's reactions to interior environments is critical to thesuccess of every facility type. These reactions were firstidentified in healthcare facilities, where color, texture,lighting, furnishings, and finishes all contribute to creatingan environment which supports patient recovery and well-being.

Training, maintenance, laboratories, logistic support,medical, administrative, residential, morale, welfare andrecreation facilities all have unique functional and aestheticrequirements. When these requirements are satisfied,workers, residents, and customers react positively, takepride in their contributions and in the facility, and performto their maximum potential.

Why should you insist on comprehensive interior design inyour facilities?

� To improve the morale and increase the productivity ofthe people in your facility.

� To use your space and financial resources in the mostcost effective manner.

� To assure the health, safety and welfare of facilityoccupants.

� To project a professional image of your organization.

� To provide appropriate and maintainable buildingmaterials, finishes, furniture, and furnishings.

iiGuide to Excellent Interiors

Atrium, Minot AFB

Office, Maxwell AFB

Conceptual Plan Working DrawingsProgram Bubble Diagram

Tele-ConferencingWright-Patterson AFB

Team Roles and the Design Process

To create high quality interior environments requires thatthe user, installation maintenance staff, commands,programmers, designers, engineers, construction workers,and suppliers work together toward clearly definedstatements of design excellence.

�� Programming is the first step in this process.Programming involves defining the project requirementsand providing the financial resources to support them. Thisis where the user first forms a concept of what is needed.

�� At concept development designers become fullyinvolved in translating the user's operational andmaintenance concepts into a built form. Designers workwith the user to understand the reasons behindrequirements and to give them form in terms of size, shape,and space layout.

�� As the design is developed into contract documentsand procurement information, the designer works withthe user to specify requirements for construction, furniture,finishes, and furnishings. The documents created are themaster plan for bringing the project to reality. They givethe building, its interior spaces, furniture, and furnishings acoordinated form and aesthetic expression.

iiiGuide to Excellent Interiors

Library, Robins AFB

Fitness Center, Redstone Arsenal

Auditorium, USMA Westpoint

Child Development CenterWright-Patterson AFB

� Execution involves guiding the work of those whoconstruct the building and providing the furniture andfurnishings. Attention to detail during building construc-tion, as well as during procurement and installation offurnishings, is critical to the achievement of excellence.

Creating stimulating, comfortable, and appropriateenvironments for living and working is an achievable goalwhen the user and the design and construction team worktogether as partners.

Ensuring Excellence

The photographs in this guide represent the successfulpartnership between users, installation managers, designers,construction workers, and suppliers to bring aboutexcellence in interior design. The photographs represent abroad range of facility types, locations, and design,construction, and furnishing techniques.

In every case, an involved user initially defined the conceptin terms of functional requirements and financial resourcesand demanded excellence pivotal to the success of theseprojects. Proper programming ensures the allocation ofadequate military construction funds for building, andadequate maintenance funds to provide for furniture andfurnishings. Superior programming results from having aclear vision of what the project is to be. Designers can beof assistance in defining the needs but the vision starts withthe user.

Superior programming enables excellence in design andconstruction. Excellence in design and construction resultsin facilities which optimize functional and aestheticrequirements and enable people to perform to theirmaximum potential.

ivGuide to Excellent Interiors

Clinic Waiting, Minot AFB

Auditorium, Gunter AFB

Snack Shop, Gunter AFB

Atrium, Ft. McNair

Clinic Waiting,Madigan Army Medical Center

Visitor Center, Tenn-TomWaterway

PHOTO CREDITS

Cover

p.i

p.ii

p.iii

p.iv

1. Lobby,Senior NCOAcademy.Gunter AFB, AL.

1. Lobby,Senior NCOAcademy.Gunter AFB, AL.2. Dining, Reynolds Army Hospital. Fort Sill, OK.3. Aircraft Engine Test Shop. MountainHome AFB, ID.4. Birthing Room, ReynoldsArmy Hospital. FortSill, OK.

1. Atrium, Composite Medical Facility. Minot AFB, ND.2. WingCommander's Office, Consolidated Support Complex.

Maxwell AFB, AL.3. Teleconferencing Center, Stewart Hall, Aquisition Management

Complex. Wright-Patterson AFB, OH.

1. Library, Personnel Services Center. Robins AFB, GA.2. Fitness Center, John J. Sparkman Center for Missi le Excellence.

Redstone Arsenal, AL.3. Auditorium, Cullum Hall. U.S.Army Military Academy,West

Point, NY.4.Child Care Development Center, LogisticsCommand. Wright-

Patterson AFB, OH.

1. Clinic Waiting, Composite Medical Facility. MinotAFB, ND.2. Medical Mall, Madigan Army Medical Center. Ft. Lewis, WA.3. Auditorium, Senior NCOAcademy.Gunter AFB, AL.4. Snack Bar,Senior NCOAcademy.Gunter AFB, AL.5. Atrium, Marshall Hall, National Defense University. Fort

McNair, DC.6. Visitor Center, Tenn-Tom Waterway.Aliceville Lake, AL.

DG 1110-3-122SEPTEMBER 1997

Introduction

Applicability of the Design Guide for Interiors 1.1

Organization of the Design Guide for Interiors 1.3

Introduction 1.1

IntroductionThe purpose of the Design Guide for Interiors is toprovide support to customers and designers in thecreation of functional and aesthetic interior designs forfacilities. The design guide addresses the full spectrumof design-related issues before the interior designer, withdiscussions of design theory, building technology,material resources, application, and criteria for selectionof materials and products. The intent is to provide acommon basis to communication and understanding ofcritical subject matter for the architectural and interiordesigner, so that facilities may be made harmonious infunction and appearance.

Applicability of the Design Guide for InteriorsThe Design Guide for Interiors is written to beapplicable to three different audiences with varyingneeds. The pull-out "Guide to Excellent Interiors"gives Commanders an overview of the value and needfor excellence in interior design. The remainder of thedesign guide provides USACE personnel havingbuilding design and construction responsibilities withinformation on a broad range of topics which impact theinterior environment. The design guide also providesusers and installation DEH/DPW staff with a generalknowledge base, enabling them to perform minorrenovations of interior spaces independently whenprofessional interior design services are not available.

Design service providers are selected from in-housestaff, architect-engineer (A-E) contracts, separate interiordesign contracts, or open-end interior design contracts.To be selected, an interior designer should have a recordof functional, aesthetic design for similar projects,demonstrating efficient management and adherence tobudgetary limits.

During the initial design phase, the designer shouldresearch the applicable criteria, regulations, architecturaland engineering instructions, technical manuals, standarddesigns, codes, and industry resources. Army interiordesign definitions, processes, and responsibilities arederived primarily from the following documents.

Design Guide for Interiors

Introduction 1.2

• AR 415-15, Army Military Construction ProgramDevelopment and Execution. Appendix H, EquipmentInstallation, defines installed building equipment,personal property (fixed), and personal property(movable). These definitions are important to planning,funding, programming, designing, and constructing orprocuring interior features.

• ER 1110-345-122, Engineering and Design,Interior Design, derives from AR 415-15. The ERdefines projects requiring interior design, designrequirements and responsibilities of participants, andmethods and funding for execution of interior design.Central to the understanding of this design guide are thedefinitions of building-related and furniture-relatedinterior design.

- Building-related interior design applies to allfacilities and requires the design and selection of interiorsurface materials and items permanently attached to thestructure. Layout for anticipated furniture and equipmentwill also be provided. Building-related interior designservices are an integral part of project design and facilityconstruction.

- Furniture-related interior design applies to facilitytypes where the selection and arrangement of furnitureand furnishings determines the functionality of thebuilding. Furniture-related interior design involves theselection and layout of furniture and furnishings, whichare not provided from construction funds. Furniture-related interior design services must be requested by theusing activity. The using activity is normally required tofund furniture-related interior design services. Inaddition, the using activity must provide appropriatefunds for procurement and installation of furniture andfurnishings.

Responsibilities of the designer and the using activity arefurther delineated in ER 1110-345-122 Engineering andDesign, Interior Design. Interior design solutions shouldbe planned concurrently with architectural developmentto ensure appropriate design, finish, and layout. Projectdevelopment that does not address interior design needs

1 Security Operations Training Facility, Fort Devons,

Massachusetts.2 Building 32, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio.

Building-related interior design1

Furniture-related interior design2

Introduction 1.3

until the completion of architectural design can result inunaesthetic, inefficient, or costly facilities because thedesigner is restricted in choice of finishes and furniturearrangements. Coordination is especially important inthe planning of lighting, communication, and electricalsolutions; as well as the design and placement ofheating, ventilating and air conditioning systems. Thedesign of permanent fixtures, equipment, and built-incasework impacts multiple design disciplines, andnecessitates that the interior designer be an integral partof the project team.

Organization of the Design Guide for InteriorsThe Design Guide for Interiors begins with a brochureentitled "Guide to Excellent Interiors." This is a stand-alone overview of the value and process of interiordesign, and the role of the interior designer. "Guide toExcellent Interiors" is also available separately fordistribution to facility users, to aid them in theirinvolvement in the interior design process.

Chapter Two of the Design Guide for Interiors discussesthe relationship between Human Behavior and theInterior Environment—how we perceive space, andhow we react to it. Chapter Three is a technicaldiscussion of Light and Color—two of the primaryelements which are used to define space. Chapter Fouraddresses Design Basics—elements and theories ofcomposition.

The next three chapters discuss the physical makeup ofinterior space—Building Systems and Componentswhich give space structure and convenience; andMaterials and Furnishings which form the interiordesigner's primary palette.

Appendix A, Army Interior Design Process, providesguidelines on the procedure to be followed in executingan interior design project. Appendix B, Planning forAdministrative Work Environments, outlines thedesign process for a specific application.

The Glossary explains many of the design-specificterms used in the guide. The Bibliography lists thesource of those works referenced herein. The Indexprovides a detailed directory of text subjects.


Introduction 1.4

Supplemental tabs numbered one through seven hundredare provided for cataloging additional information fromthe user’s own resources by construction category codes.This information may include major command andinstallation criteria and guidelines, or notes fromfacilities classes.

The Design Guide for Interiors is meant to be a readyreference. It is neither a textbook nor a design solution. Itattempts to cover in some detail those issues whichmight arise during the design process and which mightotherwise be left unaddressed for lack of such areference.

The Design Guide for Interiors will prove helpful foranyone unfamiliar with interior design terminology andapplication. These users should begin by readingChapters 2, 3, and 4, which cover theoretical aspects ofdesign. The remaining chapters may then be referred to,as needed, for answers to questions pertaining tobuilding construction, finishes and furnishings.

No one source can substitute for the knowledge gainedthrough education and experience. For persons seekingadditional information, the bibliography contains namesof texts which provide more detail on any of the topicsaddressed herein. It is intended that the Design Guide forInteriors provide not a comprehensive reference, butsufficient resources to begin the interior design process.

Human Behavior and theInterior Environment

Sociological Human Need 2.1

Psychological Human Response 2.3

Perception and Aesthetic 2.3

Human Response to the Interior Environment 2.4

Human Behavior and the Interior Environment 2.1

Human Behavior and the Interior EnvironmentThis chapter examines the relationship betweenindividuals and their environment—how they perceivespace and how they react to it. Perception of one'senvironment is affected by sociological needs,psychological state, and individual differences. Theenvironment itself also influences human behavior. Bothmental and physical stimuli affect behavioral responses.In this chapter material is presented which will help thereader to be more aware of the matters which affect theoccupants of a space.

Sociological Human NeedPeople's perception of their environment influences theirsocial interaction within that environment. Socialinteraction can be discussed in terms of four concepts:privacy, personal interaction levels, territoriality, andcrowding.

Privacy is a central regulatory human process by whichpersons make themselves more or less accessible toothers. In an office environment, privacy may bemanipulated through the use of partitions which protectthe individual from physical, visual and acousticalintrusion. The plan of an office environment establishesthe privacy level at which the office functions.

Definition of an individual's interaction levels is onemechanism used in achieving a desired level of privacy.Besides needing enough space to move about andperform various tasks, each person moves within adomain that expands and contracts to meet individualneeds and social circumstances. The size of a spacedetermines perceptions, experiences, and uses of thatparticular environment.

People inherently discern their relationship with othersin terms of distances, or spaces, between them. EdwardT. Hall defines four distinct distances at whichinterpersonal transactions normally take place. These are


categorized as intimate, personal, social, and public1

(Fig. 1).

• Intimate space is that area immediately surroundingthe individual’s body. This area is the most private andinvolves both physical and emotional interactions.

• Personal space is that area within which a personallows only select friends, or fellow workers with whompersonal conversation is mandatory.

• Social space is that area within which the individualexpects to make purely social contacts on a temporarybasis.

• Public space is that area within which the individualdoes not expect to have direct contact with others.

The more intimate the spatial relationship, the morepeople resist intrusion by others. Personal space factorsare important in establishing privacy requirements forinterior design.2

Territoriality is a means of achieving a desired level ofprivacy. It involves the exclusive control of a space byan individual or group. This control implies privilegesand may involve aggressive actions in its defense. Forthe individual, territorial control provides security andidentity and is communicated through personalizationand definition.

Crowding occurs when personal space and territorialitymechanisms function ineffectively, resulting in an excessof undesired external social contact. Sociologically,people respond to crowding in different ways dependingupon the situation. Sometimes humans toleratecrowding, though it may be unpleasant, because theyknow it is only temporary. In some situations crowdingmay be considered desirable, it may even be sought afterif it is perceived as "part of the fun" or the expectationwithin a social setting. In either situation, however,psychological discomfort may be experienced if thecrowding is perceived as too confining.

1 Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, NJ:

Doubleday & Co., 1990), pp. 122-125.2 Hall, pp. 7-10.

Fig. 1 Levels of space: intimate,personal, social, and public.


Psychological Human ResponseResponses to the environment are complex and bestunderstood in terms of three psychological stages ofhuman behavior: perception, cognition, and spatialbehavior.

Perception of the environment, in its most strict sense,refers to the process of becoming aware of a space by theacquisition of information through the sensations ofsight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. Cognition is themental processing of this sensory information. This mayinvolve the activities of thinking about, remembering, orevaluating the information. Spatial behavior refers toresponses and reactions to the environmentalinformation acquired through perception and cognition.

The designer creates environmental stimuli to directthese psychological stages as well as the secondaryprocesses of motivation, effect and development.Environmental expectations, another determiningelement to be considered by the interior designer, aredeveloped over time through experience and interactionwith the environment. Sensations, in combination withexpectations of the environment, define one’s perceptionof a space.

Perception and AestheticAs stated above, perception of the environment, andconsequently the aesthetic appeal of that environment,involves the acquisition of information through our fivesenses. A person’s experience in the environment is verycomplex. Individual differences such as sex, age andhealth, to name a few, are important determinants ofbehavioral responses to an environment. The designermust take into consideration the individuality of variousoccupants of an environment, their likes, dislikes andpersonal histories.

Color proves to be an important factor in the perceptionof an environment’s aesthetic. If used carefully andskillfully, it can positively influence mood and behavior.A full range of psychological and emotional effects canbe achieved through use of color. Color selection is anintegral part of any project design, whether painting

People respond to theirenvironment based uponperception, cognition andspatial behavior.


walls, installing floor coverings, upholstering furniture,or selecting art, plants, or graphics.

Perception of the relative size and appearance of a spaceis often related to color. The following are somegeneralities to remember about color, human perceptionand aesthetics. (See Chapters 3 and 4 for additionalinformation.)

• Certain colors may make a space appear larger thanit actually is, while others cause spaces to appearsmaller.

• Certain colors may cause a space to seem warm,while others may make it seem cold.

• Colors have a definite effect on the mood of theobserver. Some colors are stimulating, others arerelaxing.

• Colors that clash with each other may producefeelings of irritation or uneasiness.

Human Response to the Interior EnvironmentEach person responds uniquely when confronted with aspecific situation or experience. These responses fall intothree categories—sociological, psychological andphysiological—all of which are influenced by factorswithin the interior environment.

Sociological determinants relate to the social needs andproblems of the occupants. Factors that pertain to thesesociological responses, including group dynamics andcommunication, should be considered during planning.

Group dynamics (the interpersonal relationships amongmembers of a small group) are a result of the personalityand cultural backgrounds of the individuals involved,their task, and the nature of the physical setting. Spatialarrangements in small groups are functions ofenvironment, task, and personality. Various culturesrespond differently to the amount and arrangement ofspace.

In determining the physical arrangement of an interiorspace, the interaction distances between work groupsand the tasks to be performed are very important tosuccessful communication and social relationships. The

Color may be used invarious ways to influenceour perception of space.

Sociological determinantssuch as group dynamics andcommunication affectpersonal interactions withinan environment.


study of small group ecology is important not only fromthe standpoint of understanding the impact of socialrelationships, but also from the practical standpoint ofdesigning and maintaining a variety of functional spacesin which various relationships can be fostered.

Studies of communication reveal that, in conversation,people prefer to sit across from one another rather thanside by side. If the distance between conversing peoplebecomes too great however, they will usually choose tosit side by side rather than across from one another.

The scale of a room—it's size relative to the occupants—also influences conversational distance. As room scalediminishes, people tend to sit closer together. Likewise,increased noise levels and distractions drive people to sitcloser together.

Psychological determinants in the planning of aninterior environment relate to the psychological needsand concerns of the occupants. Visual privacy, acousticprivacy, and aesthetic factors are key determinants to beconsidered.

Visual privacy addresses the ability to limit other's viewof oneself. Inherent in human behavior is the tendency toavoid situations in which one can be watched withoutbeing aware of who is watching. Visual privacy can beachieved through the use of furnishings, partitions orwalls. In a private space or an office, people will oftenorient their desk in order to visually control the doorwayand achieve a visually private space on one side of thedesk (Fig. 2). Similarly, people prefer to sit with aprotected back, controlling the area they cannot seedirectly. In restaurants, the first seats to be filled areusually those along the walls. In outdoor spaces, peopletend to sit against or beside objects such as trees andbushes rather than in the open.

Acoustic privacy in an interior space results fromeffective treatment of the acoustic environment as aninterrelationship of many components: ceiling,partitions, furniture, equipment, and floor. A completeacoustic system will generally provide adequate speechprivacy. Speech privacy is achieved when there issufficient acoustic shielding to allow conversation to beunheard beyond the participants of the conversation. Ahigh quality of speech privacy will contribute

Psychological determinantsaffect an individual’s senseof well being in theenvironment.

Fig. 2 Visual control is a key tovisual privacy


significantly to a desirable level of communication,social interaction, and productivity. An appropriaterelationship between background noise and thatproduced within the activity space is conducive tospeech privacy.

Aesthetic appreciation is both expressed in and influencedby the environment. To define aesthetic qualities, thedesigner needs to understand that the concept of beautydiffers with time and place, purpose and context. Valuescaptured under the label "aesthetic" can best beunderstood at a universally comprehensible level. Theseaspects of a design go beyond the functional andconstructional concerns, and are associated with thespecific way the design presents itself to the humansenses. The designer uses an object to serve some need orwant. When we look at an object, its physical appearancecauses a sensory experience in us above and beyond itsmere utility. The designer’s appreciation of this experiencehelps him to communicate his intent and understanding tothe user.

Physiological determinants relate to physical needs ofthe occupants. Factors to be considered during theplanning phase that deal with physiological responsesinclude functionality, ergonomics, life safety, and healthconcerns.

Functional efficiency relates to the degree to whichphysiological needs are supported in the interior spaceplan. These needs, which are physical in nature, relate tohuman body requirements. Interior environments mustrespond to basic human functional needs—vision,hearing, stability, and mobility—to achieve both comfortand efficiency.

The ability to comprehend one's environment as well asto perform tasks within it are strongly dependent uponvision. The critical variables in human vision arevisibility, legibility and recognition. Hearing is criticalbecause it not only affects ability to communicate butalso the general capacity to perform other tasks. Thecritical variables in human hearing are audibility,intelligibility, signal-to-noise ratio, and noise annoyance.Stability refers to elements that support individuals asthey walk and move about or perform functional ormanipulative tasks. Some of the elements that need to be

Physiological determinantsaffect our physical comfortin a space.


considered in terms of mobility include slope of floors,width of walkways, depth of stair treads, location ofhandrails, and height of door thresholds. Allphysiological needs affect how a person perceives andreacts to an environment. When these needs areappropriately met, the user will perceive theenvironment as successful.

Studies show that a worker’s productivity increases withan improved environment. Emphasis upon the followingspecific environmental conditions contribute toimproved worker efficiency.

• Proper illumination for each task.

• A suitable acoustic environment that allows ease ofcommunication, limited intrusive noise (and resultantdistraction), and protection from ear damage whereappropriate.

• Human/facility interface features designed to be usedwithin human mobility and strength limits. (Specialattention should be given to the removal of accessibilitybarriers for the handicapped worker.)

• Physical features of the facility that are compatiblewith typical human expectations and comprehension.

• A plan that conserves human energy.

• An environment that allows workers to functionwithin their most productive range of motion.

Ergonomic design recognizes that the environmentsignificantly influences and impacts human behavior.Each aspect of the interior design—including space,furnishings, and environmental variables such astemperature, sound, humidity, and ventilation—needs tobe carefully assessed in terms of its compatibility withthe purpose for which it is intended: to conform to thehuman body. The challenge is to plan for the intendedactivities, furnishings, and finishes that are appropriatefor the purpose of the expected user. Ergonomicscombines anthropometrics (human body measurementdata), physiology, and psychology in response to theneeds of the user in the environment. This data is usedby the designer to create interior designs which are bothhumanistic and functional in nature.

The success of any designdepends upon the degree towhich it creates an interfacebetween users and theenvironment.


Life safety and health concerns are primarily focusedon human response to negative stimuli; the naturalresponses when an individual sense danger—generallyreferred to as fight or flight. Life safety centers on theability of an individual to vacate a facility in a timelymanner when necessary. Generally this is accomplishedthrough an assurance of adequate travel path capacity forthe occupants of the space, and a clear indication of asafe means of egress. In a panic or emergency situation,people generally do not have the opportunity to deciphercodes which may indicate safe passage at an abstractlevel. It is imperative that the guide mechanisms behighly visible and clearly stated. Obviously this impactsthe designer’s desire to control the visual environment ascompletely as possible. It is therefore in the designer’s(as well as the user’s) best interest to be aware, from theoutset, of the regulatory and common sense criteria thatguide the development of egress systems; to work withthem to enhance the overall plan, as opposed to applyingthem at the end over an executed design concept.

Health concerns are often less obvious than life safety.Ergonomic design is an aspect of health consciousness.If a space functions properly for the task, it is less apt tocause physical harm—such as repetitive strain injury(carpal tunnel syndrome) or simple backache. Healthconcerns also factor into the selection of materials.Fumes from paints or carpet adhesives may cause severebronchial stress or headaches in some individuals. Often,odors of even non-toxic elements may raise concernsthat will foster absence among workers. The designercannot control all such contaminants, but must beconscious of the range of possible impacts of materialselections, and avoid such occurrences when possible.

Light and Color

Introduction to the Science of Light and Color 3.1

The Luminous Environment 3.3

The Nature of Color 3.6

Light and Color 3.1

Light and ColorLight and color play an important role in the design ofinterior environments. To use them effectively, thedesigner must have a working knowledge of the scienceof light and color and how they work together. Thischapter discusses light and color terminology in order togive a better understanding of how to use them to theirfullest potential.

Introduction to the Science of Light and ColorVisual perception requires the interaction of a lightsource, an object, the eye, and the brain. Light energy isthe medium of communication between the object andthe eye. We may observe energy radiating directly from asource (such as the sun), or only that which is reflectedfrom some object in the path of the light.

When light strikes an object, some of its energy isabsorbed; we see only that light which is reflected backfrom the object. The light-reflective property inherent inan object that determines its color is its pigmentation.Commonly we refer to the pigmentation of an object asits color. A white board in space with a hole in themiddle of it reflects back all light incident upon it, andthus appears white (Fig. 1). The hole "absorbs" all lightincident upon it, and thus appears black.

Quantity of light is the amount of light energy present inan environment. It is described in terms of energyincident per unit area, and is quantified in footcandles orlumens. Quality of light is most often described in termsof color temperature, quantified in degrees Kelvin. Thetemperature referred to is that of a "blackbody radiator,"one which is black when cool, but heats to red-orange,yellow, and eventually blue-white. The color change isdue to the increased energy output of the heated bodyand the shift in wavelength of the light energy beingproduced. Our eyes interpret the various wavelengths oflight as color.

White light contains the full spectrum of visible light.Objects perceived as white are those which reflect allcolors (Fig. 2). An object may be perceived as red forone of two very different reasons. The light source may

Fig. 1 White light on a whiteboard with a hole.

Light and Color 3.2

be white, while the object reflects only red (Fig. 3); orthe object may be white, but be illuminated only by redlight (Fig. 4). The result is the same: we see a red object.

Perceived color is also dependent upon the ability of thereceiver to distinguish between wavelengths of light.Red-green color blindness is a relatively commonmalady which limits the ability of the subject to perceivethe difference between red and green. Similarly, a blackand white television receives the same information as acolor television; but is unable to process it, and thusproduces a different image.

Spatial Perception and DefinitionDistance is a critical factor in one’s perception of space.Perspective describes our perception of objects over adistance, and is defined in part by the clarity, quantity,and intensity of light received from an object. Becauselight emanates radially from any given source, and itstotal energy remains constant; the farther we are from anobject, the less light we receive from it. Throughexperience we are conditioned to perceive dimmerobjects as farther away and brighter objects as closer.

Darker colors tend to recede from view (Fig. 5), lighterto encroach (Fig. 6). Similarly, when colors are placedcloser to the viewer, they appear more brilliant, moreintense than the same colors placed at a greater distance.

Our perception of space is also affected by shading, theway that light is captured or reflected by an object. At adistance, or when lit from behind, a sphere and a diskmay appear to be identical (Fig. 7); however, whennearby and illuminated by a direct source from anydirection other than behind, the way light reflects off of

Fig. 2 White light on a whiteboard.

Fig. 3 White light on a redboard.

Fig. 4 Red light on a whiteboard.

An object’s apparent color isdependent upon both thepigmentation of the objectand the color of the lightshining upon it.

Light and Color 3.3

the object gives us additional information about its trueshape (Fig. 8).

The Luminous EnvironmentThe quality of an illuminated environment is establishedthrough the manipulation of light to communicatespecific information. In achieving a design whichresponds meaningfully to aspects of human behavior,designers must recognize that light affects how wellwork tasks can be seen (visibility), and subsequentlyhow well they are performed (productivity). Of equal oreven greater importance is how light affects visualquality and the sense of well-being experienced by usersof a space.

In any given environment, the user should be able to seeeasily, comfortably and accurately. The illuminationlevel required to achieve these results will vary based ona number of factors related to the user and the givenactivity taking place. The illumination level required formost spaces and environments is a function of thefollowing:

Fig. 7 Objects illuminated fromthe rear.

Fig. 6 Light surfaces encroach.

Fig. 8 Objects illuminated fromthe front.

Lighting location maydramatically affectperception of an object orspace.

Dark colors recede whilelighter colors encroach;thus, the box on the leftappears deeper than the oneof the right.

Fig. 5 Dark surfaces recede.

Light and Color 3.4

• the type of activity,

• the characteristics of the visual task (importance,difficulty), and

• the age of the user (as the eye ages, it requires morelight for visual tasks).

The Illuminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica (IESNA) has developed recommended rangesof lighting levels needed for many visual tasks,activities, and the general illumination of spaces. Asample schedule of ranges is given in Chapter 5. For amore complete understanding of this subject, please referto the Lighting Handbook, Reference & Application bythe IESNA.

Quality and QuantityIn order to understand how visual quality and quantity oflight affect the experience of users of a space, one mustfirst understand the concepts of brightness andreflectance.

Brightness refers to how much light energy is reflectedby a surface. The degree of brightness of an objectdepends upon the color value and texture of its surface.Brightness can be relative or measured. When a grayobject is viewed first on a black background and then ona white background, the brightness level appearsdifferent (Fig. 9). However, the measured brightness, orluminance, of the object would be equal.

Reflectance is defined as the ratio of light incident upona surface to that reflected. Reflectance of major surfacesin a space is critical to achieving intended brightnessratios.

Brightness ratios are critical to the understanding of thevisual field required for a specific task. Brightness is ofsignificant benefit to the viewer, as ability to distinguishfine detail increases with object brightness. Of equalimportance is relative brightness between objects beingviewed and their surroundings. Some degree of contrastin brightness is required. For example, it is very difficultto see any object against a similarly colored background(Fig. 10).

A maximum brightness ratio of 3:1 between the tasksurface and background is recommended by the IESNA.

Fig. 9 Relative brightness isdependent upon context.

Fig. 10 Low-contrast figure.

Light and Color 3.5

Between the task area and darkest part of thesurrounding space, the brightness ratio should notexceed 5:1. Brightness ratios higher than these valuescan lead to glare, visual fatigue, and loss of performance.

Contrast between objects and their background isespecially critical for visual tasks that requirediscrimination of shape and contour. This need is easilyunderstood on the printed page where dark letters canbest be read when printed on light paper. For visual tasksrequiring that one see surface texture and detail, lesscontrast between the surface and its background isdesirable because the eye will adjust automatically to theaverage brightness of a scene. A brightly illuminatedbackground serves to silhouette any object seen againstit. Glare is the result of too much contrast betweenobjects within the field of vision.

Undesirable glare-producing conditions include twotypes: direct and reflecting. Direct glare (Fig. 11) iscaused by the brightness of light sources within thenormal field of vision. Reflecting glare (Fig. 12) may becaused by the same source as direct glare, but resultsfrom light reflecting off the task surface. The termveiling reflection is sometimes used to describe thistype of glare because the reflection of the light on thesurface veils the task and obscures the image. Reflectingglare is most severe when the task or viewing surface isshiny—has a high specular reflectance value.

Fig. 11 Direct glare. Fig. 12 Reflecting glare.

A single source may causeglare in different ways.

Light and Color 3.6

Light in Relation to SurfaceThe surface texture of an object will affect thedistribution of light reflected from that object. Surfacetextures can be classified into one of three categories:specular, semi-specular and matte. Specular (mirror)reflection (Fig. 13) redirects light without diffusing it—the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.Semi-specular reflection (Fig. 14) diffuses light but stillmaintains the cohesiveness of the light pattern, thusmaintaining the general direction but “spreading” thelight a little. Matte reflection (Fig. 15) diffuses a light

beam, causing the incident light to be reflected in alldirections.

The color of objects often appears to change with surfacefinish. Specular reflections from glossy surfaces mayincrease the saturation and darkness of colors at oneangle while obscuring colors and causing glare at others.Matte finishes of highly diffusing materials (such asvelvet and deep pile carpeting) cause shadows within thesurface that make the materials appear darker thansmooth surface materials (such as satin, silk and plasticlaminates) of the same color.

The Nature of ColorWhen discussing color, the three qualities of hue, valueand chroma need to be defined. Hue, value and chromatogether form a complete description of any color. Hue(Fig. 16) relates to the distinctive characteristics of acolor as described by a basic color name or a particularposition in the spectrum. Value (Fig. 17) is the relativelightness or darkness of a hue in relation to a scale of

Fig.14 Semi-specularreflection

Fig. 15 Matte reflectionFig. 13 Specular reflection

Specular, semi-specular andmatte surfaces differ in theway they reflect light.

Light and Color 3.7

grays ranging from black to white. Light values arecalled tints, dark values are shades. Chroma (Fig. 18)

refers to a hue’s purity or saturation. Adding a color’scomplement, decreases its chroma, as the purity of theoriginal color is diminished.

The color wheel (Fig. 19) is a circular representation ofhues arranged according to their relative position when abeam of light passes through a prism. The colorspectrum is organized first by the three primary colors—red, yellow, and blue—located equidistant from eachother on the color wheel (Fig. 20). Between the threepure hues fall the secondary colors (Fig. 21). Green,

Fig. 16 Hue Fig. 17 Value Fig. 18 Chroma

Fig. 19 Color wheel

Light and Color 3.8

violet, and orange are each created by the combination oftwo primaries. The tertiary colors (Fig. 22) are created

when a primary and related secondary combine. Yellow-green, blue-green, blue- violet, red-violet, red-orange,and yellow-orange constitute the tertiary hues.

The hues of the color wheel can be discussed in terms oftheir relationships to one another. Analogous colors(Fig. 23) are those adjacent on the color wheel.Complementary colors (Fig. 24) are two colors locatedopposite one another on the color wheel. A color triad(Fig. 25) consists of three colors spaced equidistant fromeach other on the color wheel.

An understanding of the theories of light and color isessential to our ability to work with these most importantcomponents of design. In Chapters 4 and 5 we continueour discussion of light and color from the perspectives ofconceptual application, and the technical means ofachieving the desired affects.

Fig. 20 Primaries Fig. 21 Secondaries Fig. 22 Tertiaries

Fig. 23 Analogous Fig. 24 Complementary

The color wheel may be usedto show color families andrelationships.

Fig. 25 Triad

Design Basics

Elements of Design 4.1

Principles of Design 4.4

Workplace Design with Color and Light 4.6

Developing a Color Scheme 4.9

Design Basics 4.1

Design BasicsA knowledge of design basics is key to the successfulplanning and implementation of any interior designproject. The elements and principles of design representgeneral, universal ideas that refer to every aspect ofdesign. Once designers understand how people perceiveand react to their environments (as discussed in Chapter2), they can use the elements and principles of design toform a whole composition. This chapter discusses theelements and principles individually in order to fullyunderstand each one and its respective potential in adesign.

Elements of DesignThe elements of design provide a framework forproblem solving in the design process. Form, texture andcolor are the components brought together to create anenvironment.

Form encompasses the spatial definition of a thing, itsextent in one, two, or three dimensions. In mathematics,form is spoken of in terms of point, line, and plane. Indesign, we speak of line, shape, and volume.

• Line, by definition, is the extension of a point. It canbe straight or curved. Line can express various feelingsand emotions—a smooth, delicate line seems serene andsoothing while a heavy, frantic line can signify anger orenergy. One of the most expressive qualities of line is itsdirection. Vertical lines evoke aspiration, stability andascendancy. Horizontal lines express feelings of rest andrelaxation. Diagonal lines suggest movement andactivity (Fig. 1). Large upward curves suggest gentle,relaxed movement. Downward curves seem serious andsad. Small curves denote playfulness and humor.

• Shape refers to two-dimensional forms created byintersecting lines. Shape can be simple geometric formssuch as a square, triangle or circle, or they can beirregular and amorphous, conforming to no particulardefinition. Simple geometric forms tend to evoke

1 Dependent Youth Activities Center. Ft. Meade.2 Fitness Center. John J. Sparkman Center for Missile

Excellence, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama.

Fig. 1 Diagonal lines bringdynamics to a static space.1

Fig. 2 A composition of irregularshapes becomes a landmark.2

Design Basics 4.2

stability and completeness while irregular shapes mayappear more dynamic and interesting (Fig. 2). Either,used in excess, may create boredom or unease.

• Volume refers to the extension of shape into threedimensions (Fig. 3). In an interior environment volumeis typified by objects, such as furniture, and by residualspace—that defined by structure and captured bycolumns, doors, etc. Space defined by walls is the mostcommon volume in interior design. As with shape,volumes can be either geometric in nature or free-flowing and irregular. Totally geometric spaces can seemformal or restrictive while free-flowing spaces can feelopen or confusing.

• Space is the infinite extension of a three-dimensionalfield. Not only is space the realm where shape andvolume exist, but it also determines their aestheticqualities. Sculpture, pottery, jewelry, and architecture alluse space in their design. Designs in space requireinteraction when viewing or experiencing, whetherwalking around a sculpture, wearing a piece of jewelry,or living in a piece of architecture.

Texture is essentially a tactile characteristic, but may beperceived by either touch or sight (Fig. 4). Texture maybe rough, smooth, bumpy, fuzzy, grooved, or prickly.Tactile texture is felt, while visual texture is seen,imparting impressions of textures. Visual texture is oftenreferred to as pattern. A pine cone has a texture one canfeel as well a pattern one can see. Texture can be used tocreate different feelings in an environment—smoothtextures seem cold and impersonal while rough texturesseem warm and natural.3

Color encompasses both art and science. Chapter 3discussed the science of color, here it is discussed as anelement of design. Because color evokes such strongemotional responses, it is one of the most importantelements of design.

• Hues on the color wheel can be divided into twocategories: warm and cool (Fig. 5). Red, orange, andyellow constitute the warm hues which tend to stimulateand excite. Warm colors can elevate the apparent

3Marjorie E. Bevlin, Design Through Discovery (New York: HoltRinehart and Winston, 1989) pp. 99-100.

Fig. 3 Volume extruded, rotatedand mapped

Fig. 4 Texture tactile and visual

Fig. 5 Warm and cool colors onthe color wheel

Design Basics 4.3

temperature of a room and make interiors seem cozy andfriendly. The cool colors—blue, green and violet—tendto soothe and relax. They elicit feelings of formality andreserve and can seem refreshing on a hot day.4

• Color harmonies are pleasing combinations of color.In theory any hue can be made to harmonize with anyother hue by manipulating its value and chroma. Colorharmonies typically fall into two categories: related orcontrasting. Related color schemes are composed ofone or several neighboring hues and promote harmonyand unity. Contrasting color schemes are based on hues

located far apart on the color wheel. These offer varietyand balance.

Some color harmonies form the basis of technical colorschemes, which identify particular combinations of purehues. These serve as guides in developing a color palettefor an interior environment. The schemes do not implythat the pure hues of color systems are the only hues thatcan create a scheme, they simply provide a place to start.The technical color schemes include

4 Bevlin, p. 133.

Fig. 6 Monochromatic Fig. 7 Monochromatic plusblack

Fig. 8 Analogous Fig. 9 Analogous pluscomplementary accent

Color combinationsrelated...

Design Basics 4.4

monochromatic, monochromatic plus black, analogous,analogous plus a complementary accent, complementary,

near or split complementary, double splitcomplementary, and triads (Figs. 6-13).

Principles of DesignThe principles of design are used to organize individualelements into a workable, aesthetic design concept. Theyinclude balance, rhythm, emphasis, harmony, proportion,and scale.

• Balance results from the interaction of inter-playingforces, attractions, and weights. Balance strives for astate of equilibrium in order to create a sense oftranquility. Balance can be achieved in varying ways(Fig. 14). Symmetrical balance deals with designswhose halves are mirror images of one another. Thistype of balance usually connotes feelings of formality,security, and stability due to its predictability.Asymmetrical balance deals with designs whose visualweights are equivalent but not identical. This balance isinformal and active in nature, it suggests movement and

Fig. 10 Complementary Fig. 11 Split complementary

Fig. 12 Double splitcomplementary

Fig. 13 Triad

...and contrasting

Design Basics 4.5

spontaneity. Asymmetrical balance tends to be moreinteresting than symmetrical balance and more difficultto achieve. Radial balance occurs when elements repeataround a central point (Fig. 15). The chief characteristicis a circular movement away from, toward, or around afocal point. Radial balance can sometimes besymmetrical if, when divided along a line piercing thecenter, the halves are identical mirror images.

• Rhythm provides an underlying unity and evolvingvariety. Continuity, recurrence, or organized movementconstitute rhythm. Repetition and progression are two

primary ways of developing rhythm. Repetition of anidentical form, shape, line or color gives a unifyingcharacteristic to an environment. In progression,ordered systematic change develops movement bymodifying one or more of the spatial elements to create asequence or transition (Fig. 16). Because it suggestsmotion, progression can be more dynamic than simplerepetition.

• Emphasis deals in terms of dominance andsubordination. Properly used, it calls attention to themore important elements of a space (Fig. 17). It helps todefine focal points, visual rest areas and progressivedegrees of interest in between. Emphasis can beachieved through position, light, shape, or contrast.

• Harmony is marked by a consistent, pleasinginteraction of spatial elements. In achieving harmony,the elements and principles working in a space mustrelate to each other and to the overall design concept.Unity describes elements of a whole which are inaccord. Unity makes for ease of identification, butproves dull when unrelieved. Variety modifies parts of

Fig. 14 Symmetrical (left) andasymmetrical (right) balance

Fig. 15 Radial (left) and radialsymmetrical (right) balance

Fig. 16 Progressive rhythm

Fig. 17 Emphasis

Design Basics 4.6

an environment by means other than progression.Without some unifying factor such as color, shape,pattern, or theme, variety can be discordant.

• Proportion is the desired relationship of parts to thewhole (Fig. 18). Related to size, it deals with magnitude,quantity, or degree. The relationship between parts issuch that if one part varies, another varies in a ratio tothe first. While a well-proportioned room seems justright, and a poorly-proportioned room seems too long ortoo wide; no indisputable system for determining properproportions exists.

• Scale conveys the relative size of an object that hasbeen measured by a dimension of comparison, such asthe human body (Fig. 19). Oftentimes, scale is used todemonstrate the relationship between man and hisenvironment. Large scale usually denotes power,formality, security, and elegance by feeding the humanego. Smaller scale does just the opposite and can denotechild-like wistfulness.

The elements of design are the building blocks used increating an interior. The principles of design are themethods in which those building blocks are arranged.All of the elements and principles must work together inorder to create a pleasing, aesthetic environment. Thedesigner must have an understanding of the essence ofeach, as well as knowledge of how each works in aninterior environment. This knowledge allows thedesigner to utilize his or her imagination in creatingunique environments that satisfy various needs anddesires.

Workplace Design with Color and LightIn the design of the optimum workplace, jobperformance, as it relates to employee satisfaction, isenhanced by colors that are stimulating, cheerful, andcomforting. Because the work environment has a directrelationship to employee efficiency, colorless offices canbe counterproductive. Off-white, buff and gray need tobe balanced by additional colors to stimulate the user.Muted colors occurring in nature tend to producecomfortable office environments.

Fig. 18 Proportion

Fig. 19 Scale

Design Basics 4.7

Specific areas of interior environments require specialattention. Cool hues should be used in areas where agreat deal of concentration is necessary. Similarly,calming colors should be used in high stress areas.

The colors of furnishings are also important because theycontribute to the balanced contrast between black andwhite. Gray may be ideal for desk tops and worksurfaces since it is a neutral color and not distracting. Itcreates a good balance in contrast with either black orwhite, and it helps maintain a comfortable and uniformbrightness level.

Color palettes and combinations affect different users ofa space in different ways. It is up to the designer todevelop a basic knowledge of the most common humanresponses to different colors and color combinations andthen to determine those responses specific to the end-user.

The following is a list illustrating some of the mostcommon human responses to different colors and colorcombinations.

• Reds are associated with tension and danger. They mayadd life and cheer to blends of blues and greens; but theygenerate unpleasant tensions when used with stronggreens.

• Oranges share qualities of reds. They may be used tostimulate or modify otherwise neutral or cool colorschemes.

• Yellows are the mildest of the warm colors and areoften associated with cheerfulness.

• Greens are the cool colors closest to the warm on thecolor wheel. They are often perceived as peaceful.

• Blues are the coolest of the cool colors, suggestingrest, repose, calmness, and dignity. If overused they maybe perceived as depressing and gloomy. Intense blue insmall areas can be a helpful accent in warm and warm-neutral color schemes.

• Violets fall between cool and warm colors. They areoften perceived as artistic, suggestive, and sensitive butmay be perceived as ambiguous or too strong.

Colors of walls, floors,ceilings and furnishings allplay a vital role ininfluencing our perception ofa space.

Although these colorresponses are common, caremust be taken when workingoutside of one’s own culturalenvironment to ensure theintended interpretation.

Design Basics 4.8

• Black is a powerful accent color. It is often associatedwith—and suggests—weight, dignity, formality, andsolemnity.

• Neutral colors tend to convey, in milder form,impressions of the hues that they contain. Neutral graysmake background colors easy to live with but are subjectto dullness, and sometimes appear monotonous.

• Whites and near whites suggest clarity, openness, andbrightness. Whites are generally safe colors and can beused in large areas to a highly satisfactory effect if offsetwith small areas of chromatic color. Too much white canproduce glare.

The nature of emotional responses to the environmentwill depend heavily on the value and saturation level ofthe hues. Greens and blues, thought to be calming,become very effective when used in high-stress areassuch as doctors' offices. More saturated colors, such asdeep greens and purples, are often used as accents togive a feeling of status and dignity, for example inexecutive offices or reception areas.

Color is one of the first elements that people respond towhen presented with a design concept. Each individualwill respond uniquely to a color presented them basedupon upbringing, education and socio-economicbackground. As a designer, it is important to determinethe impact of color within the essence of the space.

Color and light are effective means by which space maybe articulated or defined. The surface treatment of walls,floors, and ceilings articulates the spatial boundaries of aroom. Color, texture, light, and pattern affect ourperception of relative positions in space and, therefore,our awareness of a room's dimension, scale andproportion. Spaces may be made to appear larger thanthey are by unifying them with color and light that blendsurfaces rather than fragment them.

The effect of color and light on the perception of space(the apparent, versus the actual, size and distance ofobjects from a viewer) will vary among individuals;however, the following are some general guidelines ofhow color and light may be used in the design of a space.

• Light, cool spaces are generally perceived asexpansive; dark, warm spaces as diminishing.

Design Basics 4.9

• A strong, warm color on an end wall will shorten theapparent length of a room by drawing that wall forward.Cooler colors will cause the plane to recede, therebyexpanding our perception of the room.

• Dark ceilings will lower the apparent height of a room.Light ceilings will raise the apparent height of a room.However, a combination of a dark floor and ceiling cangreatly reduce the apparent height and may seemoppressive.

• Strong-valued ceilings and floors may help to unify aspace.

• A brightly colored wall will appear larger than itactually is.

In addition to aesthetics, two safety color codes arecurrently being used by professionals in the design field:those of the Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) and American NationalStandards Institute (ANSI). Both share some of thesame conventions, such as the use of the color red forindicating fire protection equipment. For detailedspecifics regarding the application of either system, thedesigner should refer directly to an OSHA or ANSIguidebook.

Developing a Color SchemeThe development of a color scheme involves fourphases: analysis, schematic design, design development,and documentation. Each of these phases can be brokendown into various steps for the designer to follow.

During the analysis phase the designer examines thefactors which will impact the color choices in a space.

• Proposed use of the space.

• Size of the space.

• Directional orientation of the space.

• Ages and types of people occupying the space.

• Time of day the space will be used and the activities tooccur at those times.

• Existing color surrounding the space.

Color in combination withlight can redefine ourperception of space.

Design Basics 4.10

• User’s color preference.

During schematic design, the designer develops a colorpalette based on the results of the above analysis phaseand the following procedures.

• Determine the technical color scheme.

• Determine actual colors and their tints and shades.

• Evaluate the scheme for appropriateness.

• Evaluate the colors and their compatibility.

• Evaluate the colors in relation to natural and artificiallight.

• Modify the color selections if necessary.

During the design development phase the designerresearches available products that complement thechosen color scheme.

• Investigate the market for wood, wallcoverings,furniture, fabrics, carpets, and other interior materialssuitable for the space.

• Evaluate the findings from above and modify the colorplan as necessary.

The documentation phase involves recording thefindings and design decisions to ensure proper executionof the design. The design must accurately communicatecolor specifications to those who order materials throughdrawings and specifications.

During the course of a project, the designer will presentthe interior design to the using agency. The method ofpresentation should be clear and concise to avoid anymisunderstanding. Such presentation may also includesample boards with all related finishes displayed andidentified in an orderly manner. The presentation boardsserve as an explanation of the color concept and therelations of new and existing items. The designer mustbe certain to re-state all criteria impacting the project andpresent solutions that satisfy the established criteria.

Color scheme development is, like all design, aniterative processes. It involves a cycle of analysis,solution, and evaluation. The starting point may becompletely arbitrary, but the final solution must stand upto the criteria upon which it will be judged.

Building Systems andComponents

Architectural 5.1

Structural 5.10

Mechanical 5.12

Electrical 5.19

Building Systems and Components 5.1

Building Systems and ComponentsBuilding systems are those primary elements whichtogether define the shape, utility, and comfort of builtspace. They are classified by discipline: Architectural,Structural, Mechanical, and Electrical. These systemsmust be planned and designed in concert; individually,they are composed of lesser components, such as interiorframing systems, air-conditioning units and plumbingfixtures. Knowledge of how these systems coordinateand interconnect, as well as familiarity with theindividual component systems and disciplines isessential for the successful integration of these items.Their coordination is critical to the overall appearanceand operation of the completed interiors project.

ArchitecturalArchitectural systems define the volumes and functionsof a building. Every project begins with a statement ofneeds, developed by the end-user and designer, fromwhich an initial space plan is developed. This plan setsthe course for the rest of the project, including thelocations of mechanical rooms, electrical closets,plumbing shafts, and data/communications shafts withinthe space. The development of other systems follows thearchitectural lead. Architectural systems are primarilyconcerned with enclosure (walls, roof), and definition(partitions, floors, ceilings). For interiors, definition isthe primary concern.

The primary system of organizing or definingarchitectural space is the partition. Partitions (or morecommonly "walls") define and divide space. In modernconstruction, the stud-framed partition, either metal orwood, is most prevalent. In commercial constructionmetal is most frequently used (Fig. 1). A typical partitionconsists of studs at 400 mm (16 inches) on center withgypsum wallboard on each side. The partition may beardirectly on structure, or sit on the finished floor, and mayextend to the ceiling or beyond - depending upon variousrequirements placed on the wall to control thermalvariance, acoustics, firespread, etc. Its thickness mayrange from 65 mm (2-1/2 inches)

Spatial Definition isaccomplished primarily byestablishing a series ofplanes in space whichorganize our understandingof a place.


to more than 300 mm (12 inches) depending on whatservices are contained within, or what other

requirements are placed upon it. Stud partitions arebasically hollow, thus providing opportunity fordistribution of power, communications and temperingsystems. In addition, they may be filled or insulated forincreased thermal and acoustical performance.

Partitions may be pre-constructed or demountable—builtin factories to modular sizes and shipped to a jobsite forinstallation. In addition to gypsum wallboard and woodor metal studs, partitions may be glass, wood, metal, ormasonry. In each case, the only requirement is that thepartition satisfy the demands placed upon it, and that theexisting structure be able to support it.

Floors and ceilings also define architectural spaces.Although partitions in the strict sense of the word, theyare not typically referred to as partitions except inspecific instances. (When partitioning off a space, theceiling is a part of that partition and must therefore meetcode partition requirements; however, it is still generallyreferred to as the ceiling.)

Together, floor and ceiling planes make up the largestshare of an interior environment. Floors are typically flatbut level changes can be added for spatial separation oraesthetic variety. Floors in commercial structures are

Fig. 1 Stud partition


typically constructed of concrete, or concrete on metaldeck. This can be left exposed, as in industrial facilities,or totally covered with another floor covering such ascarpeting, wood flooring, or vinyl tile.

Many times, ceilings are overlooked in the design of aninterior environment. They are left bare and used simplyas overhead protection. The ceiling is, however, animportant part of the overall design of an environment.By changing the angle of the ceiling plane, piercing itwith windows, or adding soffits and coves, the designercan make the ceiling an active part of the design. The

ceiling can be left smooth or fitted with light fixtures,vents and decorative elements. Ceilings can beconstructed from a variety of materials: plaster and lath,gypsum board, wood, suspended ceiling systems (Fig. 2),metal, or glass.

Millwork, as a part of architectural systems andcomponentry, encompasses standing and running trim,paneling, doors, and windows. Broadly speaking,millwork is any ready-made product that ismanufactured at a wood mill or woodworking plant.This is generally construed as piece goods. For a

Fig. 2 Suspended ceiling


discussion of wood types, and casegoods construction,see chapter seven. For a discussion of wood finishes, seechapter six.

Architectural millwork has three primary functionalorigins. The first is one of necessity: doors and windowshave traditionally been constructed from wood due to itswide availability and ease of workability. Millwork isalso a decorative solution to concealing the constructionof a space. Wood-paneled rooms were originallyconceived as elegant woodgrained renditions of theexpressed structure of a space. Finally, millwork serves ause which is a cross between the decorative and thefunctional, depending upon the intent of the user:baseboards, door trim and ceiling moldings are often themost expeditious way to close the joint that existsbetween two construction elements. Whether the piecebecomes decorative or not is the designer’s choice.

Standing and running trim refers to two distinctclasses of wood trim. Standing trim refers to fixed lengthtrim such as door and window casing, window stoopsand door thresholds. Running trim is continuous trimused to form baseboards, cornice moldings, chair rails,etc. Almost any shape is available in wood trim,especially if custom trim is an option. Each millworkhouse or trim manufacturer offers its own standardprofiles, which are then the most readily available andeconomical.

Paneling is the term used for wood applied to a wallsurface. It may be assembled from rails and panels ofsolid wood, or from plywood. Simply stated, paneling isany flat assembly of wood members applied to a verticalsurface.

Doors (which, like walls and ceilings, are anarchitectural space organizer) are typically one of twokinds. The flush door is available in solid or hollowcore construction. Flush doors are typically constructedof two veneered faces glued to a frame which containseither a honeycomb core of kraft paper (hollowcore); ora solid core of industrial board or laminated wood staves(solid core). Solid core construction is heavier, stronger,and more resistant to the passage of sound than hollowcore doors, and is generally more expensive. Flush doors

Millwork may be functionalor decorative, largelydependent upon thedesigner’s intent.


of either type are available in a variety of veneer species,the least expensive of which are intended to be painted.

Stile and rail doors are traditionally constructed of awood framework of vertical (stile) and horizontal (rail)members infilled with shaped wood panels. Today thelook of stile and rail doors is available in traditionalconstruction, stamped metal, stamped hardboard, orveneered structural plastic. The traditional woodconstruction stile and rail door is still the mostappropriate for commercial use where the look of stileand rail is desired. Stamped metal and structural plastictend to be limited in use to exterior applications.Stamped hardboard is simply a shaped hollow core doorused primarily for economy in residential applications.Many of the problems typically associated with stile andrail doors, due to movement of the panel and loosing ofjoints, have been eliminated or minimized with newconstruction technologies and materials, and as a result,a quality stile and rail door today is nearly as stable as asolid core door.

Construction and Life SafetyIn addition to giving definition to a space, the architector interior designer needs to provide for the safety of theoccupants within the space. The means of constructioncontribute to the total life safety package. Walls, floors,ceilings, doors, and windows are all required to provideprotection from fire, environmental contaminants, andthe elements. Standards for construction, as published inbuilding codes and technical manuals dealing withspecific construction materials and techniques, havebeen rigorously tested and confirmed to meet stringentrequirements. Even minor variances in the constructionof a building can change its resistance to these factors inunforeseen ways.

AcousticsBesides providing protection, the envelope that definesinterior space also affords a tempering of theenvironment, through acoustic and thermal control. Bothsound and heat are transferable energy. Thermalrequirements for an interior space are generallycontained within the shell of the structure and will not be


dealt with here. Acoustic control is the more pertinenttopic.

Acoustics as an environmental variable significantlyimpacts the human impression of an interiorenvironment. Productivity, speech intelligibility, privacy,safety, positive user attitude and response, andenvironmental “comfort” all depend on proper acousticdesign. The interior designer is concerned with reducingunwanted noise and preserving desirable sound in aspace. Enhancing the quality of communication throughthe use of reflective surfaces, and reducing undesirablenoise through the use of absorptive surfaces is achievedby the specification of finishes, furnishings, equipment,and specially designed assemblies. Sound can becontrolled in three ways.

• Eliminate the source (Fig. 3).

• Isolate the source—provide a barrier between the userand the source (Fig. 4).

• Mask the offending sound—if not possible to isolatethe sound, minimize its impact on the user (Fig. 5).

In addressing acoustics and communication within anenvironment, it is necessary to consider levels of speechintensity. For example, intensity levels are likely to begreater among occupants over the span of a conferencetable than over an executive desk in a private office.Optimum planning for open areas will includeconsideration of background noise, and use of absorptiveceiling, flooring, and furnishing elements. With enclosedspace, the noise reduction capabilities of constructionbetween rooms significantly influences speech privacy.

Sound is measured on a relative scale, in decibels (dB ordB), with 0 dB being the threshold of audibility, and130 dB the threshold of pain. In an office, a generalnoise level of 45 to 55 dB is considered satisfactory.This level will help reduce the distraction associatedwith squeaky chairs, opening and closing drawers, andringing phones. It also allows for easy conversation innormal tones at close range. Other noise levels ofvarying activities are given in the chart shown inFigure 6.

Fig. 3 Elimination

Fig. 4 Isolation

Fig. 5 Masking


In dealing with acoustics in an environment two majortopics need to be addressed: excessive noise and sound

transmission from one area to another.

Excessive noise within an environment includesopening/closing drawers, squeaky chairs, printers or

PressureLevel in

Decibels

Example Subjective Impression

140 Jet Plane Takeoff (Short Exposure Can CauseHearing Loss)

130 Artillery Fire Deafening (Threshold of Pain)

120 Jet Plane (PassengerRamp)

110 Hard Rock Band (Threshold of Discomfort)

100 Power Lawnmower Very Loud (Intolerable forPhone Use)

90 Kitchen Blender

80 Noisy Office

70 Average Street Noise Loud

60 Normal Conversation Usual Background

50 General Office

40 Private Office Noticeably Quiet

30 Quiet Conversation

20 Whisper Very Quiet

10 Human Breathing

0 dB Intolerably Quiet (Threshold ofAudibility)

Fig. 6 Decibel Pressure Levels of Common Environmental


copiers, shuffling feet, etc. Excessive noise is all noisebeyond that which provides an ambient level conduciveto normal conversation. All surfaces within an interiorcan contribute to the Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)of a space. The NRC indicates how well a material willabsorb sound on a scale of 0.00 to 1.00, with 1.00 beingtotal absorption. The most common use of the NRCrating appears on ceiling materials. Most acousticceilings have NRC ratings between 0.50 and 0.90. Theminimum recommended NRC rating for acousticmaterial in open plan offices is 0.80. Generally, thethicker, softer and more porous a material is, the greater

its NRC. The table in Figure 7 shows NRC levels fordifferent interior materials.

Sound transmission deals with noises coming outside theoccupied space. Typically sound transmission is dealtwith during construction, through use of heavy buildingmaterials or double-wall construction. However, oncethe structure is complete, interior materials can givesome improvement. The Sound Transmission Class(STC) indicates a material’s effectiveness in preventingsound transmission. The following table gives STC

Material NRC

Bare Concrete Floor .05

Tile or Linoleum on Concrete .05

Carpet - 1/8" (3 mm) pile .15

Carpet - 1/4" (6.5 mm) pile .25

Carpet - 3/8" (9.5 mm) pile .37

Plaster Ceiling .45

Metal Pan Acoustic Ceiling .60

Systems Furniture Partition Surface .65

Carpet over Padding .65

Suspended Mineral Board Acoustic Ceiling .90

Fig. 7 Noise Reduction Coefficients of Common Finish Materials


ratings for varying materials; the higher the number, thebetter noise is blocked (Fig. 8).

The selection of materials for wall finishes, floorcovering and ceilings must be coordinated to assure thedesired level of acoustic control. Additionally, providingwindow coverings over large expanses ofinterior/exterior window wall glazing, and/or theinstallation of an electronic sound masking system willcontribute to a successful level of acoustic control.

Among interior surfaces, the ceiling is the largest surfaceaffecting noise reflection and absorption. In a standardoffice environment, the ceiling system should produceminimal sound reflectance. Systems that reduce soundreflectiveness are flat, absorbent ceiling panels, bafflesand vaulted ceiling components. The size, shape,number, and placement of luminaires, as well as theshape of other hard-surface ceiling components such asdiffusers, will increase the specular, or mirror-like,reflectiveness of the ceiling.

Material STC

5 mm (3/16") Plywood 19

Open-Plan Furniture Screen Panel (Typical) 21

16 mm (5/8") Gypsum Wallboard 27

22-Gauge Steel Plate 29

120 mm (nominal 2 x 4 ) Wood Stud Partitionwith One Layer 16 mm (5/8") Wallboard Each Side

37

170 mm Staggered Wood (nominal 2 x 4) StudPartition with One Layer 16 mm (5/8") Wallboard

Each Side

45

150 mm (6") Concrete Block Wall 46

150 mm (3-1/2:") Steel Stud Partition withTwo Layers of 16 mm (5/8") Wallboard Each Side

55

Fig. 8 Sound Transmission Coefficient of Common Building Assemblies


The floor is the second largest surface area forabsorption or reflectance of sound. Carpeting will absorba significant amount of impact sounds such as chairmovements and shuffling feet as well as other officesounds. Cut pile carpeting absorbs more sound than looppile carpeting; the greater the pile height and weight incut pile carpets the greater the absorption.

The degree of treatment of wall surfaces depends on theintensity of the sound and the distance between thesound source and the surface. Generally, fewer verticalsurfaces will have to be treated in a large room than asmall one. The larger room has more volume to dissipatethe sound and a greatly diminished wall to floor andceiling surface ratio. Besides providing sound insulationwithin partition cavities, draperies covering windows orwalls, panels of acoustic material hung on the walls, andacoustic material (panels and paints) applied to interiorwalls all are effective treatments in minimizing noisereflectance.

StructuralThe structure is the skeleton of the building. Thestructural plan is often the first component reviewed bythe designer, especially if interior wall relocation isbeing considered. The structural module, a geometricincrement, is the base unit of organization utilized by thestructural engineer in setting the structural system for abuilding. In addition to providing definition and clarityto the work of the structural designer, the resultantexpression of the module—whether the repetitivespacing of ceiling joists or pans, or the regular placementof columns—provides a framework for the organizationof the interior spaces. The overlaid spatial organizationshould integrate the lighting layout, ceiling grid,mechanical systems, partition planning, and furniturelayout within this larger framework. Interior columnsthat define bays may be concealed by integration intopartitions, or left exposed within the space and used toprovide reference points for the occupants, or to definespecific zones of activity.

The paradigm of the modern building is the simpleMaison Domino (Fig. 9), Le Corbusier's diagram of theskeletal "machine for living". It consists of a field of

Fig. 9 Maison Domino


regularly spaced columns and floor plates. An actualstructure may not be much more complicated, withgreater definition given only to the structure of the floor(larger spans may require a framework of joists andbeams to support the floor slabs), and to lateral bracing(to prevent the structure from rocking under wind load orother horizontal force).

The primary structural information an interior designermust be aware of is what elements of the space providethe structural support, and how do those elementsinterrelate (Fig. 10). A few basic guidelines will help.

• Modern structures are primarily steel or concrete. Thechoice is based upon the availability of materials andstructural constraints of the individual materials.

• Vertical support members, columns and structuralwalls carry loads, and are generally not modified afterconstruction.

• Beams may be solid or trussed construction. Trussedbeams have openings in them which may be used for thepassage of building systems. Solid beams may bepenetrated for such passage, but this is primarily done inthe initial design of the building and seldom afterconstruction. Beams join columns in perpendicular

Fig. 10 Modern construction members


connections critical to the overall integrity of thestructure. Whenever modifications are to be made to abeam, it is imperative that a structural engineer beconsulted.

• Joists are smaller beam elements that carry the floorloads to other, larger, beams. The rules stated above forbeams also apply to floor joists.

• Floor slabs are generally concrete, either formed over atemporary framework, or over a steel pan which remainsin place and provides some portion of the structuralcapacity of the floor. Services may be run through floorswith relative ease. Large openings may require theaddition of supplementary joists to support the edges ofthe opening. Smaller openings require coordination toavoid interference with the supporting structure.Additional small openings for the passage of plumbingand electrical services are commonly required during thefit-out of spaces.

• Structural systems may not always be what they appearto be. A simple stud partition which terminates at theceiling may not be a structural member, but it may infact conceal lateral bracing for the structure. As with allsystems discussed in this chapter, elements exist whichmay be concealed; and before proceeding with anysignificant reorganization of a space, it is best to ask theopinion of a structural engineer or architect.

MechanicalThe mechanical systems in a building are designed toperform a variety of functions. They are responsible forheating, ventilating and cooling the environment as wellas supplying fresh water and disposing of waste water.The designer must have a basic knowledge of thesesystems and equipment functions to understand theirimpact on interior design.

Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

HVAC system concerns for the interior designer relatenot only to the visible elements such as radiators,convectors, registers, outlet grilles, or ducts—which arethe end nodes of the systems—but also to theinfrastructure that supplies those elements. Two primary


types of systems exist: central and local. Central systemsprovide either tempered air or water throughout thefacility from a single location. Local systems aregenerally stand-alone and receive their energy via gas orpower lines. While central systems provide an economyof scale in operation, local systems may allow for greatercomfort and economy if demand is not uniformthroughout a facility.

Central air distribution systems (Fig. 11) circulatetempered air from a central plant through ducts whichare typically located above the ceiling. Return air mayalso be carried through ducts or may travel through anopen ceiling plenum.

Air systems may be configured as one or two ductsystems: hot or cold, or hot and cold. Ductwork designplays a critical role in the planning of a space,particularly as it affects ceiling clearances. The mainduct line that feeds directly from the central plant may bequite large, but as it branches out, the end-ducts requireless space.

Friction within the ductwork affects the efficiency of thesystem. It is determined by length and difficulty of travelfor the air stream. Straight travel, with no turns verticallyor horizontally, through square or circular ducts ispreferred. Rectangular ductwork is more common due tosize limitations.

Economy of scale and ease of introducing fresh air arethe primary reasons for choosing a central airdistribution system. Conversely, these systems maycreate undesirable linkages—acoustically as well asenvironmentally—between spaces which, ideally, shouldbe separated.

Central water distribution systems (Fig. 12) circulatetempered water or steam through a series of branchingpipes. Relative to air ducts, these conduits are fairlysmall —only 200 mm (8 inches) or less in diameter.Travel distance and configuration are not as critical as inair systems. Water systems may be configured as two(hot or cold, and return), three (hot, cold, and return), orfour (hot, hot return, cold, and cold return) pipe systems.Two pipe systems require central switching from heatingto cooling, and are less flexible than three or four pipe

Fig. 11 Central air distributionsystem

Fig. 12 Central waterdistribution system


systems, which can deliver both heating and cooling atthe same time.

Local distribution systems (Fig. 13) are typicallyelectric or gas powered fan or radiant units. If fresh air isrequired, it must also be brought in locally. This systemis best used in facilities which have a relatively highperimeter to floor area ratio. Local systems arecommonly found in motels, where each room has anindividual heating/cooling system. Computer rooms alsocommonly utilize local, stand-alone units to maintain atemperature and humidity level which is different fromthe surrounding spaces.

Hybrid distribution systems combine either central airor water distribution with localized reheat, cooling,and/or ventilation to take advantage of the benefits ofeach components’ specific application.

Delivery systems—the final means of transfer fromdistribution system to room—also vary, but fallgenerally into three categories: forced air, convection,and radiation. Forced air systems (Fig. 14) literallyreplace the air in a space with tempered air, and then

retemper or exhaust displaced air. Convection systems(Fig. 15) rely on the natural movement of warm air toheat a space, and are typically located at the perimeterwhere convection units (or radiators) are placed belowwindows, to counter conductive transfer. Radiantsystems (Fig. 16) rely on heat energy radiated by a warmsource to condition not the air, but the occupants orobjects within a space. Radiant heat, while efficient as ameans of delivery, is hampered by the line-of-sightoperation of the delivery system. If an object cannot seethe source, it cannot feel the heat. Radiant transfer is alsoineffective at cooling a space for human occupancy.

Fig. 13 Local distributionsystem

Fig. 14 Forced air heat transfer Fig. 15 Convection heattransfer

Fig. 16 Radiant heat transfer

Once a system is in placeand running, controls mustbe provided to deal withpollutants and humidity.


Ventilation provides fresh air to replace aircontaminated by smoke, grease, pollen, dust, heat, odors,or carbon monoxide.

Humidity control prolongs the life of wood, metal andpainted surfaces. Too much moisture may causecondensation on cool surfaces, wood warpage, mildewpropagation, rust, musty odors, and peelingwallcoverings. Lack of moisture dries wood, leather andadhesives, causing splitting and separation, and increasesstatic electricity transfer from carpets. Too littlemoisture also causes human discomfort by parchingdelicate respiratory membranes and aggravatingallergies.

Humidity also affects the loss of body heat. Highmoisture levels in the air slow evaporation of skinmoisture, keeping the body warm, while low humiditylevels increase skin moisture vaporization, cooling thebody. Relative humidity is a measure of the percentageof humidity in the air relative to the maximum possibleat a given temperature. Relative humidity determines therate at which evaporation can take place in anenvironment as well as its net effect on the occupant. Arelative humidity range of 20 to 60 percent is within therange of comfort for most people.

In buildings with central HVAC systems, humidity iscontrolled by two separate mechanisms. Humidifiers addmoisture to the air. Cooling coils provide a surface fortransfer of heat from the air but also provide a surfacefor condensation of moisture—dehumidification. Self-contained dehumidifiers are used in spaces whereadditional dehumidification may be required. Inbathrooms, laundries and kitchens exhaust fans are mostoften used to remove excess humidity generated by use.Natural flow ventilators which simply provide a meansfor moisture to escape are used in basements, crawlspaces, tunnels, and attics.

Sick Building SyndromeIn recent years, buildings have been designed to retaintempered and conditioned air. As a result, problems withventilation and the accumulation of air pollutants haveincreased. These problems lead to lower levels of indoorair quality and cause decreases in perceived levels ofcomfort for the users of the space. Physical symptoms


may include headaches, fatigue, eye irritation, memoryloss, and respiratory irritation. The predominant cause ofindoor air contamination is inadequate ventilation.Contaminants from activities taking place in or aroundthe building or inappropriate environmental controls andmaintenance may be causes. Off-gassing of buildingmaterials, microbial sources within the building, and soilcontaminants around a building are a lesser concern dueto their infrequent occurrence.

The interior designer must understand the potentialproblems that arise from the use of specific materials,processes and installations. Some guidelines for dealingwith Sick Building Syndrome include the following.

• Increase fresh air supply.

• Ensure that fresh air is free from pollutants from theinterior (kitchens) and exterior (exhaust fumes).

• Improve maintenance operations on air distributionequipment—particularly fans, ducts, filters.

• Install plants to condition interior air

PlumbingA basic knowledge of the workings of a plumbingsystem is critical to making decisions about the efficientarrangement of such utilities within a facility.

The vertical movement of water through a building isaccomplished by risers: vertical lines of pipe runningthrough a building, typically located adjacent togroupings of water-using spaces such as restrooms,kitchens, laundry rooms, etc. (Fig. 17). Risers areconnected to the branch pipes, which run horizontally tothe fixtures. Pipes may be concealed in walls, underfloors, above ceilings, or in specially built enclosures orchases.

In most buildings, hot and cold water are supplied by apressurized system. Branch supply pipes are typicallyquite small - 19 mm (3/4-inch) or so - making it easy tosupply water to new locations.

When a building’s occupantscomplain about acutediscomfort for an extendedperiod of time and most oftheir discomfort ends whenthey leave the building, SickBuilding Syndrome issuspected.


Drain pipes are dependent upon gravity—notpressure—to move water. As drain pipes must slopedownward, they figure more greatly in determiningwhere wet facilities can be located than pressuresystems. Drains from lavatories, disposers and sinksneed only slope down at a gentle angle; larger soil pipesmust slope sharply to discourage sedimentation andclogging. When adding wet facilities during remodelingwhere new risers are not feasible, these new facilitiesmust be placed close enough to existing risers to achievethe required slope without interfering with spaces below.

Traps and vents, which prevent gases in drainage pipesfrom entering living spaces, and allow for free flow ofeffluence without obstruction by trapped gases, areadditional details which add to the complexity of aplumbing system.

When locating new plumbing services, considerationmust be given to the feasibility of routing both thesupply and return systems and the impact of theinstallation and repair on adjacent space. Basic designguidelines include locating pipes away from placeswhere a leak might cause danger or damage, and locating

Fig. 17 Plumbing system showing risers, branch pipes, drain pipes, traps, vents


access panels or pipes in closets or other semi-hiddenspaces that can be easily identified.

Fire ProtectionThe most common method of fire protection withinbuildings is the sprinkler system. Automatic sprinklersystems generally consist of two types: wet and dry. Wetpipe sprinkler systems contain water in both main anddistribution pipes. Dry pipe sprinklers are charged witha gas which is released upon activation, after whichwater flows through the system. Wet pipe systems arethe simplest and most common, but pose a threat ofdamage due to leakage. Dry pipe systems are generallyused where the threat of damage due to leakage isconsidered too great, such as in electrical control andcomputer rooms. Halon systems, which were oncecommon in computer rooms, are largely being replacedby dry pipe systems. Halon, a chloro-fluorocarbon isharmful to the environment as well as directly hazardousto persons exposed to it upon release. Dry pipe systemsreduce the risk of leakage, and additional preactivationcontrols increase the safety of the system relative todamage from accidental discharge. Preactivation systemsrequire multiple releases, both automatic and manual,prior to release.

Automatic sprinkler systems consist of horizontaldistributions of pipes generally located above the ceiling.Sprinkler heads are fused so that open automatically tospray water when temperatures reach 60 to 70° C.Spacing of sprinkler heads depends upon the number ofoccupants, use of the space, construction of the building,and partition placement.

A sprinkler system is typically fed by a water source thatis supplemental to the domestic (drinking water) sourcewithin a building to ensure sufficient pressure andsupply during a fire. This may be a separate reserve suchas tanks or an artificial lake.

Fire hose stations, a frequent supplement to a sprinklersystem, are located at or near stairwells to allow firefighters to approach a fire. Standpipes provide a back-up water supply system—an independent water deliverysystem for access to a supplementary source of waterduring a fire. Often this water is provided by connection


to a pumper truck or direct connection to an externalhydrant.

ElectricalThe primary electrical systems seen in facilities today areelectrical power supply and data/communications orsignal systems. Electrical power supply in the UnitedStates is available in a number of configurations, themost common of which are 120/240 volt single-phasethree wire, 120/208 volt 3-phase 4-wire, and 277/480volt 3-phase 4-wire. The first is used primarily for smallscale and residential projects, the second for the majorityof commercial projects and the last for very large-scaleprojects which have intensive fluorescent lighting and480v machinery use. In all cases the service voltagesupplied to a typical wall receptacle is 120 volts. Thesource voltage is used to power permanently-wiredequipment and lighting. The criteria used fordetermining the system selected are the size of theproject and the ratio of 120 volt usage to the total. Whilethe higher voltage systems dictate equipment costswhich are higher than those of lower voltage systems,this is compensated for through reduced installation andoperating costs.

Data and CommunicationsMany specific electrical and communication systemsother than power are used in a building. Although thesesystems require electricity for operation, they are oftenof a specialized electrical nature, independent of theprimary electrical system. Some, such as emergencylighting and intercoms, are permanently installed, butothers, such as telephones and computer data systems,can be easily relocated.

Communications systems may enter a building as anindependent, low voltage electrical current, or—in thecase of fiber-optic systems—as pulsed light. Specializedtelephone wiring or fiber optic cables are routedthroughout the structure from primary entrance toregional distribution points, and terminate at telephonereceptacles located per specific telephone requirements.Wireless transmission stations may also be employed foruse with portable or cellular phones. These systems are


changing rapidly and range from phones which maywork on a global basis to those which operate onlywithin a few hundred feet of a single base sending unit.Communications systems handle the transport of voiceand data; e.g. telephone conversation, facsimiletransmission, video teleconferencing and data transfer.

Alarm systems commonly detect entry, monitor activity,and sense heat or smoke; and sound an alarm or initiatesome other action when required. These systemsgenerally operate off a low voltage supply , and requireback-up power in the event of a system power failure.Signal transmission is most often handled locally by anindependent network, and then relayed to a central watchstation over a shared or dedicated telephone line.

Data and Communication SystemsData and communication systems are constantlychanging. The expanding fields of electronics, fiberoptics, light-wave technology, low voltage circuitry, andsatellite links continually create new modes ofcommunication and data transfer. Increasingly, these arebeing handled as a networked communication system.

The interior designer faces the responsibility ofspecifying and designing around these communicationsystems as they shape interior spaces.

Distribution SystemsDistribution of electrical and electronic systems througha building is generally accomplished through brancheddistribution. A central chase or trunk will run the lengthor height of the facility, then horizontal distributionsystems run from a central connection closet to the end-user. This distribution may be overhead or underfoot,and in many instances is a combination of the two.

Overhead cables (Fig. 18) installed in the ceilingplenum are the most common means of distribution ofelectrical systems. Depending upon the specificapplication, cables may be laid directly over the ceilingmembrane (for some telephone systems), or they mayneed to be run in conduit (as is often the case regardingelectrical wiring). They may also be laid in raceways orcable trays specifically designed to ease the maintenanceof electronic systems. From the ceiling space,

Fig. 18 Overhead distribution


distribution is made through wall or partition cavities toequipment. The power pole is a direct method ofdistribution from the ceiling plenum by means of verticalpoles or flexible conduit located at workstations. Whileproviding unlimited flexibility, pole locations must becoordinated with furniture and partition systems in orderto avoid undesirable visual results.

Raised access flooring, (Fig. 19) a system ofinterconnecting floor panels raised sufficiently above thestructural floor, allows for installation of electrical,mechanical, and/or air distribution systems beneath it.Virtually unlimited access flexibility allows for a totalintegration of distribution systems with furniture. Due tothe expense of this system, application is generallylimited to areas where ease of access is essential, such asspaces with intensive computer and communicationneeds. Common uses are computer rooms and trainingfacilities.

Flat wire (Fig. 20) is an electrical distribution system inwhich continuous flat wire cabling is located directlybeneath modular carpeting. Relocation can be completedby maintenance personnel if new power connections arenot required. However, significant disadvantages areassociated with flat wire cable as well.

• Due to requirements for accessibility, broadloomcarpet cannot be used over flat wire. Only polyvinylchloride (PVC) backed carpet tiles are permitted bybuilding codes.

• Flat wire cable cannot withstand long-term heavytraffic or local concentrated loads such as casters.

• Telephone cable lengths are limited to 35 feet.

• Ripples in carpet tiles may be visible at cablelocations.

For these reasons, flat wire electrical distributionsystems are typically not used.

In integral distribution systems, steel raceways areincorporated into the structural floor. Commonly foundin steel framed buildings, ducts are made part of the steelpan that forms the bottom of the structural floor.Junction boxes at key points along the ducts haveremovable covers to allow full access. Covers are level

Fig. 19 Raised access flooring

Fig. 20 Flat wire distribution


with the finished floor and can be finished to match.Also called underfloor duct systems, common typesinclude trench duct and cellular floor.

Trench duct systems (Fig. 21) utilize ducts which areflush with the surface of a floor slab as raceways. Theseoften serve as feeders for the cells of a cellular steel floorsystem as well as self-contained raceway systems forcomputer areas, laboratories and hospital X-ray rooms.The trench duct may have either single or multiplecompartments, providing for different services andaccess along the full length of the system. The pre-established grid system will influence the subsequentfurniture layout.

Cellular floor systems (Fig. 22) take advantage of thecavities within corrugated steel decking, using these asthe branches of a distribution system. Headers, typicallyfastened to the surface of the decking but still buriedbeneath the finish slab, provide the main trunkdistribution. The cells are accessed by a grid of regularlyspaced access ports.

The purpose of any integral system is to establish asupply grid which allows easy access to power andcommunication distribution. The grid system provides amatrix of regularly spaced access points at appropriatelocations around the floor.

Poke-through systems (Fig. 23) are not consideredintegral systems and are essentially the same as aboveceiling distribution systems. The primary horizontaldistribution is made through a ceiling plenum; however,instead of feeding down from the ceiling above, thedistribution travels up from the plenum below throughpenetrations in the floor. Although aestheticallypreferable to power poles for connection to free-standingequipment, the system becomes costly because the poke-through connections require alterations to the floor slaband fire separation.

Combined distribution systems often employ poke-through feeds for free-standing elements where visualclarity is valued, in conjunction with overheaddistribution for ease of maintenance where feeds may becarried through existing architectural elements such aspartitions.

Fig. 21 Trench duct distribution

Fig. 22 Cellular floor distribution

Fig. 23 Poke-through distribution


The choice of an electrical distribution system requiresconsideration of both the initial cost of installing thesystem as well as the cost of maintaining it. Dynamicsystems may warrant the increased initial expense of aflexible installation, whereas stable systems may besatisfied by more permanent configurations.

LightingThe final quality and quantity of light present in aninterior is directly related to the process which hasguided the interior designer. In order to successfully planfor the lighting of a space, the designer must possess anunderstanding of the principles and processes of visualperception, comfort and the nature of human need forvisual information (see Chapter 3).

When designing with light, emphasis is placed on focalelements and drawn away from those of lesser interest.The nature of the patterns of light sources and theirrelationships to other elements in the visual field largelydetermines the overall quality of the luminousenvironment. The distribution and characteristics of theillumination, the information conveyed by the pattern ofthe light sources and the degree to which they reinforceor contradict the relationships to the architecture, and theplanned activities also affect the overall quality of lightin an environment. At the same time, one-quarter to one-third of the energy consumption of a building is inlighting. Lighting design, therefore, must be a study ofboth art and technology.

Lamp TypesThrough continued research and technologicaladvancements, thousands of lamp types are available toserve a great spectrum of users. General applicationlamps are currently classified into three basic categories:incandescent, fluorescent and high intensity discharge.Each category has its own unique operatingcharacteristics, special considerations, and applications.Figure 28 provides a summary of the lamp types asdiscussed below.


Incandescent

Incandescent sources come in a variety of forms andshapes (Fig. 24). Their versatility is enhanced by theiravailability in a wide range of wattages. Incandescentlight emanates from a relatively small source; becausesome lamps themselves are quite small, their lightdistribution can be controlled easily. Incandescents areeasy to install, are not adversely affected by frequentswitching, and can be easily dimmed.

General service lamps—A, S, P, PS, and T—are mostsuitable for lighting public spaces and are used in table

lamps and many fixtures with reflectors. The S and Plamp types have a shorter neck than the standard A lamp,which makes them better for use in smaller sources. ThePS lamps, having a slightly longer neck, are sometimesused in downlighting fixtures. T lamps are used forreflective lighting, often in display case lighting.

Decorative lamps —F, G, C, and B—radiate light in alldirections. They are used in decorative applications suchas chandeliers, sconces, lamp posts, and vanities.

Reflector lamps—R, ER, and PAR—are designed withbuilt-in reflectors. They are constructed to cause light tobe emitted in a particular direction and specific beamspread. R lamps are designed for indoor applicationonly. Their reflectors are not very precise and can onlybe made in flood or spot beams. R lamps are best used inrecessed downlights or track applications that do notrequire precise beam control. The ER lamp, amodification of the R lamp, has an ellipsoidal reflector.Its unique shape concentrates the light beam into a smallarea in front of the lamp and spreads the light into awider beam, improving efficiency. PAR lamps have aparabolic shaped design which yields better control of

Fig. 24 Standard incandescent lamp types


the beam. They offer the opportunity to develop anumber of lens patterns, thus increasing the variety ofbeam spreads. They are most effective in indoor trackand accent lighting.

Tungsten-halogen lamps (Fig. 25) are more energyefficient than standard incandescent lamps. For the sameamount of electricity, they generate up to 30 percentmore lumens per light, up to 22 lumens per watt. Also,because tungsten-halogen bulbs blacken much less thanstandard incandescents, they stay almost continuouslybright as they age. The brilliant light and small size

makes halogens ideal for activity and accent lighting.The typical life ranges from 2,000 to 4,000 hours withwattage ranges of 5 to 300 watts. Other benefits includebrilliant, intensely focused light and ease of use withdimmers for energy savings.

PAR 36’s, MR 16’s and MR 11’s are all low voltagelamps. The low voltage lamp, running on only 12 voltsof electricity instead of the household standard of 120volts, requires a transformer for operation. A smallerlamp than most, with a very small filament, these lowvoltage lamps allow the light to be precisely focused bya reflector or other optical system. The precise beams oflight are ideal for lighting small objects or where a longthrow of light is necessary. Low voltage lamps areavailable in both tungsten-halogen and generalincandescent. Some contain their own integral reflectorswhile others are designed to be placed in a luminaire toproperly focus the light output.

Much of the energy consumed by incandescent lightingproduces heat as a by-product of light. This lost energymakes incandescent lighting one of the least efficientlight sources. In addition, the heat produced increases

Fig. 25 Standard tungsten halogen lamp types


the air-conditioning load of the building, requiringadditional energy to be spent on cooling. Incandescentlighting, therefore, is most often used for residentiallighting or the aesthetic display of merchandise.

Fluorescent

Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure discharge lightsources. The typical fluorescent lamp is comprised of acylindrical glass tube, sealed at both ends, whichcontains a mixture of an inert gas and low-pressuremercury vapor. Cathodes at the tube’s ends emit a streamof electrons, activating the phosphor coating on the

inside of the tube, thus producing light. Fluorescentlamps have a long life, typically lasting 10 to 15 timeslonger than incandescent lamps, while producing aboutfour times as much light per watt (60 to 80 lumens perwatt). They come in a wide variety of size, wattage andcolor choices (Fig. 26).

Straight-linear fluorescent "T" lamps are the mostcommon, available in over one hundred configurationsranging in length from 75-2440 mm (3 to 96 inches) andwattage from 4 to 75. Other shapes include the U-shaped and circle-shaped lamps, developed in responseto a desire to minimize fixture size.

Compact fluorescent lamps have been developed to fitinto the space of the conventional 25 to 100 wattincandescent lamp. These fluorescents provide longerlife and high energy savings, as much as 82 percent overincandescents, while approaching the preferred color ofincandescent light. Now they include sizes and colors toreplace conventional fluorescent lamps in reduced sizeluminaires as well. Compact fluorescent lamps areavailable in a number of formats for dedicated

Fig. 26 Fluorescent lamp types


fluorescent fixtures (DD, DL, DF); as well as forretrofitting standard incandescent fixtures (globe, EL),with screw-in bulbs and globes. Although the lampscannot be dimmed, their life—9 to 13 times longer thancomparable incandescent lamps—will be maximized ifused in locations where the light remains on for longperiods of time.

While fluorescent lamps have a longer life, producemore light and save more energy than incandescentlamps do, some disadvantages to their use exist. Theycan produce a flat, diffuse light which may appearmonotonous and tiring. Also, large tube sizes limitoptical control. A disadvantage with compact fluorescentappears in the mounting positions: some compact lampsrequire specific mounting positions (e.g. vertical-baseup).

High Intensity Discharge (HID)Whereas fluorescent lamps rely on the interactionbetween an energized gas and the reactant coating on theinside of the lamp, HID lamps produce light through thedirect excitement of a pressurized gas (Fig. 27). HIDsources tend to be extremely efficient and long-lived, buttypically have long start-up times and operate with poorcolor rendition and consistency.

Mercury vapor lamps were the first HID sourcedeveloped but are used less frequently than other HIDsources. They produce light by passing an electronstream through a gas vapor. Advantages of mercuryvapor lamps include excellent maintained light output,high light output in relation to energy use, low cost, and

exceptionally long life. Warm-up time before fullbrightness, time to cool down before restarting if power

Fig. 27 Standard HID lamp types


is interrupted and high heat output are a fewdisadvantages. Exterior landscape lighting makes thebest use of mercury vapor lamps as the color renditionemphasizes the greens of landscape. Due to limited colorrendering and mercury content, mercury vapor lamps areseldom used any longer.

Metal halide lamps work in much the same way asmercury vapor lamps. The primary difference is theaddition of metal halides to the mercury or argon in themetal halide arc tube. Metal halides have superiorefficacies, high light, better color rendering, and precisebeam control (due to their small size). Disadvantages to

LAMP TYPE Incandescent Fluorescent HID

ATTRIBUTE 120 voltTungsten

12 volt Halogen

Initial Cost Low High Moderate Very High

Efficiency 5 - 20 Lumensper Watt

10-20 Lumens perWatt

60-90Lumens per

Watt

40-80 Lumensper Watt

Operating Cost High Moderate Low Very Low

Life Cycle Cost High Moderate Low Moderate

Life 1000 - 2000 Hrs 2000 - 4000 Hrs 8000 - 10,000Hrs

6000 - 30,000Hrs

Lumen Maintenance Low High High High

Flexibility of Application Very High High Limited Limited

Color Good Superior Varied Poor

Color Rendering Index 100 100 70-85 30-75

Auxiliary Circuiting Requirements None Minimal Moderate Moderate

Dimming Abilities Yes Yes Limited No

Start up & Restrike None None 0 - 15Seconds

0 - 10 Minutes

Heat Output High Very High Limited Moderate

Glare Potential Yes High Limited Yes

Circuiting 120v 12/120v 120/277v 120/277/480v

Recommended Application Accent Task Accent Task Accent TaskAmbient

Ambient

Fig. 28 Lamp Type Attributes


these lamps include shorter life, lower lumenmaintenance (light output decreases faster), and certainrestrictions on the positions in which the lamps may beburned. If operated improperly metal halide lamps mayexplode, thus they require fixtures with protectivelenses. These lamps work well in offices, retail spacesand public interiors.

High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamps are the newestaddition to the HID field. The lamps have efficacies of60 to 140 lumens per watt and rated lives of 10,000 to24,000 hours. Unlike metal halide lamps, they are not assensitive to burning position. While normally the lightsource has a yellow-orange glow, recent improvementshave resulted in a white color-rendering property.Unfortunately, improvement of color rendering results inlower lamp life and efficacy. Due to its thin, linearshape, the HPS provides excellent optical control. Thetwo distinct disadvantages are shorter life compared toother HID sources and severely distorted salmon-appearing color output among non-color-correctedlamps. HPS lamps have generally been used for streetlamps, but even then have limited application.

Lamps and their Effect on ColorIn selecting a lamp for a particular space, two primarycriteria must be considered. The Correlated ColorTemperature (CCT) describes the color of the lightgiven off by the lamp, while the Color RenderingIndex (CRI) describes the effect that the light source hason the apparent color of an object.

Color temperature is measured in degrees Kelvin (K),ranging from 9,000K to 1,500K (Fig. 29). The greater thenumber, the cooler the lamp color; the smaller thenumber, the warmer the lamp color. Most light sourcesfall in the middle range, leaning either toward cool orwarm. Generally, a lamp source should be selected tosuit the color scheme of the space: warm range lights forwarm color schemes and cool range lights for cool colorschemes. Predominantly neutral or gray color schemescan be lit with either to accentuate or draw the schemeone way or another, or may employ a more neutral, mid-range light.

The second consideration when selecting a light sourceis the CRI. Color rendering is measured on a scale of 0Fig. 29 Common correlated

color temperature ranges


to 100 (Fig. 30). A CRI of 100 indicates no color shift inthe object when compared to a reference source. Thelower the CRI the more pronounced the color shift willbe. CRI values are only taken into consideration once acolor temperature range has been determined; however,the temperature effect cannot be discounted whenassessing CRI.

Incandescent sources radiate energy throughout thevisible spectrum but with a greater proportion in theyellow-red range. A standard incandescent lamp has acolor temperature of 2,700 K and appears yellow-white.When the incandescent lamp is dimmed, the color of thelight shifts to the red end of the spectrum, making redsappear more saturated while greens and blues becomegrayed. A tungsten-halogen lamp may have a colortemperature in the range of 3,000 to 3,200K and appearbrilliant white. These lamps render all colors very closeto their actual hue.

Fluorescent lamps are available in many different“whites", each with a different color temperature. Theircolor relates directly to the type of phosphor used to coatthe inside wall of the tube. Red, green and bluephosphors are blended to achieve the desired shade ofwhite. Thus, color rendering capabilities vary amongfluorescent sources.

High intensity discharge sources produce light in arather narrow range of the spectrum. Mercury lampsproduce a bluish-white light. Because of the strong blue,green, and yellow rendition of the mercury, objects ofthese colors are enhanced under this source, while redand orange objects appear brown. The addition ofphosphors activates energy in the red portion of thevisible spectrum and enhances the overall color of lightby improving the color rendition of red and orangeobjects. Metal halide lamps already produce a bettercolor rendition than mercury lamps, emphasizing thecolors that tend to create a cool visual atmosphere: huesof blue-purple through blue-green to yellow-green. Highpressure sodium lamps produce a yellow-orange lightthat, while intensifying yellow-orange objects, distortsother colored objects.

Fig. 30 Color rendering index


Designing with LightDesigners define, articulate, or manipulate a space usingvarious forms of light. Common terminology employed

in the discussion of lighting follows.

Ambient (Fig. 31) lighting involves a uniform light withno apparent single source. It provides a low level ofoverall diffuse lighting adequate for circulation needsand for preventing areas of darkness.

Task (Fig. 32) lighting is a focused light utilized for aspecific task. This approach to lighting is based uponilluminating a task in an appropriate manner whilebalancing the illumination of surrounding areas (ambientlight).

The major advantages of task lighting include:

• highly controllable and user-friendly sources,

• energy savings possible through lower overall ambientlight level,

• wide range of sources and models,

• highly portable and adjustable, and

• can be used to create high local light levels wherenecessary.

The major disadvantages of task lighting include:

• expense in terms of capital investment,

• requirement for multiple power outlets,

• wide assortment of models can lead to problems withaesthetics, coherence, and maintenance,

• desk versions can be space consuming,

• poor adjustment can lead to glare for colleagues, and

Fig. 31 Ambient light Fig. 32 Task light

• Types of lighting


• undershelf models may produce glare for user.

Direct (Fig. 33) light refers to light which has traveled ina straight line from its source. This type of light createshighlights and shadows which emphasize texture,identity and aesthetics of mass and form. Spaces can bemade to look smaller or more intimate by the use ofdirect shielded luminaires recessed in ceilings or surfacemounted on walls or ceilings. Other visual effectsachieved with direct light include high contrast, vibrantcolor, and glitter.

Indirect (Fig. 34) light, sometimes referred to as a

diffuse or “soft” light, tends to minimize shadows andcontributes to a more relaxing and less visually dynamicenvironment. Indirect light is reflected off a singlesurface or multiple surfaces to diffuse the light and makeit appear more uniform in nature. When used alone, theresult can be very monotonous and uninteresting.

Brightness, duration, size, and contrast are importantfactors when determining the appropriate amount of lightfor an environment. Specific recommended illuminancecategories have been prepared by the IlluminatingEngineering Society of North America (IESNA) andmay be found in their Lighting Handbook, ReferenceApplication, an excerpt from which is shown inFigure 35.

Lighting "Rules of Thumb"In the design of lighting for various spaces, some generalguidelines should be considered.

• To see the detail of an object, contrast between theobject and its background is necessary.

Fig. 33 Direct Light Fig. 34 Indirect Light

Methods of distributing lightfrom an artificial source


• Luminance of surfaces in the area surrounding anobject can adversely affect a person’s ability to seesurface detail of the object.

• When a space is to be illuminated directly, the lightingshould emphasize the prominent characteristics—module, shape and material—in a consistent andcomplimentary fashion.

• To conform with expectations, use light sources ofrelatively low color temperature at low levels ofillumination, and sources of higher color temperature athigher levels of illumination.

• In general, illuminate continuous elements such aswalls evenly or with even gradients so they appearcontinuous.

Type of ActivityIlluminance

CategoryRange of

Illuminationin Lux

Reference Work-Plane

Public Spaces with Dark Surroundings A 20-50 General Lighting ThroughoutSpaces

Simple Orientation for ShortTemporary Visits

B 50-100 General Lighting ThroughoutSpaces

Working Spaces Where Visual Tasksare Only Occasionally Performed

C 100-200 General Lighting ThroughoutSpaces

Performance of Visual Tasks of HighContrast or Large Size

D 200-500 Illuminance on Task

Performance of Visual Tasks ofMedium Contrast or Small Size

E 500-1000 Illuminance on Task

Performance of Visual Tasks of LowContrast or Very Small Size

F 1000-2000 Illuminance on Task

Performance of Visual Tasks of LowContrast or Very Small Size over a

Prolonged Period of Time

G 2000-5000 Illuminance on Task Obtained byCombination of General andSupplementary Lighting

Performance of Very Prolonged andExacting Visual Tasks

H 5000-10,000 Illuminance on Task Obtained byCombination of General andSupplementary Lighting

Performance of Very Special VisualTasks of Extremely Low Contrast and

Small Size

I 10,000-20,000 Illuminance on Task Obtained byCombination of General andSupplementary Lighting

Fig. 35 Illuminance categories and values for generic interior activities


• Because of adaptation and time orientation, the sameamount of artificial lighting in interior spaces will appearmuch brighter at night than during the day.

• Because of simultaneous contrast and adaptation,objects with identical levels of illumination appearbrighter when seen against a darker background(Fig. 36).

• When illumination levels must be low, emphasizepotentially dangerous edges in circulation paths bychanges in material, the use of color, or definitiveshadows.

• Grazing lighting (lighting at a shallow angle ofincidence) always highlights irregularities in the surfaceupon which it falls.

Fig. 36 Simultaneous contrast


Design Checklist

Architectural Systems andComponents

How do they affect the way the space isdefined?

ConstructionWallsInteriorPerimeterCeilingsFloors

Acoustical ConcernsPrivacyCommunicationIsolation

Structural Systems and ComponentsHow do they affect architectural

definition, utility, and mechanical andelectrical systems distribution?

Location of Bearing Walls, Structural MembersDepth of Ceiling StructureType of Floor Construction

How does it affect allowable loads/acceptable usesHow does it affect location of penetrations for systemsdistribution

Mechanical Systems andComponents

How do they affect architecturaldefinition, and utility?

HVAC SystemType of SystemSpatial Requirements for DistributionVerticalHorizontalVentilation RequirementsHumidity Control Requirements

PlumbingSpatial Requirements for DistributionChase DimensionsLocation of Chases to Ensure Adequate Slope

Electrical Systems and ComponentsHow do they affect architectural

definition? How are they limited byarchitecture and structure?

Primary Distribution SystemPower RequirementsData and Communications RequirementsAuxiliary SystemsLightingLamp TypeLighting MethodSpatial Requirements

Materials

Primary Interior Finish Materials 6.1• Concrete 6.1• Masonry 6.1• Stone 6.2• Metals 6.2• Wood 6.3• Plastic 6.7• Glass 6.8• Wall Board 6.9• Tile 6.10• Terrazzo 6.10• Acoustic Ceiling systems 6.11• Resilient Flooring 6.11• Carpet 6.12• Paint and Other Film-Applied Finishes 6.21• Wallcovering 6.24• Fabric and Textiles 6.25Application Guidelines 6.31

Materials 6.1

MaterialsThis chapter discusses primary interior finishmaterials—their make-up, application, maintenance,appropriate uses, and consequences of selection. Itbegins with a discussion of common finish materials andends with application guidelines for each.

Primary Interior Finish MaterialsThe following descriptions address only the mostcommon of finish materials and cannot address allpertinent details. For more detailed information, consultgeneral reference texts, or contact specificmanufacturers.

Concrete

Concrete is a cast or poured material composed of anaggregate, typically sand or gravel, and a binder,typically cement. Concrete is extremely hard andresistant to weathering. It is most often used in areasrequiring very high utility, or areas where a continuitybetween the exterior and interior environment is desired.Concrete is typically used in the architectural andstructural definition of a space, rather than strictly as afinish material, but can be used for most any applicationfrom floors to walls to furnishings.

Masonry

Masonry, a broad material category, consists primarilyof earthen building units including concrete block, claytile, brick, and stone. Masonry walls are typically usedwhere safety, security or durability is a primary concernor where a particular aesthetic is desired. They may alsobe used in solar heating applications where mass isneeded for solar heat storage. Masonry walls are heavyand not easily modified. Their weight is clearly alimiting factor in some applications. They take longer toconstruct than a typical gypsum board partition and theircost is a premium.

Materials 6.2

Stone

Stone is a valued construction material because of itsaesthetic appearance, durability and relative ease ofmaintenance. All three families of stone—igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic—are used in theconstruction trade.

Igneous stones are produced under intense heat andinclude granites. They are dense, hard and durable; maybe fine or course-grained; and are found in shades ofgreen, pink, yellow, white, and black. They may befinished in numerous ways: polished, honed, flamed, orhammered. Granite is used for wall cladding, tabletops,flooring, and other applications that require considerableresistance to wear and staining. Granite, however, issusceptible to heat and spalls when exposed to fire andso cannot be used in interior structural applications.

Sedimentary stones, such as slate and limestone, areformed by sediment deposits in the earth. These stonestend to be soft and are easily cleft and hammered. Theyhave a limited finish availability and do not polish wellor retain detail when worked. Sedimentary stones are notas durable as igneous stones. Slate ranges in color fromblue to orange, is brittle, and easily splits into sheets. Itis used mostly for tabletops, flooring and roofing.

Metamorphic stones such as marble, result from thecrystallization of limestone. They are relatively hard, buthave a venal structure which is prone to fracture. Theytend to be translucent, are available in many colors, andmay be polished into shiny, smooth surfaces, or honed toa matte finish. Metamorphic stones are porous and willabsorb oils; therefore they must be sealed for most uses.Marble is used for decorative wall panels, tabletops,fireplaces, countertops, and flooring.

Metals

Metals are extremely durable materials easily formedthrough a number of processes. They may be drawn intowire, rolled into sheets, cast, or stamped into manyuseful and decorative objects. They vary in reactivity towater, oils and chemicals. Stainless steel and chromeresist most reactants encountered in interiorenvironments quite well; therefore, wet rooms and clean

Materials 6.3

rooms commonly utilize these metals. Brass and bronzeare generally given a protective coat to prevent theirnatural oxidation due to exposure. Finish techniques formetals include hammering, brushing, polishing, andetching. Metals can be used in ceilings and countertopsas well as walls and other vertical surfaces.

Wood

Wood has been used for centuries as the primaryconstruction material for buildings and furniture. It is arenewable material and is easy to work. Lumber qualityvaries, relating directly to the method of sawing,seasoning and surfacing.

Most lumber intended for use in the framing of buildingsis plain sawn, a method of dividing the log thatproduces the maximum yield and the greatest economy(Fig. 1). The varying grain orientation of plain sawnlumber causes the pieces to distort during seasoning, andto have very different surface appearances from onepiece to the next. Occasionally these variations maycause problems, especially for interior trim, finishflooring, and furniture. For these purposes, wood istypically quarter sawn (Fig. 7) to produce lumber witha more consistent vertical grain orientation and a tighter,more pleasing figure. These boards also tend to remainflat despite changes in moisture content and have animproved wearing quality.

Seasoning, either natural or kiln-processed, reduces themoisture content of lumber to a specified levelappropriate for the application; for example, 19 percentor less for framing. This process is critical to thestrength, dimensional stability, stiffness, and weight ofthe material. Surfacing makes a board smooth anddimensionally precise. Surfaced lumber is easier to workwith because it is more square and uniform in dimensionand less damaging to the hand. Grading of lumber isperformed either for appearance or structural strengthand stiffness, depending upon its intended use.

Softwoods, such as pine, redwood, and cedar, comefrom coniferous trees and have a relatively simplemicrostructure, consisting mainly of large longitudinalcells. Softwood lumber generally has a coarse andrelatively uninteresting grain structure. Hardwoods such

Materials 6.4

as cherry, mahogany and oak, come from broadleaf treesand are more complex in structure than softwoods. Theyhave smaller diameter fibers and larger diameter pores.For fine furniture, interior finish details and finishflooring, hardwoods are most often used. Most lumberused for building framing comes from softwoods whichare comparatively plentiful and inexpensive. Other usesfor softwoods are paneling, moldings, window and doorframes, finish flooring, shingles, siding, and outdoorstructures where decay resistance is required.

Solid wood lumber is available as either nominal ordimensional material. Nominal sizes are generally usedto refer to lumber used for rough construction andframing. A 2x4 has a nominal dimension of 2"x4" butmeasures less. Dimensional sizes are specified for finishwork where the wood is required to be a specific orminimum dimension. Solid wood lumber isunpredictable in terms of appearance and behavior: itdepends largely on the natural growth of the source tree.It is susceptible to seasonal movement due to swellingand shrinking of the wood cells with humidity in the air.A primary advantage to solid wood however, is that it ishomogeneous and may be thoroughly sanded inrefinishing.

Laminated wood products—in which several layers ofwood are glued together—are available for structural orfinish work when solid wood lumber is neither availablenor appropriate. Laminated beams allow the use ofstructural wood members which would not be possibleor economical in solid wood. Plywood, formed of sheetsof wood laminated with grain run in perpendiculardirections, allows larger panel sizes and reducesdistortion and warping by setting the wood structure inbalance against itself. Lamination also allows acombination of woods to be used to derive maximumbenefit from the characteristics of each of the componentpieces. Laminated wood may be superior to solid interms of stability and size availability, but is morelimited in terms of wear due to the thinner finish facethickness.

Veneers are thin sheets or leaves of wood produced byslicing a log, usually to maximize the utility of a piece offine wood. Veneer-faced lumber products have

Wood Interiors Products

Materials 6.5

essentially the same characteristics as their lumber core.They can, however, be produced very economicallythrough a higher degree of mechanization and materialusage.

Four primary veneer cuts exist: plain (or flat) sliced,rotary, quarter sawn, and rift cut. These four cuts varysignificantly in their display of the wood grain and theireconomy of production. Plain slicing, the most commoncut (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2), is done parallel to a line throughthe center of the log. A cathedral display characterizes itsgrain, with marked progression in graining among the

leaves as they approach and then depart the center of thelog. Rotary cut, peeling the log about its core, is themost economical cut of veneer but yields a very irregulargrain pattern (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). This cut is usedprimarily for structural (commodity grade plywood) andpaint grade veneers.

Quarter sawn veneers are one of the two premium classveneers as veneer leaves tend to be small and the loss oflog considerable (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6). By cutting the loginto quarters and then slicing, a narrow striped grainpattern is revealed, and the cross-growth structure of the

Fig. 4 Rotary sliced veneer

Fig. 1 Plain sawing or slicing Fig. 2 Plain sliced veneer

Fig. 3 Rotary slicing

Materials 6.6

wood is accentuated, resulting in a display of themedullary rays in wood species such as oak. (It is these

medullary rays which give Mission oak its characteristicgrain pattern.) Rift cut veneers produce the mostcontrolled grain patterns, with narrow striped grainingand reduced display of the medullary rays (Fig. 7 andFig. 8).

Matching of wood veneers is performed with the orderedleaves taken from a single or multiple logs. As leaves arecut from a log, they are held in sequence for laterassembly into veneer sheets. In book matching everyother veneer leaf is turned over, resulting in the greatest

continuity of grain pattern as the log is essentiallyunfolded (Fig. 9). This type of match is most common

Fig. 5 Quarter sawing or slicing

Veneer Matches

Fig. 6 Quarter sliced veneer

Fig. 9 Book match Fig. 11 Random match

Fig. 7 Rift slicing Fig. 8 Rift sliced veneer

Fig. 10 Slip match

Materials 6.7

for plain sliced leaves where considerable breadth ofpattern occurs. The fact that alternate interior andexterior faces of the veneer are displayed results in anadditional, subtle variation as the direction of the poresin the grain alternates up and down from leaf to leaf.This may be aggravated through improper finishing, andmay cause a color shift as the reflective surface of thewood changes.

Slip matching fans the leaves of a log as one might fana deck of cards (Fig. 10). This provides a strongcontinuity of grain and color match, but results in a verydirectional pattern. This match is best used with rift andquarter sawn veneers where the grain is controlledduring the cutting process. Random matching meansjust that: the veneer leaves are placed randomly,purposefully placing the veneers out of order (Fig. 11).This is sometimes done for aesthetic effect, but mostoften is simply an economical means of mixing leavesfrom multiple source logs.

Industrial composite boards, such as medium densityfiberboard, wafer board or oriented strand board, areengineered wood products developed to take advantageof very specific characteristics of wood. They are oftenmade from commodity woods - fast growing trees withlittle aesthetic character or utility due to their small size,but which, as raw material, provide an excellent sourceof product. Industrial composite boards are typicallyengineered with a particular use in mind, and theirapplication must be consistent with that intended use.They vary in stability, resistance to moisture andworkability - some are intended as finish materials whilemost are only used as substrates.

Plastic

Plastics exist in many forms, including rigid sheets ofsolid plastic, plastic laminate veneers over hardboardpanels, or thin and flexible wall vinyls. These materialscome in a wide range of colors and surface finishes andare durable and generally easy to clean. However, somemay be damaged by abrasive cleaners, and oncedamaged may be difficult to restore to their originalfinish.

Materials 6.8

Plastics may be used as an alternative to glass whereimpact is a concern. Solid plastics for countertops,transaction surfaces, and toilet partitions offerworkability and repairability. Thin plastic veneersprovide an economical protective wall treatment.

Plastic laminates traditionally consist of a decorativepaper face sandwiched between a phenolic backing and amelamine face. Recent product developments have led tosolid-color laminates composed of multiple layers ofcolored paper imbedded with melamine so that the colorcontinues through the thickness of the laminate. Plasticlaminates are used extensively for cabinets, countertopsand tabletops.

Plastic laminate grades are as follows.

• GP 50, General purpose used for horizontalapplications; offers sturdiness and good wear resistanceand can be cold formed in simple bends to radii of 6 to 8inches.

• GP 28, General purpose, a thinner material producedfor vertical surfaces exposed to less wear.

• PF 42, Post-forming can be bent at elevatedtemperatures to small radiuses and has a permanentmemory for the formed position.

• CL 20, Cabinet liner for vertical decorative surfacesthat receive little wear, such as insides of cabinets.

• BK 20, Backer used in the fabrication of plasticlaminate-clad surfaces to prevent warping and to protectagainst dimensional instability of both the laminate andsubstrate.

Glass

Glass has myriad uses as partitions, tabletops andwindows. Available in a wide range of thicknesses, glassmay be laminated where additional strength or thicknessis required. Standard utility glass is annealed. In manyinterior applications - particularly where the glass issusceptible to impact or required to be part of a fire-ratedenclosure - safety glass is required. Safety glass isavailable in three common manufactures: laminated,tempered and wire glass.

Plastic Laminate

Materials 6.9

Laminated safety glass is composed of two or moresheets of glass with plastic interleaves, bonded togetherthrough heat and pressure. When broken, the plasticholds the fragments of glass together to help reduceinjury. It is important to note that not all laminated glassis safety glass; a number of manufacturers producedecorative laminated glass. Tempered glass is heatedand then cooled rapidly to alter the molecular structureof the glass. When broken, tempered glass shatters intotiny rectangular fragments, reducing risk of harm fromthe broken glass. Wire glass, like laminated glass, hasan independent structure introduced into the glass tomaintain its integrity in case of damage; in this case awire mesh imbedded into the molten glass duringforming. Wire glass is commonly used only in fire-ratedenclosures where this integrity is paramount. However,its appearance is often objectionable.

Glass may be used for decorative purposes as well. Byetching or sandblasting the surface, or using patterned orcolored glass, different optical effects can be achieved.Decorative laminated glasses offer almost limitlessoptions for altering the appearance of glass to achievedifferent colors or patterns. Many types of glass havelimited applications: art or stained glass, electronic(LCD) privacy glass, polarized glass, fire resistive (salt-filled) glass, and bullet resistive glass. These specialtyglass types need to be researched independently for theirspecific uses.

Wall Board

Wall board is perhaps the most common of allcontemporary building materials. Essentially a wafer ofgypsum (a powdery white mineral) sandwiched betweentwo layers of paper, gypsum wall board is a mass-produced replacement for plaster and lath. When theappropriate grade of wall board and finish are usedtogether, this product has extremely broad applications.It is generally secure, easily maintained and provides alevel of fire and moisture protection.

The different grades of wall board include:

• standard grade for general application,• fire resistive for use in fire resistive construction,• water resistant for use in damp locations, and

Materials 6.10

• cementitious for use in wet locations (such as showerenclosures or as tile underlayment in kitchens, etc.).

TileTile may be used as a wall or floor finish for bothinterior and exterior applications. It is very durable,easily maintained and attractive. Tiles are available tocoordinate in color, style, texture, and thickness withother floor coverings.

Ceramic tile is made of clay that is shaped and fused byfiring in a kiln. They generally come in tiles 300 mm (12inches) square or smaller, and can be easily installedwith mastic over any rigid substrate. Because of its hardsurface, glazed ceramic tile can be easily cleaned and isquite resistant to stains, making it appropriate for wetareas such as bathrooms, kitchens and laboratories.

Porcelain tile is a dense, fine grained, smooth,homogeneously colored ceramic tile. It resists chippingand provides superior stain and slip resistance.

Quarry tile is typically a thicker tile with a roughercharacter than either ceramic or porcelain. It isimpervious to water, grease and most liquids, and wearswell. Quarry tile is often used on floors that are subjectto a great deal of abrasion.

Terrazzo

Terrazzo, similar to concrete, consists of an aggregatebound in a matrix, but is not a structural material. It isusually applied over concrete and divided by zinc, brass,or plastic cames into workable areas and patterns. Theaggregate may be any hard material such as marble, rockor glass while the binders are typically cementitious orepoxy-based. Terrazzo is a designed surface composedof aggregate and matrix chosen for their color, textureand translucence. A polished finish is the most common;however, it may be left unpolished. Terrazzo is mostfrequently used for floor finishes requiring a high levelof durability and low maintenance.

Materials 6.11

Acoustic Ceilings Systems

Suspended acoustic ceiling systems refer to acousticpanels or tiles suspended by an exposed or concealedceiling grid. The tiles themselves can be made offiberglass, mineral fiber, wood, or metal. They rangefrom smooth, washable surfaces to deep-fissured ortextural patterns. They come in a wide range of patterns,colors, and acoustic values—most between 0.50 and0.70 NRC. The quality of the acoustic value directlyrelates to the composition, face texture, and manufactureof the tile. Fiberglass tiles absorb almost all of the soundthat strikes them but are generally not very durable.Mineral fiber tiles are more durable and absorb lesssound overall than fiberglass, but they prove veryeffective at absorbing sound that strikes at a 90 degreeangle. As the angle of incidence increases however, thesound absorption decreases.

Acoustic ceiling systems are utilized for their costefficiency, flexibility and acoustic properties. Thesesystems can be used in almost any application. Cautionshould be taken to specify moisture resistant systems inwet areas.

Resilient Flooring

Linoleum was the first resilient flooring that gainedbroad popularity. Schools and public buildings withheavy duty needs still utilize linoleum as a resilient floorcovering. Thicker linoleums can be warm and resilient.Disadvantages to linoleum are its sensitivity to alkalis,and susceptibility to water damage from underneath,which can cause it to bubble, peel or deteriorate.

Cork provides a very resilient and acoustic option forflooring. Inherently porous and fragile, cork is typicallycombined with resins to increase durability. Theincreased durability far outweighs the minimal loss ofacoustics and resiliency with the addition of resins.

Vinyl Composition Tile (VCT) is composed of vinyls,resins, plasticizers, coloring agents, and fillers. VCT isresistant to oils, grease and other stains. It is veryeconomical, wears well and is easily maintained,repaired, and replaced. Disadvantages include its

Materials 6.12

vulnerability to scuffing and marking, and continuouscare required to maintain its visual appearance.

Sheet vinyl is waterproof, resists most domesticchemicals and can have a textured finish that is slipresistant. It is resilient, quiet, shows fewer marks thanVCT, and can be cushioned. Sheet vinyls come in anunlimited range of colors and designs and can be usedwith underfloor heating. Solid colors are notrecommended in high-use areas because they tend toshow dirt and marking.

Rubber, possesses many of the same properties as vinyl;although it is more resilient and resistant to indentationthan vinyl. It will withstand wear and spiked shoe trafficlonger than any other type of resilient flooring. Rubberflooring with raised patterned surfaces is ideal for areaswhere excessive tracking of dirt or moisture is likely,because the dirt and moisture drop below the wearsurface. Unfortunately, rubber is less resistant to grease,oil and alkalis than vinyl, and is not available as aconductive flooring.

Static-conductive tiles are specialty tiles with anadditive to enhance the dissipation of static electricity.These tiles are frequently used in hospital operatingrooms or laboratories where sparks may pose a hazard.

Carpet

Carpet comes in a wide range of colors, patterns andtextures. Carpet aids in reducing fatigue from standingfor long periods of time and absorbs noises within aninterior. It is inherently slip resistant but provides a softsurface in case of a fall. Considerations when selectingcarpet include type of fiber, construction andcleanability.

Carpet can be made from many different types of yarn,and further from different fibers within those yarns.

• Staple fibers are relatively short in length and must becarded and spun in order to form yarn. Natural fiberssuch as wool, cotton and flax are staple fibers. Syntheticfibers are sometimes cut into staple fibers.

• Continuous filament fibers are produced as singlerunning fibers. Typically nylon and other man-made

Fiber Types

Materials 6.13

fibers are continuous filament. Silk is a naturalcontinuous filament fiber.

Nylon is the most common type of fiber used incommercial carpet. Nylons may be dull or glossy andhave good color range. Nylon is very tough and easilycleaned, and it blends well with other fibers. The moreadvanced nylons have inherent static control andexcellent resistance to mold, mildew, aging, abrasion,and sunlight. Unfortunately, nylon does attract dirt andmelts on contact with direct flame.

Wool, a natural fiber, is warm, soft, fire and mildewresistant, has a hard-wearing resiliency, and dyes well ina wide range of colors. It has a high resistance to soilingand wear as well as excellent texture and appearanceretention. However, dampness may cause wools to swell,and dry heat may cause shrinkage.

Continuous filament olefins are used in backings fortufted carpets. They are hard-wearing, easy to clean, andresistant to water, mildew, soil, stain, aging, abrasion,and sunlight. A major disadvantage of this fiber for faceyarn is that the material crushes and pills easily, makingit undesirable for commercial use.

Yarns may be colored at several stages during themanufacturing process. Synthetic yarn which has coloradded to it prior to the fiber-forming process is calledsolution-dyed. Synthetic or natural yarns colored afterbeing formed are called yarn-dyed or skein-dyed.Yarns colored after the carpet has been manufactured arereferred to as piece-dyed.

Solution-dyed yarns hold their color best because thecolor is integral to the yarn and thus not subject toremoval by cleaners or bleach. Because the dye iscontained within the body of the yarn however, the coloris dependent on the color and clarity of the base yarnmaterial, and is usually muted. Because the variouscolors of yarn are made individually, they are generallyproduced in smaller batches than yarn which is to beskein or piece-dyed, and are therefore more expensivethan these goods.

Because the pores on the surface of skein and piece-dyedyarns are already filled by dye, they tend to be moreresistant to staining than an untreated solution-dyed yarn.

Fiber Composition

Dye Processes

Materials 6.14

As the dye rests on or near the surface of skein andpiece-dyed yarns, their color is generally more brilliantas well.

Both solution and yarn-dyed carpets offer excellentopportunity for color mixing. Because the entire carpet issubjected to a single dye for piece-dyed goods, color isdependent on the yarns’ ability to absorb or resist thedye, and is therefore much more limited.

Another opportunity to introduce color and pattern to acarpet is through overprinting. Overprinting is alocalized dye process whereby dyes are applied to theface of a carpet, or injected into its pile. Limitations tothis process are depth of ink penetration, color resistanceto cleaning, and lack of definition in pattern due tobleeding or wicking of the dyes along and betweenyarns. Overprinting has its broadest applications in theproduction of less-expensive custom pattern carpets andremanufacturing. (In remanufacturing, the face of a usedcarpet is sheared slightly, and then the carpet isoverprinted to update its look and conceal minor flawsand damage.)

The term broadloom originally referred to wovencarpets which were made on a loom, but now describesmost rollgood carpets. Broadloom carpets are availablein a variety of widths, the most common of which are1830 mm (6 feet) and 3660 mm (12 feet). Use of abroadloom carpet requires the development of a seamingplan prior to installation to ensure that seams are locatedinconspicuously and never in the middle of high trafficareas. Disadvantages of broadloom carpet includeinconvenience of access to underfloor systems anddifficulty in replacing damaged areas.

Carpet tile is manufactured as a rollgood and then cutinto squares of 305 mm (1 foot) to 1220 mm (4 feet)dimensions. Installation by glue-down or loose-laymethods are possible. Replacement of damaged or worntiles is quite simple. Other advantages include reducedwaste of goods at installation and easy access tounderfloor systems. Initially carpet tiles cost more thanbroadloom, but life-cycle cost may be less, ifreconfiguring or replacement of small areas issignificant.

Carpet Format

Materials 6.15

Tufted carpets are made up of individual tufts of yarninserted into a premanufactured jute, cotton or synthetic

backing (Fig. 12). A coating of latex applied to the backof the carpet bonds the tufts to the backing.

In the woven carpet manufacturing process, the yarns forthe backing are woven simultaneously with those of theface (Fig. 13). The primary components of a wovencarpet are the weft yarns, backing yarns which run thewidth of the carpet; the warp yarns, backing yarns whichrun lengthwise through the carpet; and the pile yarnswhich form the face of the carpet. The three principalmachine-woven techniques are: velvet, Wilton andAxminster. Knit carpet is a type of woven carpet inwhich the pile yarns are interwoven among themselves,resulting in a three dimensional weave.

In fusion bonded construction, pile yarn is inserteddirectly into liquid vinyl backing which is then fused at ahigh temperature to lock in the yarn, creating a unitarystructure (Fig. 14). In some manufacturing operations,the yarn is sandwiched between two backs, and cut aftercuring to form two separate runs of carpet. Fusionbonding provides high tuftbind and density, maximizesface yarn utility on the wearing surface, and minimizesedge fraying or raveling.

All face yarns in cut pile (Fig. 14) carpet are cut. Thecarpet then has a plush, velvet look. Cut pile hides seamsand cuts well, and responds favorably to easy, periodicmaintenance. It can be produced in fusion-bonded, tuftedor woven construction. Low density cut pile carpetsshow crushing and shading, and should be avoidedwhere this is a concern.

Carpet Construction

Carpet Face Types

Fig. 14 Fusion bonded; cut pilecarpet

Fig. 12 Tufted; loop carpet Fig. 13 Woven; cut and loopcarpet

Materials 6.16

No surface ends are cut in loop pile carpet (Fig. 12).Loop pile can be produced in tufted or wovenconstruction. It is very durable, not affected by crushing,and is easily maintained. Pilling can occur with staplefibers. Loop pile carpeting does not hide seams or cutswell due to blossoming of the yarn at locations where theloop has been cut.

Tip shear and cut and loop pile are combination faceconstruction carpets which provide some of the benefitsof each of the previous types of face construction(Fig. 13). Tip shear is produced as a multi-level loopcarpet and then sheared to a single height. Cut and loopis cut during the weaving or tufting process. Thesecarpets provide a softer look than all-loop pile, but aremore durable than cut. They do not hide seams and cutsas well as all cut pile, but do better than all loop.

Backing systems are enhancements to the construction ofa carpet to ensure stability and integrity of the carpet. Allwoven and tufted carpets are constructed over a primarybacking. Primary backing refers to the material the pileyarns are woven or tufted into during the process ofmanufacturing. While some woven carpets are heavyenough to require only primary backing, tufted carpetrequires additional support.

Secondary backings improve the body of the carpet andits dimensional stability, anchoring the pile yarns tobetter prevent slippage. A scrim coat of latex is oftenapplied to the back of a carpet to lock the yarns intoplace and is the basis for all additional backings. Theaction-back system consists of the carpet pile yarns andtheir primary backing with a latex pre-coat and a wovensecondary backing laminated to it. One of the mostcommon backing systems, action-back improvestuftbind, helps prevent delamination and is applicable toany type of carpet.

The unitary backing system consists of pile yarns andprimary backing with a high performance latex or PVCcoating to lock the yarns in place. This backing gives ahigher tuftbind than action-back and prevents edge ravel,delamination and zipping. While unitary backing allowsfor better performance in high traffic areas, it is onlyused on all-loop pile carpet.

Backing Systems

Materials 6.17

A unitary action-back has all the benefits of the unitarybacking. The added secondary backing allows not onlyloop pile but also tip-sheared loop and cut and loopcarpets to use it.

Padded backing is available in a number of formats andthicknesses. Padding is typically applied directly to thecarpet to reduce the labor involved in installation, and toprovide additional stability and integrity to the carpet asa form of secondary backing.

Direct glue installation secures the carpet directly to thefloor. The adhesive may be permanent or, for carpet tile,releasable. Releasable glue is used when periodic accessis needed for gaining access to the underfloor systems.Direct glue is generally the most economical means ofinstalling broadloom carpet. It provides an extremelystable carpet base suited to heavy traffic.

Stretched installation works well in light to moderatetraffic areas. Perimeter fastening devices are installedwhich hold the edges of the carpet only, facilitating easyremoval of carpet for relocation, replacement or accessto the floor. These devices are generally either tack stripsconsisting of rows of metal barbs which bind the carpetbacking, or fabric hook tape which binds special loopbacking applied to the carpet during manufacture.Alternatively, the carpet may be tacked directly to theflooring, as is often the case when carpeting woodenstairs or other small or irregular areas.

Free lay installation is used primarily on carpet tile butmay be used on other carpets with semi-rigid backing.Even in free lay installation, a grid of adhesive isgenerally necessary to prevent the field from shiftingunder load. This grid is typically 3.66m (approximately12 feet) on center.

Carpet pad provides additional softness and extendscarpet life by yielding with the pile under load. Varioustypes of pad are available, made from natural fibers,urethanes and rubber. Some pads are separate roll goodsinstalled prior to the carpet, others are specially designedintegral pads specific to the application.

Various cleaning methods are available for carpet. Theparticular method used should be chosen on the basis ofthe installation and the nature of the soiling.

Installation Methods

Carpet Pad

Carpet Cleaning

Materials 6.18

FeatureCharacteristics

Material

Nylon Good resiliency. Very good resistance to abrasion, crushing, matting,moisture, staining and soiling. Requires addition of anti-static fibersfor static control. Appropriate for heavy wear areas.

Olefin Poor resiliency. Good abrasion and matting resistance. Very goodmildew, staining, soil and moth resistance. Not prone to static build-up. Best used in indoor/outdoor and short term applications. Notrecommended for interior commercial or institutional installations.

Wool Excellent resiliency. Very good resistance to abrasion, crushing,matting. Fair resistance to moisture, staining and soiling. May betreated to reduce static electricity build up and moth damage. Highinitial cost.

Dye Process

Solution-Dyed Color is added prior to formation of fiber, and is therefore inherent tothe material. Color consistency is optimal. Color is as resistant tochemicals as yarn. Porous fiber face—if not stain treated— allowsretention of dirt and stains.

Yarn-Dyed Most brilliant color. Color is added to the bulk yarn prior to the carpetmanufacturing process. By mixing yarn during manufacture of thecarpet, small color differences may be concealed. Pigment fillsporous fiber face, and reduces staining. Pigment is susceptible todamage from chemicals and abrasion.

Piece-dyed Carpet goods are dyed after manufacture. By mixing yarns ofdifferent dye resistance properties, multiple colors can be achieved.Some color variation through the carpet may be apparent due to thedying process. Pigment fills porous fiber face, and reduces staining.Pigment is susceptible to damage from chemicals and abrasion.

Overprint Used to add pattern to a carpet after manufacture. Color penetrationvaries by manufacturer. Some may be very shallow, and as a resultwill not wear well.

Construction

Tufted Low cost manufacture. Quality depends largely on the ability of thecarpet to retain tufts. Tuft bind may be considerably enhanced byadded backing.

Woven Premium manufacture. Quality related primarily to carpet density.Wide variety of patterns available with different weaving processes.

Fusion Bonded Very durable carpet construction. High tuft bind. (See also Unitarybacking below.)

Fig. 15 Carpet Selection Criteria Table of Common Carpet Features

Materials 6.19

Feature CharacteristicsFace Construction

Loop Most durable of constructions. Resists matting and crushing.Typically matte in appearance as side of fiber is exposed.

Cut Pile Rich in appearance. Hides seams well. Prone to crushing andmatting. Carpet density and pile height together determine quality ofproduct. Low-density product tends to lay over and show traffic. Notrecommended in heavy traffic areas or stairs.

Cut and Loop Aesthetic variation on the two face constructions listed above. Thisconstruction allows greater variety in surface appearance, whilebalancing, in some measure, the durability of a full loop carpet.

Format

Broadloom2-4m wide

Long lengths produce fewer seams, and therefore the appearance ofseams is a lesser consideration. May be padded. Limited access tofloor. Difficult to repair. Large scale custom patterns require excellentcraftsmanship.

Carpet tile0.5-1.33m square

Relatively easy installation. Large scale patterns are relatively simpleto achieve. Floor access is maximized. Stains and wear are easilyrepaired. Seams are abundant.

Backing

Primary Scrim Scrim coat of latex applied to back of carpet over tufted ends orweave. Increases tuft bind over non-backed. Enhances adhesion ofdirect-glue carpets.

Action back/Secondary backing Additional fabric backing applied over primary scrim. Improves tuftbind, dimensional stability.

Unitary backing Built-up latex or PVC backing. Excellent tuft bind and dimensionalstability. Substantially reduces potential for edge ravel.

Padded Backing Reduces labor of installing backing separately. Some hybrid benefitsof other secondary backings.

Installation

Direct Glue Economical installation for broadloom carpet. Very stable. Difficult toremove. Typically no material value after removal. Glue-down of tileproducts is required by some manufacturers.

Stretch Broadloom only. Seams are taped or sewn. Large expanses of carpetare difficult to stretch. Carpet may move with weather conditions.

Free lay Carpet tile only. Easily installed, easily repaired. Provides immediateaccess to subfloor. May move if not properly installed

Fig. 15 (cont’d) Carpet Selection Criteria Table of Common Carpet Features

Materials 6.20

• The dry extraction procedure utilizes an absorbentpowder or other component which is worked into thecarpet pile and then vacuumed out. The soil-extractingparticles used in this method are generally water-baseddetergents with a small amount of solvent. Theadvantage of dry extraction cleaning is that the fibers donot get wet. This alleviates the need for drying whichmay cause shrinkage, and eliminates the potential formold or mildew growth.

• The dry foam method utilizes a water-basedshampoo converted into foam. This is worked into thecarpet and then vacuumed out. Cleaning with dry foammay not be as thorough as other methods, especiallywhen large amounts of soil are deeply embedded in thepile layer. The risk of overwetting is minimal.

• The wet shampoo method utilizes a wet vacuum todraw fluids and dry matter from surfaces. Rotatingbrushes work the detergent solution into the carpet. Thismay cause pile distortion, especially to cut pile surfaces.This procedure must be administered carefully to avoidoverwetting the structure and to prevent acceleratedresoiling due to residual detergent deposits.

• The hot water extraction method, commonly calledsteam extraction, uses extremely hot water and shampoo.The diluted shampoo is driven into the pile andimmediately extracted by the vacuum part of themachine. Minimal pile distortion occurs as there is nomechanical brushing. The detergent must be thoroughlyremoved to retard rapid resoiling.

For extremely soiled carpet, a heavy build up of residuemay require removal with a combination of the abovemethods

In general, staining and spotting may be prevented byacting promptly: foreign substances are more difficult toremove after they have aged. Vacuuming dry substances,and absorbing as much liquid from wet ones as possiblebefore continuing with other removal procedures, is keyto avoiding stains. Having cleaning agents and materialsavailable for immediate use as part of proper generalmaintenance will extend a carpet’s life.

Stain Penetration

Materials 6.21

Paint and Other Film-Applied FinishesPaint is, in generic terms, a suspension of solid pigmentin a liquid, which is applied to a surface, and which thencures or dries to leave a thin film coating. Paints areavailable in limitless color choices. They are classifiedby their liquid portion—the vehicle. Paints are typicallyeither water or oil-based.

Water-based paints have synthetic resins and colorpigments suspended in water. Because they are water-based they are typically easier to handle than oil-basedpaints and clean up readily. The alkaline resistance ofthese paints makes them suitable for new lime-containing plaster. Acrylic emulsions make the driedfilm more water-resistant while vinyl emulsions give it asmoother finish. Water-borne paints dry quickly, butraise the grain on new wood. Most are not as tough orwashable as oil-based paints.

Oil-based paints may consist of natural or syntheticresins, color pigments, linseed oil, and solvents. Theyare extremely durable and washable, especially if madewith synthetic resins.

Oil-modified resins, alkyds, have now replaced thetraditional oil-based paints. Alkyds prove more durableand dry faster than typical oil-based paints. Alkyds applyeasily and are priced moderately, but somedisadvantages do exist. Exterior alkyds have poorersheen and color retention than exterior latex or acrylicpaints, and tend to yellow over time. A primer must beused on alkaline surfaces before an alkyd is applied.Although some alkyds have no odor, fumes may be toxicand highly flammable until the surface has dried. Clean-up requires mineral spirits and is more difficult than withwater-based paints.

Latex paint applies easily, has low odor, dries andrecoats quickly, poses minimal fire hazard, and resistspeeling and blistering. Latex paint is water-based andcleans-up with soap and water.

Acrylic paint is lightweight, strong, and has good colorand optical qualities. It is resistant to weather andtemperature. It is available in both oil and water-basedpreparations.

Types of Water-Based Paints

Types of Oil-Based Paints

Formulations

Materials 6.22

Epoxy paint is typically a two-part preparation thatproduces a tough, hard, glossy finish. It works well forwet areas, and high traffic areas such as stairwells. It iswaterproof, has excellent sealing qualities and resistsspecific acids, alkalis, gases, salts, and solvents. It isavailable in both oil and water-based formulations.

A flat finish has a dull, non-reflective surface that maybe wiped but not scrubbed. It shows scuff marks easilyand has little sealing capability, making it inappropriatefor damp areas.

An eggshell finish has a slight reflectance and sheen. Itis easily cleaned by wiping and will not show scuffsmarks as readily as a flat finish. It can be used inmoderately damp areas and is suitable for wood andmetal.

Semi-gloss has more reflectance and sheen than aneggshell finish. Its glossy finish makes it durable andquite washable. It is normally used on woodwork andwet areas such as bathrooms, kitchens and laboratories.

High-gloss finish has high reflectance and sheen. It has avery durable, tough finish that cleans easily and resistsmarking and scuffing. Its good sealing qualities make itespecially good for wet and damp areas, doors,woodwork, and trim; wood or metal.

Paint can be used in a variety of ways to create patternand texture. Paint can be applied in patterns with stencilsor by masking. Stippled, spattered or sponged texturescan be created which utilize multiple colors andminimize appearance of spots or scratches. More-pronounced textures may be created with special paintsthat contain sand or other bulk; or by applying the paintwith special rollers; or by going over wet paint with asponge, dry brush, comb, or broom.

Specialty coatings include common multi-coloredspeckled finishes, textured coatings, and high-buildelastic coatings. These finishes possess unique attributeswith attendant benefits such as durability, safety, andappearance. They should be investigated thoroughlyrelative to the specific application intended to ensureappropriateness of use. Typically they require aspecially-trained installer.

Finishes

Other Surface Finishes

Materials 6.23

Lacquer is a solvent-based paint applied in multiplecoats, typically with a spray gun. Lacquer may or maynot have pigment and is typically used in the finishingprocess of commercial wood furniture and cabinets.Lacquer is highly combustible, and if not properlyhandled, presents a health hazard to the user.

Varnish refers to a family of colorless films used to finishwood and wood furniture. It provides a hard surface meantto protect wood from wear, while allowing the naturalbeauty of the wood grain to show through. Linseed oilvarnishes are the traditional varnish. Polyurethanevarnishes, made from a synthetic resin, are resistant towater and alcohol. Acrylic urethane varnishes do notyellow or change color as much as conventionalvarnishes.

Type CharacteristicsAcrylic Excellent adhesion. Fast drying. Non-yellowing, good color retention.

Resists weather and temperature. Low abrasion resistance. Low odor.Water clean-up.

Latex Applies easily. Moderate leveling. Fast drying. Low odor. Moderatecleanability. Breathes to resist blistering and peeling. Water clean-up

Alkyd More durable than traditional oil-based paints. Harder than latex oracrylics. Dries faster than traditional oil-based paints, much slower thanlatex or acrylics. Levels well. Easily cleaned. Tends to yellow and chalkover time. Flammable and strong odor until dry. Requires thinners forclean-up.

Epoxy Very durable. Resistant to abrasion and many chemicals. Typically high-build. Flammable and strong odor until dry. Recommended for wetareas. Requires thinners for clean-up.

Fig. 16 Paint Selection Table for Common Paints

Stain is similar to paint, but does not form a sealing filmso much as it penetrates the structure of the surface it isapplied to. It can be transparent or opaque, and isavailable in a limitless range of colors. Several differenttypes of stains are available. Oil-based, water-based andalcohol-based stains are typically covered with aprotective coat of oil or water-based varnish. Alcohol-based stains are typically used under lacquer. Varnishstains provide a superficial colored protective surface.This type of staining method is cheap and fast but doesnot have the depth of color of other stains. Stain waxes

Materials 6.24

provide pigment as well as the protective finish of awax.

While paints, lacquers, and varnishes are all appropriatesurface finish materials, recent legislative VolatileOrganic Compounds (VOC) regulations have led to thedevelopment of a new generation of higher-performing,easy-to-maintain top coats for finishing systems. Theseinclude high solids and water-reducible varnishes,lacquers, and polyurethanes. These superior quality, lowVOC, high-build finishing systems provide excellenttoughness, domestic chemical resistance and exceptionaldurability.

New VOC compliant, high-quality acrylic, and clearlacquer systems provide good film clarity, hardness andexcellent resistance to yellowing. They are used in lowtraffic areas. High solids, low VOC polyurethanes offerimpact, abrasion, chemical, and stain resistance as wellas excellent hardness, while providing good color.

WallcoveringApplied wall finishes, excluding paints, fall under theumbrella term wallcovering. These range from vinylsand papers to textiles of varying types.

Vinyl wallcoverings are durable and resist grease, stainsand cooking splashes quite well, are scrubbable and easyto clean. Vinyls can be backed with a woven fabric toincrease their durability and to cover rough subsurfaces.Vinyl wallcoverings come in a wide range of designs,colors and finishes. They are suitable for use in kitchens,bathrooms and most commercial installations.

Wallpapers are produced for residential and lightcommercial use in a wide variety of colors, textures,patterns, and pictorial images. Many wallpapers have aself-adhesive or prepasted backing for ease ofinstallation. Papers are not intended for moderate toheavy use commercial installations. Wallpaper is not asdurable as vinyl wallcovering and deteriorates morerapidly in the presence of moisture.

Textile wallcoverings come in many styles, textures andcolors. They consist of a fabric face backed with paper.Silk, linen, wool, sisal, jute, nylon, and olefin can all beused. Textiles add softness, texture, color, visual

Materials 6.25

interest, and may add acoustic properties and durabilityto a wall surface. They do not all resist abrasion andsnagging well and some are prone to soiling. Thesewallcoverings should be avoided in heavy traffic areas.

Fabric and TextilesIn this discussion “fabric” is used to indicate a finishedmaterial piece, and “textile” the raw material from whichthe fabric is made, or a general class of fabrics.

In selecting fabric for furnishings and drapery, eachconsumer or producer will use a unique set of governingcriteria. These factors vary but usually relate toappearance, feel, and/or durability of the material. Thefollowing describes some of the appearance anddurability factors associated with fabric selection.

Because fabrics possess both visual and tactile attributes,the designer must be knowledgeable about the textilecharacteristics associated with these qualities. Pattern,color, and texture of a fabric will affect how it willappear alone and in combination with other elements inthe interior design.

Color characteristics of individual textiles and textilecombinations must be considered when selecting fabrics.Other aspects associated with color styling—multi-colors, solid-colors, motif, detail, and pattern size—willalso affect the appearance of fabric design.

Hand, drapeability, and weight must be consideredwhen choosing a fabric. These qualities are associatedwith the psychological response of users to the material.The characteristics of hand (smooth, rough, cool, soft, orharsh), drapeability (stiff or fluid), and weight (sheer,thin, light weight, medium weight, or heavy weight) areall critical factors that need to be considered in fabricselection.

Durability depends on the basic life of the fibers thatmake up the fabric. Among the general factors definingdurability are resistance to wear and dirt, ease of cleaning,and ease of repair. Other factors that may be specificallyrelated to a fabric or textile's durability include:

• tenacity (resistance to tearing),

• stain resistance,

Materials 6.26

• abrasion resistance,

• cohesiveness (ability of a staple fiber to retain its spunform),

• elongation potential/elasticity,

• flexibility,

• structural stability,

• fiber strength,

• moisture/mildew resistance, and

• flame resistance.

In order to preserve a fabric’s appearance and durability,it must be maintained over time. The maintenancerequired of a chosen fabric must coincide with theconsumer’s preferences and willingness to perform thenecessary procedures. Among the characteristics toconsider when selecting a fabric are:

• cleanability, washability and dry-cleanability,

• on-site versus off-site cleaning availability,

• ease of stain removal,

• level of ironing required, and

• frequency of cleaning required.

As mentioned above, many costs are associated with theselection of different types of fabrics. Costs involved notonly include the initial manufacturing or retail price, butcan also include shipping and delivery charges,maintenance costs, additional treatment costs, andcustom coloring and design costs.

Fabric TypesFabrics fall under two main categories: natural andsynthetic. Natural textiles are those fabrics constructedfrom materials occurring in nature. These include wool,silk, cotton, rayon (from wood pulp), and linen.Synthetic textiles are those constructed from man-made,primarily petroleum-based, products. These includenylon, polyester, olefin, and acrylic.

Maintenance factors to beconsidered when selectingfabrics and textiles.

Materials 6.27

Textile Characteristics

Color retention/color fastness is importantaesthetically to the appearance of a textile. The factorsthat influence color fastness are:

• chemical nature of fibers,

• chemical nature of dyes and pigments,

• penetration of dyes into the textiles, and

• fixations of dyes or pigments on or in the textiles.

The coloring agents used in fabrics should resist thewashing, dry cleaning, bleaching, and spot and stainremoving techniques used to maintain the fabric’s visualappearance.

Abrasion resistance is the ability of a textile towithstand the rubbing or abrasion of everyday use. Thisrubbing or abrasion may occur when a fabric or textile isrubbed, flexed, or folded. The more flexible the fabric ortextile, the greater the ability to bend repeatedly withoutbreaking.

Stain resistance is the ability of a textile to withstandstains and spotting. Minimizing and removing stains isan important preventative activity that must be done tomaintain the durability and appearance of a fabric overtime.

Dimensional stability refers to the ability of a textile toretain a given size and shape throughout use and care. Adesirable property for fibers that contribute to the textileproperties of shrinkage resistance, elastic recovery,durability, and appearance; dimensional stability isespecially important when choosing a method ofcleaning.

Fabric Performance Enhancers

Fabrics utilize backings to reduce heat transfer, alterappearance, lock yarns in place, and minimize air andwater permeability. Among the materials that may beused for this purpose are acrylic, foam, vinyl spray,paper, gypsum, spunlaced or spunbonded fabric, ormetallic foil coatings.

Paper backing applied to the back of a textile fabrichelps to prevent the application adhesive from seeping

Materials 6.28

through and producing a stained appearance.Spunbonding converts thermoplastic filaments directlyinto fabric structures. Filaments are arranged into a thinweb and then stabilized with heat or chemical binders.Spunbonded fabrics are increasingly used for backingsfor wallcoverings and carpet. Acrylic backing involvesusing foam to minimize air movement through fabric, toincrease thickness of fabric, and to finish the back of thefabric.

Backcoating of upholstery fabrics with acrylic latexreduces seam slippage and generally improves abrasion-resistance and dimensional stability.

Foam backed textiles—two layers of material joinedtogether with stitching, adhesive, or heat—provide astable backing for loosely constructed surface fabrics.Drapery fabrics use it for insulative lining. Both tricotknits and foams are used as backings. Quilts use threelayers and are often hand-stitched or “heat-stitched.”

TreatmentsVarious performance treatments are available for textilesand fabrics. Treatments enhance certain inherentqualities, or add qualities required for special use.

Flame-retardance is the property of a material by which,when exposed to a flaming or non-flaming source ofignition, flaming combustion is prevented, terminated orinhibited. Flame retardancy may be achieved by:

• use of fibers which are inherently flame retardant,

• use of fiber modifications that are flame retardant, or

• use of flame retardant coatings.

Flame-retardant coatings modify the originalcharacteristics of a textile to allow it to meet regulationsregarding its use in specific applications.

Flame resistancerequirements vary with howand where a material is to beused.

Materials 6.29

Material CharacteristicsAcetate/Triacetate Manufactured fiber formed of cellulose acetate. Low cost. Sunlight,

moth, mildew, and bacteria resistant. Naturally flame retardant. Lowstatic electric potential. Low abrasion resistance.

Acrylic Petroleum based synthetic. Moderate tenacity. Resistance to sunlightand abrasion. Moderate dimensional stability.

Cotton Natural staple fiber. Moderate abrasion resistance. Absorbant.Thermally and electrically conductive. Resistant to alkalis and organicsolvents. Low to moderate resiliency, shrinkage and saggingtendencies.

Fiberglass Manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is glass.Sunlight, acid and alkali resistant. Flame proof. Low flexibility. Nomoisture regain.

Flax/Linen Natural staple fiber. Low elongation. Good abrasion resistance. Highmoisture regain. Good thermal and electrical conductivity. Fabrics proneto wrinkling.

Jute Natural staple fiber. Primarily commodity uses prevail. Low elasticity.Low sunlight resistance and colorfastness.

Modacrylic Synthetic. High bulk. High flame resistance. Moderate resiliency. Highelastic recovery. Low melting point. Low abrasion resistance.

Nylon Synthetic. High tensile strength. Excellent abrasion resistance. Excellentresiliency and appearance retention. May be solution dyed.

Olefin/Polypropylene Synthetic. Good abrasion resistance, tenacity. Excellent resiliency.Good dimensional stability. Static resistant, excellent resistance to mostchemicals. Resists mildew and water-borne stains. Expensive to dye.Difficult to clean .

Polyester/Trevira Synthetic. Excellent strength. Good abrasion resistance. Resistswrinkling. Permanent body.

Rayon/Viscose Manufactured fiber made from chemically-prepared cellulose. Soft hand.High moisture regain. Good thermal and electrical conductor. Poorresiliency. Progressive shrinkage. Weakness when wet.

Silk Natural, continuous filament fiber. Very fine fiber. Soft luster. Moderateto high abrasion resistance. Absorbant. Good heat retention. Dry hand.Medium density. Moderate resistance to wrinkling. Moderate recoveryfrom elongation. Dimensionally stable. Poor electrical conductivity.

Sisal Natural plant fiber. Very durable. Excellent abrasion resistance.

Wool/Mohair Natural fiber from fleece. Moderate abrasion resistance. Low tenacity(especially when wet). Good flexibility. High elongation. Highlyabsorbant. High thermal retention and resiliency. Allergenic potential.

Fig. 18 Textile Selection Criteria Table

Materials 6.30

Flame test methods are designed to assess the potentialflammability of fabrics by simulating real-lifeconditions. Flame Tunnel Test method ASTM E-84, alsoknown as the Steiner Tunnel Test method, measures thesurface burning characteristics of building materials. Thetesting apparatus is structured to simulate a corridor, andthe testing procedures and results are used to assessflame spread and smoke generation. Specified criteriahave been developed for various interior spacecharacteristics.

Flame-retardant finishes must be durable (able towithstand 50 washings), non-toxic and non-carcinogenic. The hand and texture should not bechanged by the finish, and the finish should have noresidual odor. Materials used for this purpose are usuallyphosphate compounds or inorganic salts. Most of thesefinishes are not visible but add to the cost of the product.

Anti-microbial finishes inhibit the growth of bacteriaand other odor-causing germs, prevent decay anddamage from perspiration, control spread of disease, andreduce risk of infection transferal. These finishes are alsoknown as antibacterial, bacteriostatic, germicidal, orantiseptic finishes.

Staph fluid barriers are fabric treatments for healthcarefurnishings. The treatment uses an anti-bacterial agentwhich is self-deodorizing, self-sanitizing, and becomesan integral part of the fabric. Any staph fluid barrier usedshould be guaranteed for the life of the fabric andapproved by the Environmental Protection Agency(EPA).

Vinylized fabrics have the surface laminated with atranslucent film of sheeting as a preventive maintenancemeasure. This treatment slows soil accumulation so thatproper maintenance only will be required. Thoughvinylized fabrics can be washed with mild detergent andwarm water, they are not waterproof and are notintended for outdoor installations. The vinylizedtreatment produces some variation in color and luster.

Soil and stain repellents, used by manufacturers toprevent staining, utilize fluorocarbon compounds thatenable fibers to repel or resist soil.

Materials 6.31

Application GuidelinesThe materials presented in this chapter form a diversegroup, from which the designer must choose accordingto functional need, aesthetic preference and availability.Applications Guidelines for floors, walls and ceilingsfollow which summarize objective characteristics ofsome of the more common material finishes, so thatthese materials may be compared on an objective basis.

Materials 6.32

FloorsResilient Floor Coverings

Materials Advantages Disadvantages Uses RelativeCost Factor1

Vinyl Composition Tile Resistant toAbrasion, Oils,Grease, Acids, andAlkalis.

Does NotTolerateStanding Water.

Good forMostCommercialInstallations.

Economical

1.0

Linoleum Resilient. Resistantto Impact andAbrasion.

Susceptible toStaining.

Moderate-Traffic PublicAreas.

Moderate

2.7

Cork Resilient. Resistantto Impact andAbrasion. NaturalProduct.

Susceptible toStaining.

Moderate-Traffic PublicAreas.

Moderate

3.2

Rubber Resilient. Resistantto Impact andAbrasion.

Not Resistant toGrease orChemicals.

GeneralUtilityFlooring.Stairs.

Moderate

3.2

Thermoplastic Tile Resistant toAbrasion.

Sensitive toFluctuations in Temperature.

GeneralUtilityFlooring.

Moderate toExpensive

3.6

Sheet Vinyl Waterproof.Resistant to MostChemicals.Weldable.

Requires FairlySmooth FloorSurface.

ModerateTraffic Areas.

Moderate toExpensive

3.8

Static-Conductive Tile Dissipates StaticElectricity.

Sensitive toExtremeTemperatures.

Hospitals,OperatingandAnesthetizingAreas,ComputerRooms,ChemicalLaboratories.

Expensive

4.1

1 Relative to the lowest-cost material solution presented. A cost factor of 3 indicatesthat the referenced material is approximately three times as expensive as theleast-cost material solution shown.

Materials 6.33

FloorsHard Floor Coverings

Material Advantages Disadvantages Uses RelativeCost

Factor1

Concrete(Untreated)

Non-Slip. AbrasionResistant. Can bePainted or Treated.

Will Give off Dust IfNot Treated.Difficult to Clean.

Utility Flooring. Economical

1.0

Concrete(Treated)

Nonconductive.Non-Dusting, andNon-Slip. AbrasionResistant.

Requires SpecialMaterials andMethod ofApplication

Industrial andManufacturingAreas WhereNon-Sparkingis Required.

Economical

1.1

Quarry Tile Waterproof.Resistant to Greaseand Liquids.

Non Resilient. MayBreak underImpact.

Heavy TrafficAreas,Kitchens.

Moderate

5.0

Ceramic Tile(Clay, Porcelain)

Waterproof.Resistant to MostChemicals.

Cold. May Breakunder Impact.Glazing may Chipor Crack.

High MoistureAreas.Bathrooms,Kitchens.

Moderate

5.4

Wood Relatively Easy toClean and Refinish.

Not Resistant toAbrasion orMoisture.

Dry, IndoorLocations.Homes,Gymnasiums.

Moderateto

Expensive

6.4

Brick Resistant toAbrasion, Moisture,and Heat.

Rough andUneven Becauseof Joints. AbsorbsStains.

Decorative. Expensive

6.8

Terrazzo(All Types)

Durable in ExtremeWeatherConditions.

Slippery WhenWet.

Heavy TrafficAreas. Stairs,Hospitals.

Expensive

7.8

Stone(Granite, Marble, Slate)

Durable in ExtremeWeatherConditions.

Slippery WhenWet. Cracks underImpact.

Heavy TrafficAreas. Entries.

Expensive

8.2

1 Relative to the lowest-cost material solution presented. A cost factor of 3indicates that the referenced material is approximately three times as expensiveas the least-cost material solution shown.

Materials 6.34

Walls


Factor1

Paint Inexpensive. Monolithic.Easily Applied andMaintained. Available ina Wide Variety ofColors, Finishes, andCompositions. Flexible.

Tends to BeOne-Dimensional.Only as Durableas the Substrate.

Solid ColorWalls, FauxFinishes,Trompe l’oeil,Patterns andGraphics.

Economical

1.0

Vinyl Wallcovering Relatively EasilyApplied and Maintained.Available in a WideVariety of Colors,Patterns, and Textures.Can Conceal Flaws inSubstrate. Can ProvideSome AcousticalBenefits.

Not EasilyRepaired.Susceptible toDelamination.

PublicSpaces.MediumTrafficSurfaces.

Moderate

1.6-2.5

Fabric Wallcovering Relatively EasilyApplied and Maintained.Available in a WideVariety of Colors,Patterns, and Textures.Can Conceal Flaws inSubstrate. Can ProvideSome AcousticalBenefits.

Not EasilyMaintained orRepaired.Susceptible toRaveling,Fraying, andDelamination.

Private OfficesandCommunalSpaces.Clean, Low-Abuse Areas.

Expensive

5.0-7.3

Ceramic Tile Impervious. Available ina Wide Variety ofColors, Sizes andFinishes. ExtremelyDurable.

Expensive.Brittle. RequiresExtraordinarySubstrate. Canbe Perceived asCold.

Wet Areas,Clean Areas,High TrafficAreas.

Expensive

5.3-7.4

1 Relative to the lowest-cost material solution presented. A cost factor of 3 indicatesthat the referenced material is approximately three times as expensive as theleast-cost material solution shown.

Materials 6.35

Ceilings


Factor1

Painted Wallboard or Plaster Monolithic. Durable.Easily Maintained.Unlimited ColorSelection. Wide Varietyof Finishes andTextures. RelativelySecure. Provides GoodEnvironmentalSeparation. UltimatelyFlexible.

LimitsAccessibility toCeiling Space.

Areas WhereDurability,Cleanability,andEnvironmentalSeparationare Priorities,andAccessibility isNot.

Economical

1.0

Acoustic Ceiling Panels Easily Installed.Relatively Low InitialCost. Relatively EasilyMaintained. ExcellentCeiling Accessibility.Variety of Colors,Textures, and PatternsAvailable. EasilyIntegrates HVAC andLighting Devices.

Not EasilyMaintained orRepaired.Susceptible toMoisture, ImpactDamage, andSoiling. NotEasily Cleaned.

Areas NotSusceptible toMoisture orImpact.

Moderate

1.2-2.6

Metal Ceilings Primarily Aesthetic.Defines a Ceiling Look.Can ConcealMechanical Devices.Available in a WideVariety of Colors andPatterns. Can ProvideSome AcousticalBenefits. LimitedAccessibility to CeilingSpace.

Not EasilyRepaired.Susceptible toImpact Damage.

PrimarilyPublic SpacesWhereAesthetic isPriority.

Expensive

2.8-3.6

1 Relative to the lowest-cost material solution presented. A cost factor of 3indicates that the referenced material is approximately three times as expensiveas the least-cost material solution shown.

Furnishings

Furniture 7.1

Window Treatment 7.5

Signage/Graphics 7.8

Accessories 7.10

Art 7.11

Plants 7.12

Furnishings 7.1

FurnishingsFurnishings are elements added to a building for utilityor ornamentation following construction. These includefurniture such as chairs, desks, sofas and tables, and alsocabinetry, window treatments, signage, and accessories.This chapter addresses the basic furnishing elementswhich are part of a comprehensive interior designpackage.

FurnitureFurnishings may be classified into three major groups:residential, institutional, and contract. Each group isdistinguished by the intent, extent, and duration of use.

Residential furnishings are generally lightlyconstructed. They are smaller in scale than contractfurnishings, and are designed to fit smaller-scaleresidential spaces.

Institutional furnishings are designed for areas whereheavy use or abuse are anticipated: hospitals, schools,correctional facilities, sports facilities, etc. They arecharacterized by easily-cleaned fabric, mar-resistantsurfaces, and heavy construction.

Contract furnishings fall between residential andinstitutional. They are constructed to withstand extendeduse, but not abuse. They are typically used for corporatedesign in offices, reception areas, and boardrooms, buttransition well to high-end residential settings.

Contract Furniture - Seating

Contract seating can be differentiated into fourcommon classes: multiple seating, lounge chairs, sidechairs, and desk/conference chairs. Multiple seating(Fig. 1) refers to seating groups often times gangedtogether to form a single unit. Individual chairs can haveganging mechanisms to allow flexibility in number andinstallation. Multiple seating is used primarily in waitingareas and assembly rooms. Lounge seating (Fig. 2) isdesigned for comfort and aesthetics. Sofas and loungechairs are typically fully upholstered and can be used inmany areas—executive offices, lobbies, boardrooms,reception areas, etc. Side chairs (Fig. 3) are accessory

When selecting thefurnishings for an interiorenvironment, care should betaken to include their designas an integral part of theoverall concept and toensure coherency betweenarchitecture, materials,furniture, art, and signage.

Furnishings 7.2

chairs for offices and workstations. Also called guestchairs; side chairs are used for guest seating in offices or

at workstations. Smaller in scale than lounge seating,they may or may not have arms, and as options may haveupholstered seats, backs, or arms.

Desk/conference chairs (Fig. 4) are specificallydesigned to respond to ergonomics—the relationshipbetween the work, the work conditions, and the worker.Ergonomic seating contributes to healthy, comfortable,adjustable support by providing appropriate posture,motion, and size for people and their tasks. Ergonomicseating can be passive or active. Passive ergonomicseating encourages proper body position through fixedconstruction. Active ergonomic seating allows the userof the chair to adjust his position via a controlmechanism, such as pneumatic lift or sliding seat pan.

Given the multiplicity of functions among different typesof seating, proper selection requires carefulconsideration of the influencing factors of space,function, and occupancy including:

• nature of the space,• function of the space,• physical characteristics of the individual user,

Fig. 1 Multiple seating Fig. 2 Lounge seating

Fig. 3 Side chair Fig. 4 Desk/conference chair

Seating design depends on anumber of situationalfactors.

Furnishings 7.3

• frequency and duration of use,• desired image or design intent, and• anticipated maintenance program.

Casegoods

Casegoods are furniture elements constructed from box-like components. These include desks, credenzas, filecabinets, etc. Casegoods fall under two major categories:conventional and modular. Conventional casegoods(Fig. 5) come pre-assembled as finished, ready-to-useproducts. Desks, bookcases, display cases, and lecternsmay all be gotten as conventional casegoods.

Modular casegoods (Fig. 6) are manufactured asseparate pieces which may be grouped into a number ofdifferent arrangements. Desks and workstations areassembled from pedestals, work surfaces, credenzas, andfiling cabinets.

Storage units such as file cabinets are a type of modularcasegood which may be utilized to make up storagewalls or room dividers as well. Modular assemblies maybe room height for privacy or counter height for

openness. Either way, they serve as a partition whileproviding storage from one or both sides.

In selecting storage furniture, whether conventional ormodular, what will be stored and aesthetic quality eachplay a part in determining the appropriate pieces. Storagefurniture comes with a wide variety of options: openshelves, hinged or sliding doors, and various drawerarrangements. Different components can be groupedtogether to suit different needs. Modern storage systemsoften incorporate elements to serve special purposes:food service, audio-visual equipment storage, or display.

Systems furniture (Fig. 7) refers to modularcomponents and panel elements that can be linked

Fig. 5 Conventional casegoods Fig. 6 Modular casegoods

Fig. 7 Systems furniture

Furnishings 7.4

together to form individual workstations or group workareas. Primarily intended for office use, systemsfurniture provides flexibility and multiplicity of function.

Systems furniture design varies by manufacturer, butsome common characteristics do exist. It typicallyconsists of vertical panels, horizontal worksurfaces, andstorage units that can be arranged in a variety ofconfigurations. By using vertical elements to supportnumerous components and provide a commondata/electrical conduit, systems furniture achieves aneconomy surpassing most other furniture options.Systems furniture components may be post-supported,panel-hung, or wall-mounted.

Systems are flexible in nature and can be rearranged tofit the needs of the user. They may be used to provideopen or closed areas, and to accommodate one or moreusers. They can be located within closed rooms or openoffice environments. A systems furniture groupingaround an individual is generally referred to as aworkstation. Multiple workstations may be assembledinto larger units, referred to as workgroups, to enhanceeconomy, user communication, and productivity.

Electrical power distribution may be integrated within asystems panel or component, permitting electricalequipment to be plugged directly into the systemsfurniture. Internal raceways conceal wiring. Powerconnectors permit one workstation to be plugged into thenext. The hidden raceways may contain electrical power,telephone cabling and computer wiring. Lighting fixturesto provide either ambient or task lighting may also beincorporated as optional components in the systemsfurniture.

Systems furniture specifications include various modularcomponent pieces for panels and worksurfaces as well aspower and communications systems, panel acoustics,and material finishes. Specifying the different productsavailable from the various systems manufacturersrequires detailed effort from the designer.

Systems furniture can besupplied with electricity tosupport varying work tasks.

Furnishings 7.5

Custom CasegoodsCasegoods fall into three quality levels as determined bythe American Woodworker’s Institute (AWI). Budget,use, and aesthetics each play a part in determining whichgrade most suits a given project. Many characteristicsdifferentiate between the premium, custom, andeconomy grades of casegoods. A few key characteristicsare listed here.

• Premium grade (Fig. 8) refers to the highest qualityof architectural woodwork. Usually reserved for featureareas or high-end projects, premium grade calls forcontinuous grain matching of veneer segments, qualityfinishes inside and out, and superior craftsmanship.

• Custom grade (Fig. 9), the most common forarchitectural millwork, requires limited grain matchingof veneers and durable, quality construction and finishes.

• Economy grade (Fig. 10) defines the minimumacceptable level of quality within AWI standards. Itrequires no grain matching of veneered components and

generally describes a commodity product.

Window TreatmentWindow treatments serve many purposes in an interiorenvironment. They can provide privacy, light and suncontrol, reduced energy consumption (by preventing heatloss or gain), and decreased sound transmission. Thetype of treatment, as well as the type of material used,will determine the effectiveness of the treatment in anygiven instance. Sheer, semi-sheer, or casement fabricswill provide minimum privacy, shade, and energy

Fig. 8 Premium grade Fig. 9 Custom grade Fig. 10 Economy grade

Furnishings 7.6

savings; heavy, opaque fabrics and hard treatmentsprovide greater effect. Full, soft treatments will absorbmore sound than hard treatments.

Window treatments should complement and support theinterior design of a space. In addition, windowtreatments also add flexibility in the design, concealarchitectural defects, or change the apparent size, shape,and character of a room (Fig. 11). Choices should bemade based upon the elements and principles of gooddesign as discussed in Chapter 4. Other factors to takeinto consideration include the structural characteristicsof a space, exterior appearance, architectural style, andhistorical context.

Window treatments can be classified into three basiccategories: soft, hard, and top.

Soft window treatments include those which aregenerally made of soft fabrics: curtains, draperies andshades. Both curtains and draperies are fabric panelswhich are generally pleated and hung on a rod over awindow. Draperies tend to be more formal than curtains,usually consisting of several layers of panels. Shadestypically consist of fabric panels designed to be raisedand lowered.

The wide range of styles, along with limitless fabricoptions, make soft window treatments extremelyflexible.

Hard window treatments are constructed from rigidmaterials and include shutters and blinds. Shutters,typically constructed from wood, consist of either a solidpanel of wood, or wood louvers, within a stile and railframe. They come in a variety of sizes, designs andfinishes.

Blinds are available as horizontal or vertical slats ofwood, aluminum, or plastic; and may have fabric orpaper inserts. Blinds are effective for view, light, and aircontrol. If desired, they can be completely hidden behindother window treatments.

Horizontal blinds have slats that run the width of thewindow; vertical blinds have slats that run the height.By using a control wand or pull cord, blinds may beraised and lowered, or moved side to side, and the slatsangled up, down, or side to side.

Fig. 11 Mixed window treatment

Furnishings 7.7

Top treatments refer to any window treatment appliedto the top of either soft or hard window treatments. Inaddition to adding to the aesthetic of a window treatmentand giving a window a more finished appearance, toptreatments also may:

• screen the hardware and rod,• improve window proportion and hide structural

defects,• increase apparent height or width of a window, or• make different sized windows appear equal by

altering their visual proportions.

Top treatments may be chosen from a wide variety ofsoft treatments and hard treatments. Soft top treatmentsare called valances. The term valance encompasses anyshape and style of valance within the designer’simagination, and limitless fabric and rod options. Hardtop treatments are called cornices. Cornices are oftenused for energy efficiency. An architectural member thatconnects to the wall, window frame or ceiling, cornicescan be made into any shape and size and can be finishedwood, fabric covered, or a combination of the two.

Selecting Window TreatmentsAesthetic and functional performance criteria are to beused when selecting window treatments for an interiorspace. As with textile fabric selection, windowtreatments should be evaluated on both appearance andserviceability factors.

Fiber properties for window coverings criticallyinfluence performance and durability. Density, elasticity,stiffness, sunlight and chemical resistance, colorfastness, flame resistance, weight, energy conservation,light transmission, and reflectance all determine how awindow covering will function in its environment.

To preserve the appearance and usefulness of thetreatments, sagging and shrinkage should be minimized.Sagging could destroy the balance of laterally drapingfolds and cause the fabric to puddle on the floor.Shrinkage will do the opposite and cause the treatmentto look improperly fit.

Mildew resistance needs to be considered when selectingwindow treatments. In many climates windows are a

Furnishings 7.8

point of moisture condensation and operable windowswill expose the window treatment to weather.

MaintenancePreventative maintenance is important in reducingdeterioration of the fibers and preserving the originalappearance of window coverings. Moisture poses thegreatest concern to maintaining window treatments. Careshould be taken to keep treatments from hanging incontact with moisture. Water may combine with soilpresent on fibers causing the fabric to stain. Water mayalso combine with pollutants and oily cooking fumes toform dilute acids that attack and weaken fibers. In spaceswhere this occurs, window treatments should be cleanedfrequently to prevent accumulation of these pollutants.

Cleaning itself is an important maintenance concern forwindow treatments. Typically, textile window coveringsshould be cleaned by a professional cleaning service.Most such services offer removal and rehanging asoptional services.

Hard window treatments should be vacuumed or dustedon a regular basis to avoid accumulation of dirt. Thesetypes of treatments tend to be more difficult to clean ofbuilt-up residue than soft treatments.

Signage/GraphicsSignage and graphics in interiors serve to inform andguide people. Signage may be informational, directional,or regulatory. Informational signage (Fig. 12) providesthe user with information and includes room or arealabels, bulletin boards, menus, artwork descriptions, andemergency information. Directional signage (Fig. 13)directs circulation and provides orientation. It includesentry directories, directional arrows and maps. Thepurpose of regulatory signage (Fig. 14) is control:

Furnishings 7.9

providing prohibitions, warnings, emergencyinstructions, and use restrictions.

Whatever the intent of the signage, certainconsiderations should be addressed in preparing asignage package.

• Extent of signage package. - Are all sign types covered? - If not, how will excluded portions be addressed?

• Flexibility of signage package. - Does the system allow all types of signs to beaddressed? - Does the signage system meet all regulatoryrequirements? - Does the system allow for future modifications aschanges occur in the use of the facility?

• Quality of signage package. - Will the signage system stand up to anticipated use? - Is the signage cost within budget?

Specific items need to be addressed in the specificationof signage.

• Design (Many of these criteria are subject to specificregulation under guidelines such as the Americans withDisabilities Act.). - Graphics (How does signage relate to customer’simage, logo, letterhead, etc.). - Typeface. - Size of copy. - Copy position. - Letter and line spacing. - Color.

Fig. 13 Directional signage Fig. 14 Regulatorysignage

Fig. 12 Informational signage

The interior designer’s rolein graphics designproduction may include suchwork as the design of menus,retail signs, and customartwork creations. This workmay be the in-house creationof the interior designer or itmay be contracted to anindependent designer.

Furnishings 7.10

• Scale drawings of each typical sign type.

• Construction and mounting details.

• Schedule of various sign types.

• Schedule of all text to be included on various signtypes.

The need for illumination of signage and a graphicsmanual, describing the signage system and illustratinghow to extend or modify it, are additional factors to takeinto consideration during the design of a signagepackage.

AccessoriesAccessories may be either functional or decorative.Whatever the purpose, accessories serve to make a roomappear less sterile and impersonal.

Functional accessories include letter trays, coat racks,lamps, glassware, magazine racks, brochure racks, andmessage boards. This group of accessories should beselected for utilitarian aspects as well as aestheticqualities that may make a contribution to the total designconcept. Repetitive elements can act as unifiers and helptie the accessories to the design scheme. Well-designedaccessories do not have to be expensive to be visuallyeffective in the space.

Audio visual (AV) equipment also falls under thecategory of functional accessories. AV equipment can betreated as part of the design or concealed withincasegoods. AV equipment includes the following pieces:

• televisions (fixed screen or projection),• portable sound systems for either speaking orentertainment,• media players such as videocassette recorders(VCR’s) and laser disc players.

Decorative accessories include utilitarian objects suchas displays of product samples, and purely decorativeobjects such as artwork and plants. These elements mayserve a secondary purpose or simply add a sense offreshness or uniqueness to an environment.

Furnishings 7.11

ArtAn art program sets guidelines for the selection ofartwork. Among the factors to be taken intoconsideration are:• quality (posters, prints, original art),• subject matter,• medium (photography, paper, oil, etc.),• size,• placement,• method of display (permanent collection or rotatingprogram),• lighting, and• integration with design scheme.

The preparation of the artwork to be displayed andpositioned in an interior space involves many importantdecisions. The designer must work closely with the userto determine placements that are satisfactory for bothfunction and visual composition. Frame and mat must beselected to complement the artwork and interior design.Art should be carefully positioned for proper andcomfortable viewing. Large works may be placed aloneto create a dominant effect; small pictures may begrouped, or hung on a smaller wall surface. Properlighting for viewing may be artificial or natural.Protection from abuse or deterioration is required for allart.

Lighting of artwork may be either uniform or non-uniform. Uniform lighting for all vertical surfaces thatwill receive art gives prominence to the architecture.Viewers have the opportunity to select their own focusand to enjoy all pieces of art. Non-uniform lightingfocuses light on individual objects while leaving thesurroundings comparatively dark. This technique givesprominence to the art over the architecture, and, all elsebeing equal, creates a more dramatic environment.

In a space where art is changed frequently, flexiblelighting is most effective. Track systems are oftenselected because of ease of locating and aiming theluminaries as needed. With either method for lightingart, excellent color rendering is important for a properappreciation of the objects. To achieve the objective ofallowing the viewer to see the color in the art;

Art work has perhaps thegreatest potential of anyadditive feature to alter ourperception of a space, due tothe immediacy of itscommunication.

Furnishings 7.12

continuous spectrum, high Color Rendition Indexsources are essential.

Other functions to consider in lighting art are themedium, surface texture, and type of frame or enclosure.Placement of the light source is crucial to minimizingproblems with shadows from the frame and distortion ofthe object due to exaggerated texture.

The lighting of three-dimensional objects will affect theviewer’s perception of these pieces. Concentrated beamscreate higher contrast and deep shadows, emphasizingform and texture. Lighting a vertical surface behind anobject in addition to the object itself provides a luminousbackdrop to separate the object visually from itsbackground. Lighting from the side as well as fromabove provides added dimension to the piece.

PlantsPlants have become an important interior designelement. They add color, texture, and variety of form andshape to the interior. They bring a natural element to anotherwise artificial environment. They are used as focalpoints, screening, and for psychological effect.Increasingly, plants are being incorporated into theinterior environment for the health and well-being of theuser, as well as enrichment of the space.

Fresh plants serve a healthful function by cleaning andfreshening indoor air. They absorb noxious gasesthrough tiny openings in the leaf surface and releaseoxygen and water vapor in return. Even a relativelysmall number of plants can do an effective job ofcleaning the air.

When selecting plants, their light, water, andtemperature needs, continuing care requirements, andease of replacement must all be considered. The designermust consider the kinds and amount of light the spacehas—direct or indirect, daylight, fluorescent orincandescent. The ease with which plants can be wateredis critical as well. Plants should not be positioned suchthat their location presents a problem in watering.

In general, low-light acclimated plants should be used ininterior spaces. A plant maintenance program is highly

Furnishings 7.13

recommended for the survival and growth of plants in aninterior environment, because they need consistent care.Plants must be sprayed for insects, pruned, fertilized,rotated, and polished on a regular basis. Some plants aretoxic if eaten. Care must, therefore, be taken in selectingand locating plants in areas where small children and/oranimals may be present.

Silk plants were developed to replace live plants inenvironments where growth and maintenance areinhibited. Quality silk plants look very much like realones, but require far less maintenance. While theyprovide close to the same aesthetic effect, silk plantscannot provide air cleaning.

Plants should be selected which are appropriately scaledto the space in which they are placed. They shouldcomplement the design scheme functionally andaesthetically. Aesthetic considerations include foliagecolor, size, shape, and outline. A single well-placed plantmay be very dramatic, almost abstract, while masses ofplants arranged in a line might create the effect of a softscreen. Big bold plants are good for major effects or tofill a space where furniture does not fit; small ones canoccupy a place of prominence on a table or windowledge.

The containers or planters in which plants are kept havemuch to do with both ornamental value and the health ofthe plant; but when the requirement for proper drainage,root spread, and soil aeration has been met, almost anycontainer can be acceptable. Glazed and unglazedceramics, metals, glass, and plastics can also provideliners for more decorative, less water resistant containerssuch as wicker or wood.

Plants add life to a space.Living plants also add vitalelements to the environmentand help to purify the air.

Appendix A

Army Interior Design Process Appendix A

Army Interior Design Process Appendix A.1

Appendix A Army Interior Design ProcessThe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is theconstruction agent for the Army and the Air Force. In1974, USACE hired its first in-house interior designer,primarily in response to its Air Force customer’s requestfor coordinated, high-quality interior finishes andfurniture in its operational and personnel supportfacilities. In 1981, USACE first defined interior designservices and design responsibilities in a policydocument, ER 1110-345-122, Engineering and Design,Interior Design. In response to the USACE commitmentto improving the quality of interior environments in the1980’s, the first USACE Design Guide for Interiors wasissued in 1982.

In 1988, the U.S. Army Engineer District, Omaha wasdesignated the Corps-Wide Technical Center ofExpertise (TCX) for Interior Design. Along with acommitment to improve interior design criteria andexpand interior design staffing, USACE also introducedinterior design training for USACE, command staff,installation staff, and facility users in 1989. USACEcurrently has in-house interior design staff in ten districtoffices with military design and constructionresponsibilities to provide service at every step in theprocess of obtaining and maintaining facilities.

Organization of the AppendixThe appendix is organized in terms of the process stepsnormally required to obtain and maintain facilities.Important criteria references are discussed with each ofthe steps.


Planning and Programming

References

Army Regulation 415-15. Army Military ConstructionProgram Development and Execution, dated 30 August1994, or later. This regulation sets Army policies,responsibilities, and procedures for use in developmentof Military Construction Army (MCA) programs.Included is guidance concerning planning, programming,designing, budgeting, construction, and disposing ofmajor and minor construction, acquisition of real estate,and other supporting activities.

Appendix G, "Facilities Standardization and RepetitiveDesigns", AR 415-15, discusses the advantages to thegovernment in the reuse of successful designs. Thisencourages efficient use of time and funding by usingexisting and proven designs. Currently, two facility typeshave standard interior designs developed. These are foruse in Chapel and Unaccompanied Enlisted PersonnelHousing interior design projects.

Appendix H, "Equipment Installation", AR 415-15,defines installed building equipment which is normallyprovided as a part of construction and whose costs areincluded in the construction cost estimate and personalproperty, which is not normally MILCON funded. (Noteprewired workstations may be provided in theconstruction contract when funding is included in theDD Form 1391 and furniture-related interior designservices are requested.)

Appendix I of AR 415-15 defines the DD Form 1391,"Military Construction Project Data". This form definesuser facility requirements in terms of area, functions, andfinancial resources. The DD Form 1391 is important tothe interior design process because it can be used todefine furniture-reflected requirements.

Architectural and Engineering Instructions, DesignCriteria. This document (3 July 1994 or later edition) isissued by HQUSACE to replace DoD 4270.1-M,Construction Criteria. The Architectural andEngineering Instructions (AEI) provide design criteriaand guidance to be used when planning, programming,

Army Regulation 415-15.Army Military ConstructionProgram Development andExecution is the primaryreference for planning andprogramming of all MilitaryConstruction Armyprograms


designing, and managing military facilities at Armyinstallations. The AEI is a single source document forplanning and design criteria because significant relatedcriteria are referenced for each facility type.

Standard Designs. Standard Interior Designs provideguidelines for interior materials and furnishings forspecific facility types. There are currently two standardinterior designs which have been developed within theUSACE. The facility types are Chapel andUnaccompanied Enlisted Personnel Housing.

Other Sources. Both the Army and Air Force majorcommands provide additional criteria on specific facilitytypes which are of particular importance to them. Thisguidance should be used to supplement the referencedcriteria. This information can be placed behind thenumbered tabs.

Design Directives

Design Directives are given to Districts to authorizevarious stages of design and specific functions. Thesedirectives are given design codes which manage, in part,the design execution. Directive codes which typicallyapply to MCA projects requiring Interior Design are:

• Code 1 directives initiate the design of a project,authorize selection of an Architect-Engineer (A-E), andpermit various preliminary work such as surveys andstudies.

• Code 2 directives permit development of a project tothe concept level. For the purposes of reporting,approved concept design is considered to be 35% of thetotal design effort. Concept design includes drawings,estimate, design analysis, and outline specificationsadequate to define the functional aspects of a facility.

• Code 3 directives may be issued for certain types ofprojects in lieu of a Code 1 or Code 2 directive. ACode 3 design is known as Project Engineering withParametric Estimating. It is authorized for certain typesof projects to achieve a clear definition of projectrequirements, scope, and cost more quickly than can beaccomplished with a Code 2 directive.

• Code 4 directives indicate that the project design is onhold, pending a supplemental design directive.


• Code 5 directives indicate that the project is deferredfrom the program.

• Code 6 directives authorize final design. The DistrictCommander’s approval of final design is sufficient topermit the project to proceed to advertisement and bid.

• Code 9 directives indicate a construction contract (ordesign and construct contract) is authorized for award.

Responsibilities

Planning and Programming. During this phase, theuser has the responsibility to initiate planning andprogramming. The Department of Public Works (DPW)prepares the programming documents.

Funding. The funding for Military Construction(MILCON) projects differs significantly from fundingfor Operations and Maintenance (O&M). The processesare as follows:

• Military Construction Projects. Funds are notavailable until Congress passes and the President signsthe MILCON Authorization and Appropriations Acts.Funds are available for new obligations for a period of 5years. The process by which these projects reachCongress for approval is as follows.

- Documentation for projects over $300,000 is preparedand justified by installation commanders based on theInstallation Master Plan. DD Form 1391 is theprogramming document which includes projectdescription, costs estimates and is the basis of therequirement for the facility.

- The Major Army Command (MACOM) includes thisin its "Six-Year Program" on a priority basis. Thisprogram is submitted to Headquarters Department of theArmy (HQDA).

- HQDA justifies programs to Department of Defense(DoD), Office of Management and Budget (OMB) andto the Congressional committees.

- The programming document is submitted to Congressfor review, approval and passage as Public Law.

- Once a project has been approved, HQUSACE willrelease it for design by a District by issuing a designdirective.

Although USACE is notnormally involved at thisstage, assistance with scopedefinition and preparation ofprogramming documentscan be provided on areimbursable basis. Inaddition to defining areaand functional requirements,the identification of funds forfurniture and furnishings iscritical to effectiveprogramming.


• Operations and Maintenance Projects. O&M Fundsare appropriated on a yearly basis by Congress and areallocated at the base level. They are available for avariety of uses including the purchase of furniture. Fundsare provided by the user and are available for newobligation only for the year appropriated.

Design

ReferencesER 1110-345-122, Engineering and Design, InteriorDesign 15 April 1994 or later establishes policyrequirements, and responsibilities to be followed in theplanning, design, approval, and procurement of interiordesigns for military construction projects andimprovement programs.

This ER defines types of interior design to be performedas Building- and Furniture-Related Interior Design.Building-Related Interior Design is required for allfacilities and includes all items permanently attached tothe facility. This service requires the accommodation ofneeded furniture and equipment within the building, andthe design or selection of items normally provided aspart of the building construction project in accordancewith AR 415-15. Furniture-Related Interior Designservices relate to the planning and selection of items thatwill be provided or procured by the Government. Thisservice will be provided when requested by the user andnormally includes items which are movable and notpermanently attached to the facility.

Initiation of DesignThis is the point where USACE design activitiesnormally enter the process. The Scope of Work isrefined from the data provided on DD Form 1391.Refinement involves developing any additionalinformation necessary to define a Scope of Services,from which an Architect-Engineering (AE) firm can becontracted. For in-house designers, this scope refinementis necessary to establish man-hour estimates and budgetsfor design. The designer performs the following twofunctions to start the design process:

In addition to policyrequirements andresponsibilities, ER 1110-345-122 establishes theframework of the process forUSACE participation withthe customer.


Data Collection - Specific data applicable to a projectmust be collected prior to starting design. Thisinformation is project-specific. The collection of thisinformation may involve a site visit, customer completedsurvey, or direct contact with the customer. A predesignconference is also appropriate at this stage of design.This conference should include all interested parties inthe design process to discuss specific requirements andclarify responsibilities.

Data Analysis - Once data has been collected, it must beanalyzed for its implications in relation to the design.Various factors involving customer requirements,existing conditions, criteria/regulations, design practices,regional preferences, and maintenance considerations areanalyzed to form a complete basis for design.

Concept DesignConcept design is authorized when a Code 2 designdirective is received from Headquarters U.S. ArmyCorps of Engineers (HQUSACE). Concept design isbased on the pre-design activities and is limited to theHeadquarters Department of the Army (HQDA)approved scope as stated in the DD Form 1391. AR 415-15 defines information required to be provided in aconcept design.

Project Engineering with Parametric EstimatingProject engineering with parametric estimating isauthorized for certain construction projects wherestandard designs, design guide sketches, or projectdesigns exist that meet the requirements of the customer.Its purpose is to provide a clear and final definition ofproject requirements by the design agency, withcustomer involvement throughout the process.Appropriate design decisions and calculations, as well asa thorough site investigation will be accomplished.Project scope and cost will have the same degree ofreliability as a 35% concept design. Architectural andEngineering Instructions (AEI), Code 3 Design, 6February 1996, defines the information required for thistype of submission. Government-furnished equipment,installed equipment, and equipment that will be procuredand installed by the using agency should also beidentified.

Project engineering withparametric estimating is notgenerally suitable formodernization, maintenanceand repair, minorconstruction, or urgentminor projects. This processalso does not apply tomedical projects.


Final DesignFinal design is based on approved concept design and isauthorized when a Code 6 directive is received formHQUSACE. The final design must be functional, costeffective and reflect the scope of the approved DD form1391. At the completion of this stage, contractdocuments are 100% complete.

Procurement

References and Sources

Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR - The FederalAcquisitions are based on Public Law. For the purposeof Interior Design, they define acceptable processes foracquisition of interior items.

FAR Part 8. This portion of the FAR directly affects theinterior design process by outlining the required sourcesof supplies and services and their use. Of particularimportance to the process of developing and procuringFurniture-related Interior Design is paragraph 8.001,Priorities for use of Government supply sources. Theseare as follows:

• Agency inventories• Excess from other agencies (Subpart 8.1)• Federal Prison Industries, Inc. (Subpart 8.6)• Products available from the Committee for Purchase

From People Who Are Blind or Severely Disabled(Subpart 8.7)

• Wholesale supply sources (such as the stock programsof the General Services Administration (GSA))

• Mandatory Federal Supply Schedules (Subpart 8.4)• Optional use Federal Supply Schedules (Subpart 8.4)• Commercial sources

General Services Administration (GSA) Schedules.The General Services Administration contracts withmanufacturers of a variety of products for purchase byagencies of the Federal Government. Products aregrouped by product type and contracts are awarded toeither multiple or single vendors. These contracts areintended to ensure that the government receive productsthat meet the specifications outlined by GSA at a price


that is fair to the government based on the large quantityof products purchased. Products are selected from theseschedules subject to the FAR regulations.

To request GSA Schedules, a GSA Form 457, FSSPublications Mailing List Application, must becompleted. Copies of the GSA form 457 may beobtained from the following:

General Services AdministrationCentralized Mailing List Service (7CAFL)4900 Hemhill StPO Box 6477Ft. Worth, TX 76115

Federal Prison Industries (FPI) UNICOR. FederalPrison Industries supplies a variety of products for useby government agencies. Among these items producedare a variety of furniture and drapery products. FPI is amandatory source of supply for government agencies. Ifan item is produced by FPI and another source for thatproduct is desired, the FAR requires a clearance beobtained from FPI before that item can be purchasedfrom another source. Information about UNICORproducts or services can be obtained from:

UNICOR Customer Service Center(800) 827-3168

Actions

Building-Related Interior Design - Items permanentlyattached to a facility and purchased with militaryconstruction funding are documented in contractdocuments. These documents include the contractdrawings and specifications. Drawings clearly depict theplans, details, schedules, dimensions, elevations and allother essential visual information required to construct acomplete facility. Specifications define in written formrequirements for specific materials and products requiredfor facility construction. These specifications are writtenin a three part format. These three parts are:

• Part 1, General, which outlines references andsubmitted approval requirements.

• Part 2, Products, which defines product quality.• Part 3, Execution, which defines installation.


Furniture-Related Interior Design - Items which arenot permanently attached to the facility may not bepurchased with military construction funding and requirean alternate method of procurement and implementation.Once the source of supply has been determined, allinformation necessary for procurement and installationof that item must be supplied on the appropriateprocurement form. Information may also include aclearance from FPI, source justification for GSA items,or a performance specification. A specification may berequired if the total dollar amount exceeds the smallpurchase limit of $100,000.

Furniture-Related Interior Design is documentedseparately from, and is not a part of, the ContractDocuments. The Furniture-Related Interior Designdocuments should contain all information required toprocure and place furnishings including item,manufacturer, price, color/finish, placement plans andlists, total estimates, and all other pertinent informationrequired by the Contracting Officer.

During the procurement of the furniture package,support to the contracting agency may be required. Thissupport could include re-selection of furnishings whichare not currently available, update of information whichmay no longer be current (such as price) or participationin the evaluation of items competitively bid from aspecification to determine best value for the government.The requirement to provide these services should bedefined in the Scope of Work, when the service isdesired by the customer.

Design Services During Construction AndInstallation

Building-Related Interior DesignBuilding-Related Interior Design is documented in theContract Drawings and Specifications. These documentsdefine the quantity, quality and installation of materialsrequired for a project. They are legally bindingdocuments. Once a contract has been awarded to acontractor, the drawings and specifications are thedocuments by which a facility is constructed. Thegovernment assures quality of construction and approves


products to be used in construction by means ofContractor Submittals (Shop Drawings). The contractorsubmits for approval information and samples which thecontractor believes will meet the contract requirements.

Any changes to the contract documents after the awardof the contract require a modification to the contract bywhich the cost of the contract is adjusted accordingly.

During construction, support to the field may berequired. This effort could include preparation ofmodifications to the contract documents, shop drawingreview and approval, site visits to verify or assist inresolving unforeseen issues that arise, and othertechnical support which may not be available in theresident or area office.

Furniture-Related Interior DesignDuring installation of furniture, assistance may berequired on site. This may involve the placement offurniture, furnishings and artwork. Typically, this effortrequires additional funding as it is not normally coveredas an extension of design.

Completing The Process

USACEAt this point, USACE turns the building over to the userand DPW. However, approximately one year aftercompletion of construction, a Post OccupancyEvaluation of the project is conducted to determine theeffectiveness of the design. This evaluation involves theinspection of the completed facility by a team composedof Corps and user personnel. It is typically concernedwith the Building-Related aspects of the interior;however, Furniture-Related interior design may also beevaluated. Information on the quality, durability, andsuitability of the furniture and furnishings can then beused to improve future projects.

User Responsibilities

Installation Design Guide. Interior design policy is acomponent of the Installation Design Guide (IDG). TheIDG reflects installation themes and policy which are


unique to the individual military installation. The IDGshould address interior design policy in terms of designand maintenance issues.

Operations Policy. To preserve the quality of facilities,the user and installation must agree upon an operationspolicy which defines their respective responsibilities.The user is responsible for preserving the visualappearance of the facility, and the installation isresponsible for providing maintenance support needed topreserve facility quality.

Reorganization and Changing Mission. As DoDreorganizes and redefines its mission in the world,changes occur in the work place that must be addressed.As functions and technology change, the needs of theoccupant are impacted. The interior environment mustrespond to those needs if the mission is to be supported.These changes ultimately require rethinking of the use ofspace, and the process of planning and programmingmust begin again.

Appendix B

Planning for Administrative Work Environments Appendix B

Planning for Administrative Work Environments Appendix B.1

Appendix B Planning for Administrative WorkEnvironmentsAs stated in AR 405–70, Utilization of Real Property,"The goal of space utilization planning and managementis to maximize the efficient use of all Army lands,facilities, and space assigned to support missions."Satisfying this goal in the planning of administrativework environments requires an examination of both theorganization’s requirements and the criteria governingspace utilization.

The first step in the planning process is to ascertain theraw data defining the physical extent of the area.Personnel count, equipment requirements, and growthprojections must be determined in order to define thescope of the project. Understanding the culture of theorganization and the mode in which it operates isnecessary to provide effective space planning anddesign. The organizational elements are analyzed withinthe context of the larger office environment andparameters imposed by existing conditions. Once theglobal aspects of the environment have been established,the detailed design of workstations and their componentscan be accomplished. Documentation of constructionelements via plan drawings and specifications follows.Furniture elements are documented in detailed layoutplans of componentry, power, data, and communicationssystems. Although professional support is available,facility users have many responsibilities related toprocurement, installation, and moving personnel into thenew work environment.

Data Collection and ProgrammingThe discovery of quantitative information whichcharacterizes an organization—area, power, coolingrequirements and the like—is accomplished byconducting an inventory of office, storage, specializedspaces, and the equipment required by the individualsand units that make up the functional groups. Potentialfor change in size over a set period of time (typically twoto five years), whether positive or negative, should also


be analyzed as part of this inventory. Project goals andobjectives will determine the extent of the effort.

Accurate unit information is critical to effectiveprogramming and is typically collected by means ofquestionnaires, and interviews with key personnel withinindividual units. The persons to be interviewed shouldbe determined by the client Point of Contact (PoC) andshould understand the project goals and objectives.

The PoC must understand the programming proceduresin order to facilitate the process. Interviews must beobtained from personnel familiar with all aspects of theunit being programmed to guarantee the reliability of theinformation.

Use DoD Forms 1450 and 1450-1, Space RequirementsData Forms, to ensure that the program meets currentallowable government space standards. These forms areused for space allocation review by both DoD and GSA.Their use during programming is recommended, as theseforms may be required for approval by the installationcommander.

A schedule of interviews should be set up with all PoC’s.Conduct interviews at the site rather than a remotelocation. A week or two before the interview aquestionnaire should be prepared and sent tointerviewees. The interviewees should be the designatedPoC for the units. The questionnaire should request adetailed inventory of existing space usage for the unitand should be structured to simplify transfer of data tothe final format.

Information requested should include the following at aminimum.

• Organizational Structure:- departmental mission,- organization chart, and- relationship to other departments.

• Functional Structure:- functions performed,- operating schedule,- historical and projected staffing, and- equipment requirements.

The process of programmingseeks to produce quantitativedocumentation of the spatialneeds of an agency, unit, ordepartment by examining thequantitative content of agiven environment: itspeople and equipment.

A brief explanation of theprocess and goals forprogramming should be laidout for those involved beforethe process is begun.


• Assessment of Current Facilities:- quantity of space,- internal arrangement,- accessibility,- quality of environment,- known code or regulatory deficiencies, and- known problem areas.

• Anticipated Changes in Work Methodology.

• Additional Comments.

AnalysisResponses given on the questionnaires should bereviewed during the interview to ensure completenessand accuracy. Typically the interview includes a walkingtour of the unit with the interviewee. This gives theinterior designer the opportunity to visually confirm thedata given on the questionnaires.

AR 405-70, Utilization of Real Property, "Appendix D",defines requirements for office space and supportingareas. The regulation controls both net and gross area interms of the following categories. Office space isworkstation area and associated immediate circulation.Office space is evaluated based on personnel. Storagespace, as used in this regulation, is space which supportsworkstations as common areas. It includes such things ascommon storage, files, and equipment within the officeenvironment. Its size is determined by equipment.Special space is space with architectural featuressignificantly different from the office environment. Itnormally includes conference rooms, computer rooms,classrooms, exhibit and reception areas, cafeteria orbreak rooms, duplicating rooms, mail rooms, andbuilding maintenance support areas such as warehousingand loading docks. Special space must be justified on thebasis of specific mission and site support requirements.Allocations include an allowance for internal circulation.Consult the regulation for specific requirements.

Care should be taken to assign programmed space to theappropriate category, as such assignment may affect thetotal allowable area. Storage area requirements must be


clearly distinguished from office space, as the twofunctions are generated differently (personnel vs.equipment), but are found closely integrated within theunit environment.

The numerical data collected during the interviewsshould be summarized and sent back to the intervieweesfor verification prior to final summarization andinitiation of design. After verification, summaries shouldbe prepared—including growth projections, if this is aconsideration. Comments by interviewees should beanalyzed and incorporated into the documentation whenappropriate.

Once the data on personnel numbers and equipment hasbeen collected, it is extrapolated into volumetric data.This provides the estimated footprint area of the newspace to be included in the planning of the facility. ArmyRegulation 405-70, Utilization of Real Property,"Appendix D" provides numerical planning andutilization allowances which should be applied to thequantities determined during the interview process.

After the initial determination of volumetric data usingAR 405-70, Utilization of Real Property, allowances hasbeen performed, these numbers must be checked. Oneway to do this is by applying a scaling factor (to accountfor changes in need, or future growth) to the existingarea. If the change from existing to projectedrequirements is dramatic, it may be necessary to examineboth sets of calculations more closely in order todetermine which more accurately reflects the needs ofthe organization. If the organization is a new one, thebest check is to reference a similar facility, and apply ascaling factor to account for differences in population,equipment etc. Discrepancies should be resolved at thispoint before effort is expended in the planning anddesign process.

General building circulation and support are factored inat 25 percent of the calculated net planned area. Theactual percentage may vary depending on several things,primarily the building configuration and the totalrequired area. Circulation percentage for a smallorganization is typically higher than that for a large onedue to the exaggerated ratio of circulation betweengroups compared to that within. Building configuration


affects plan area directly, as some buildings are moreefficient to plan than others. Simple things, such as thedistance between mullions on a window wall, will affectthe layout of offices, and thereby their size, andultimately the efficiency of a floor plan. Finally, thelimitations of the infrastructure of the building must beconsidered—allowable loads on structure within storageareas, availability of adequate ventilation for specialneeds, etc. These factors may affect the arearequirements for a given function, if the limits of thebuilding do not meet the standard programmaticguidelines.

Space PlanningThe area requirements determined through theprogramming and data development process are used toestablish the area requirement for an organization. Theareas determined for a collection of organizations whichwill share a common space are typically arranged as abubble diagram (Fig. 1). These diagrams indicate therelation of groups to one another. They do not representa space plan or floor plan, but the relationship oforganizations to one another.

A further extension of the initial diagram is apreliminary blocking diagram in which the bubblediagram is made more regular and checked for fit insidethe proposed floor plan (Fig. 2). The location of variousorganizations on the floor plan at this time is solely afunction of the adjacency requirements brought to lightduring the interview portion of the programmingprocess. It is the designer’s task to arrange these groupsin such a way as to maximize the required adjacencies. Ifthe project includes planning for a multi-floor facility thedata should be interpreted into blocking and stackingdiagrams which show the organization being studiedand three dimensional adjacencies, where each unit isrepresented by a volume of space as quantified by theprogram data.

Once the area requirements of an organization have beenassessed through programming, and the relative positionhas been determined through the review of blocking andstacking diagrams, the actual configuration of the groupis developed through the planning of the proximity and

Fig. 1 Bubble Diagram

Fig. 2 Blocking Diagram


area requirements within the organization (Fig. 3). Herethe primary concern in the planning of the space shouldbe the corporate culture of the entity; how theorganization operates, its management structure, andmeans of organizing around a project.

A successful plan must embody the answers to thefollowing questions about the organization. Is theorganization relatively fixed or do its people tend to flowwith projects? Is managerial structure flat orhierarchical? What statement is being made throughplanning about the relationship between managementand staff? It is often possible for a design professional torecommend alternative structures to enhance theoperation of a particular organization, but if a structure isnot compatible with the organization, its implementationwill either force a shift in the mode of operation, or theplan will fail.

Office plans may be designed around the concept ofopen office space or private office space. Open officeplans are common for working level persons in large,open areas and offer flexibility. Private office spaceplans are limited primarily to executive offices. In mostcases, plans will be a mixture of a large open office areaand a few private offices. Open office plans use systemsfurniture to define workstation and other spaces. Privateoffices are defined by fixed walls. Arriving at theappropriate solution requires an examination of theoperation’s organization and its culture.

The culture of an organization is characterized by itswork processes, methods of communication, andorganizational structure; and is expressed through thedesign of its environment. The organization of workareas has much to do with the operation of the variousfunctions and the interrelation of the parts. Workenvironments may be classified into the followinggroups:

• Individual space is provided for individualworkstations and generally configured as office space. Itmay be either private or open. Individual workstationsmust consider surface work area, storage, security,communication, equipment, and privacy requirementsthat support individual work independent of other groupactivity.

Fig. 3 Final Plan

Culture within the workplace is not that muchdifferent from what weunderstand as culture on ageographic basis. Differentwork environmentscommunicate, cooperate,and are managed in differentways. Corporateenvironments aremicrocosms of largergeopolitical cultures.


• Team space may be defined as a collection ofindividual workstations and an area for common activity.A team room may also be created as a special use spaceto accommodate work on a common project as well asstorage of project materials. Formal team rooms aregenerally not provided in government offices.

• Informal group space is a common support spacewhich supports informal interaction among persons frommultiple organizational units. These are areas wherepeople have chance encounters and can include thecoffee pot, reception areas, copier areas, and otherpossibilities.

• Formal group space means special purpose spacededicated for conference rooms or other places wherepeople will assemble.

Most offices will have a mixture of the environmentslisted above. Ownership or territoriality is a primaryfeature of any office plan. Traditional officing assumesthat each individual will have a unique work space towhich he or she is assigned on a permanent basis.Alternative officing acknowledges that workspacerequirements are not static, and allows for a moredynamic allocation of resources based upon immediateneeds. In alternative officing programs, a set of typicalwork spaces are developed which are then assigned on aneeds basis.

Hybrid environments seek to optimize a mixture of workarrangements and ownership, in which each of thesefactors is satisfied separately. Component parts ofworkspaces which are necessary, but which do not needto be dedicated—such as conferencing areas in privateoffices—may be separated from the core function andshared among a group of individuals, thereby loweringthe aggregate area requirements of the group. Manyalternative officing solutions are centered aroundspecialized furniture products intended to facilitate someparticular aspect of work, others take advantage ofchanging work philosophies and technologies such ashome officing or telecommuting.

Hoteling is an alternative officing solution whichprovides workspace for individuals who are not alwaysin the office, but need to be accommodated when theyare. Worker-to-workspace ratios in excess of one-to-one

Alternative Officing refers toalternatives to dedicatedoffice work space allocatedon an individual basis, asopposed to traditionalofficing which involves asingle location commuted tofrom the home and workedat on a regular basis.


are established which recognize the actual vacancy ratiowithin the organization, and typical workstations areestablished which may be used by any individual on anon-call basis. Other officing solutions recognize the needfor both private work areas and team areas, but providethem as individual entities: offices do not haveconference areas within them, but are drawn down to theminimum size necessary for the individual; sharedconference areas are scattered throughout the plan.

The person planning the work environment should bewell-versed in current planning philosophies andoptions. Most plans utilize a mixture of the four spacetypes described above. Design solutions evolve asvariations on basic concepts are refined for specific uses.By application of the general concepts to specificfunctional, organizational, and cultural requirements; asatisfactory solution can be identified.

LayoutIn planning the individual organization the detailedinformation gathered during the initial programmingprocess is employed. The entire process of developingbubble diagrams and then blocking diagrams is replayedat a more detailed level than before. Detailedworkstation types and workstation clusters are developedand arranged to test their fit within the blocking diagram.Circulation and building modules (window mullions,lighting and power grids, and structural bay widths) mustbe strictly observed at this time.

Typically, a generic workstation unit or office isdeveloped and tested against the user’s stated program ofrequirements. Layout of the individual work areas beginswith a detailed assessment of the individual work surfaceand storage requirements. As the floor area is largelydetermined by the target average area per individual,much of the variation in individual workstationrequirements will be made up in the outfitting of theworkstation proper. Generic group spaces which reflectthe operations of the specific functional area should alsobe developed. These are then used to perform an initiallayout of detailed spaces.


A series of uniform footprint workstations should bedeveloped which satisfy the needs of the majority of theindividuals. These may need to be created for a neworganization or an organization which is moving into anew type of environment, or they may be refined fromexisting, when the unit is an established one simplyundergoing a re-organization or move. Individualizationof the workstations can be done on a case-by-case basis.By establishing pattern workstations, the planning of theorganization’s area is simplified, and future re-organization of individual positions is eased. Withstandardized workstations, people can move withouthaving to move furniture. The cost and time involved inreconfiguring fixed walls and systems furniture make theuse of workstations, typical in size and components, themost efficient way to manage the movement andchanging needs of workers.

Circulation is as critical to the success of a floor plan asthe layout of the individual and group workstations.Circulation must be clearly planned from point of accessto end point so that residents or guests will be able todiscern their paths easily. A hierarchy of widths aids indetermining volume of traffic flow, and routes should bedirect and visibly identifiable from any point. Egressdistances and accessibility by the physically handicappedmust be considered when laying out circulation paths.Within a given administrative unit, circulation is notmerely definition of a boundary between organizationalclusters, it must be fully functional and reflect theinterrelation of the units.

Design CoordinationThe direction for development of a space should be setand approved prior to the final planning and layout ofthe individual workstations. The development of a spaceis paralleled by development of its color scheme andinterior finishes. In a new facility, fewer parametersinfluence the direction of the design. Once the initialdirection is set, the designer selects items which fulfillthe design intent. In existing facilities, additionalfactors—such as existing furniture which must bereused, and surrounding areas which must beintegrated— will constrain the design direction. In either


case, materials and finishes should be chosen whichharmonize with one another, and which do not date theproject.

Typically, individual users understand only their ownenvironment and may not realize the impact their portionof the project has on the overall concept. The designermust maintain a global view, within the context of theproject, and further within the organization as a whole.Projects afford the designer the opportunity to express acurrent design interest or the personality of a specificclient/user. The design intent, however, is to provide asolution which satisfies the needs of the user, providesan appropriate aesthetic expression, and will bemaintainable over a period of time. The solution mustalso integrate well into the greater fabric of theorganizational environment.

DocumentationProper documentation of furniture-related interior designis more detailed than that required for building-relatedinterior design work. Building-related interior design istypically fully-integrated within the architectural portionof the construction documents. The information requiredto communicate the intent of the design becomes a partof the architectural drawings, schedules andspecifications. The interior designer is primarilyresponsible for ensuring that the design intent is properlyconveyed.

Furniture-related interior design documentation may beeither a stand-alone document developed after thebuilding components are in place as is often the case fora simple remodel; or it may be a part of the overall set ofconstruction and bid documents for a new constructionproject or extensive remodel.

Systems furniture and equipment must be located just asaccurately as any other element of the project, andexcept for large homogeneous organizations, more detailis required per unit of area for systems furniture layoutthan for typical architectural construction.Documentation procedures vary, but plans should alwaysbe broken down into several related documents whichseparately convey the general location of individualworkstations, then into successively smaller details


ranging from structure of the work space, to componentsof the work space, to accessories, to data, power andcommunications. Where repetition is significant, noteson the drawings may be used to take advantage ofduplicate elements. The documentation must bethoroughly checked for accuracy and completeness,particularly with regard to rotated and mirrored versionsof prototypical units.

Implementation and Move-inWhile the user has the primary responsibility forimplementation and move-in, the designer’sresponsibility is to advise on reuse of existing furniture,provide technical expertise in the review of furnituresolicitations, and participate in the presentation of theplan to the organization. Even after the design iscomplete and documented, significant work andcoordination must be done to complete the process andmake the move successful.

The designer's role in this process is one of qualityassurance, reviewing the product and seeing that itsatisfies the intent. During implementation and move in,this will involve acting directly with the contractor,suppliers, installers, and the user; although perhaps themajority of contact will be with the contracting office,for furniture procurement.

Interaction with the contractor on building-relatedinterior design involves providing clarification of intentprior to action and interpretation of results relative todesign intent. Complete and thorough documentation iscritical, but so is a watchful eye on the part of thedesigner.

Furniture-related interior design services typicallyinvolve placing all relevant procurement information onprocurement forms, tracking, inspection, assembly, andplacement, and tends to be a more involved process. Theuser may require considerable assistance to completethese operations. The designer needs to be certain thatthe user understands the key tasks involved:

• verifying funding,• scheduling,• placing orders,


• tracking shipments,• accepting/inspecting deliveries and filing claims,• warehousing,• installation and coordination of furniture items,• installation and coordination of electrical and data

systems,• warranties,• moving existing property to new facilities, and• excessing redundant property.

Follow-through is essential. Many items will need to beverified repeatedly in order to ensure that the providermeets the needs of the user, particularly with regard toschedule. During the final installation and move-in, thenumber of things happening at once can beoverwhelming for the user. An implementation plan isessential to keep the process on schedule. Assigning theproper person to be in charge of the move is also acritical factor the success of the project.

Even after installation and move-in, issues may requirethe attention of the interior designer. Maintenance is anissue which dramatically impacts upon the appearance ofa facility. An interior designer can assist byrecommending the establishment of an operations policyto guide in the maintenance of facility appearance. Thedesigner has little say, however, as to whether the policyis implemented and, if so, how successfully. Such apolicy must have strong user/command support to assuresuccessful implementation.

A post-occupancy evaluation allows both the user andthe designer to learn from their experiences. Theevaluation also affords the opportunity to see wheremodifications to the facility would assure bettersolutions in future work. These opportunities providedesigners with some of the most potent feedback on theirefforts and help both designer and user grow in theirunderstanding of what is needed to create a trulyexcellent interior.

Glossary

Glossary G.1

GlossaryABS, (acrylonitrile, butadiene, styrene), a tough,lightweight, highly moldable plastic compoundespecially suited to fitted parts and interlockingcomponents; major uses include modular furniture,luggage, and plumbing systems.

absorption, the assimilation of sound energy by a bodywithout recoil or echo.

accent lighting, direct lighting to emphasize a particularobject or draw attention to a part of the field of view.

accent, to enhance decoration by using a lesser quantityof a contrasting color or finish.

acetate, a manufactured fiber formed of celluloseacetate, characterized by low cost, sunlight resistance,flame retardance, resistance to moths, mildew, andbacteria, low static electric potential, and low abrasionresistance.

achromatic, a neutral color, lacking in chroma orintensity: black, white, or gray.

acoustic tile, modular sound absorptive panels.

acrylic, a synthetic fiber of moderate tenacity, resistanceto abrasion and light, and dimensional stability.

aesthetic, pertaining to an object’s quality of beauty.

aggregate, the sum of a collection of particulars.

ambient lighting, general environmental illumination.

ampere, a unit of electric current equal to the current ofone Volt acting through a resistance of one Ohm.

amplification, the effect of color intensification due tothe interreflection of light from one colored surface toanother. An increase in the volume of sound.

angle of incidence, the angle (measured from thesurface on the side of the approach) at which an elementstrikes an object.

anneal, the process of strengthening through heating andgradual cooling.

Glossary G.2

ANSI, (American National Standards Institute), a privatesector standards coordinating center which helps identifyand coordinate private sector standards activities andstandards development.

anthropometrics, the measurement of the size andproportions of the human body, and its applications tothe design of furnishings, equipment, and spaces.

antimicrobial treatment, a treatment that prevents thegrowth of mold, mildew, and bacteria on carpet.

appurtenance, a subordinate part or accessory.

ASA, (acrylonitrile, styrene, acrylic elastomer), a plasticcompound with properties similar to those of ABS.

Axminster, a patterned, woven carpet originating in the1700s in Axminster, England in which almost all of thepile yarns appear on the surface, and are of one height.

barrier-free design, that which presents no physicalbarriers to access and free movement within anenvironment.

bay window, a window set in a frame projectingoutward from a wall to create an interior recess, usuallyof fixed glass.

bay, a volumetric or structural unit defined by columnsor walls.

berber, a carpet texture characterized by broad, shortloops which give a popcorn-like appearance.

bifold door, a door with vertical double panels that foldsback against itself.

binder, a substance which brings cohesion to acollection of elements.

biodegradable, capable of being broken down intoinnocuous products through biological processes.

blossom, the tendency of a looped yarn to untwist whencut.

board-and-batten construction, a type of walltreatment in which wide vertical boards are sealed attheir junctures by narrow strips of wood, or battens.

bonded fabric, a fabric formed by combining an outerface fabric with a backing fabric using an adhesive orlaminate.

Glossary G.3

bow window, a bay window in the form of an unbrokencurve.

brick, a clay block hardened by heat and used as abuilding unit.

broadloom, floor textiles woven on looms more thanabout 1 meter (36 inches) wide.

brush, to add a fine texture to a surface by means of awire or bristle brush.

bubble diagram, an initial planning sketch in whichclustered circles represent activity zones placed inproximity relationships.

came, the channeled element used between pieces ofglass in stained glass or leaded windows, or to dividecast-in-place terrazzo.

cantilever, any part of a structural member (commonly abeam), that projects beyond its support.

card, to combine staple fibers, such as wool or cottoninto a continuous filament.

carpet, a soft-surface floor covering used to blanket afloor from wall to wall.

casegoods, furniture which is typically freestanding andcapable of supporting or storing smaller materials: desks,credenzas, bookcases, files, storage cabinets, beds,dressers, and tables.

casement, a loosely woven or knit sheer drapery fabric.

casement window, a window hinged at the side, andwhich swings open like a door.

cathode, the terminal from which electrons emanate in afluorescent or other discharge-type lamp.

ceramic, made from clay and heated (fired) in a kiln. Ahard and durable material.

chromaticity, the aspect of a color that describes itsdominant wavelength and purity

clapboard, a wood siding composed of narrow boardseach with one thinner edge to facilitate horizontaloverlapping.

cleft, split as with a blow.

Glossary G.4

clerestory, a window or bank of windows insertedbetween two roof levels to bring light into a room.

closed plan, an architectural plan that divides theinternal space of a structure into separate, discreterooms.

coefficient of utilization, (cu), the ratio of light(lumens) from a luminaire received on a workplane tothat emitted by the lamp.

coffered ceiling, one with ornamental raised panelsbetween closely spaced beams.

color fastness, the ability of a material to retain its colorwhen exposed to light or cleaning agents.

color rendering index, the general expression for theeffect of a light source on the color appearance of objectsin comparison with their color appearance under areferenced light source.

color retention, the ability of a material to retain itscolor when exposed to light or cleaning agents.

color spectrum, the range of color comprising visiblelight.

compact fluorescent, an energy-saving replacement forincandescent sources, with greater efficiency and life.

concrete, a material consisting of cement mixed invarying proportions with sand and gravel or otheraggregates. With the addition of water, the mixturebecomes moldable, capable of assuming almost anyshape. Concrete dries to a heavy, stonelike mass of greatstrength.

concrete blocks, large, generally hollow, bricklikeblocks composed of concrete; widely used in building,especially for walls.

conduction, the direct transfer of heat through a solidmaterial, such as glass or metal.

conduit, a tube used to protect electrical wires.

construction documents, the full volume of drawings,specifications and contracts which comprise thecomplete description of a built project.

Glossary G.5

contract, a legally binding, written agreement betweentwo parties outlining services to be rendered,responsibilities, and compensation.

contract design, nonresidential interior design,including offices, institutions (healthcare, schools),hospitality, industrial facilities, and retail businesses.

convection, the transfer of heat through natural aircirculation.

cotton, a natural staple fiber harvested from the flowerof the cotton plant.

cove lighting, that provided by light sources shielded bya ledge and distributing light upward over the ceiling.

coved ceiling, a ceiling that curves into the supportingwalls rather than meeting them at an angle.

critical path, the time frame and overlapping order ofsteps in the building and finishing process whichdetermines the minimum time or necessary progressionrequired for an event.

cut pile, a fabric or carpet, the face of which iscomposed of cut ends of pile yarn.

decibel, (dB, db), a unit for expressing the relativeintensity of sounds on a scale from zero for the leastperceptible sound to about 130 for the average painlevel.

decorative design, the additional arrangement, shaping,coloring, or placing of ornament to make an object orspace more beautiful or interesting to the eye.

delaminate, to come apart in layers.

density, a factor used to judge the quality of carpet; theamount of surface yarns compressed in a given area. Thecloser the pile tufts are to each other, and the higher andheavier the pile yarn, the more durable the carpet withinthe same fiber category.

design, the process of planning a building, furnishings,or composite interiors; the organization of a work ofinterior design, architecture or art.

design concept, the idea for the solution to a designproblem.

Glossary G.6

detail drawing, a drawing, commonly full size or on ascale two or three times greater than that of the generaldrawings, showing specific composition of an object tobe built, or part of it.

diffusion, the random dispersion or scattering of a soundor light wave when it strikes a surface that is irregular,concave, or convex in form; or when the wave form isnot in line with, or not equal in size to, the object struck,the wavelength will tend to bend around the object andcontinue on its path.

dimensional stability, the property of a material whichindicates its resistance to change in size due to affectingconditions, such as temperature or humidity.

dimmer, a device used to control the intensity of lightemitted by a luminaire through the control of the voltageor current available to it.

direct glare, the result of areas of excessive contrast(such as insufficiently shielded light sources) in thedirect field of view.

direct lighting, that provided on the workplane or objectfrom a prominent and identifiable source.

double-glazing, a process of providing windows withtwo sheets of glass sealed together trapping air or avacuum between them to provide superior thermalinsulation.

downlight, a luminaire from which light emanatesdownward; may be recessed, surface or pendantmounted.

draperiy, a loosely hung, often heavy, fabric curtain.

drapery panel, a drapery length made of one or morewidths of fabric that travel together on a rod.

draw curtain, a fabric panel that can be opened andclosed by means of a draw cord on a traverse rod.

dropped ceiling, that portion of a ceiling below theactual functional level or below other sections of theceiling within the same space. Often, a dropped ceilingserves to articulate specific segments of a room such as adining area, or to accommodate mechanical equipment.

ecology, the study of the relationship between organismsand their environment.

Glossary G.7

efficacy, the measure of the effectiveness of a solution;the ratio of light emitted by a lamp to the electricalpower input, usually expressed in lumens per watt.

effluent, something that flows out.

egress, a means of exiting.

elevation, a drawing which represents a vertical imageof one side of an object, room or building.

emulsion, a combination of two non-compatible liquids,such as oil and water.

engineered wood product, any recombination of woodby-products to form a material of greater performancecapacity than the original (see also industrial board).

ergofit, the relationship between people and theirenvironment.

ergonomics, the science that seeks to adapt theenvironment to its users.

etch, to remove through corrosive action.

fabric, cloth; more specifically, a construction of fibers,not necessarily woven.

facade, the face or front of a building or article.

felting, the joining of fibers into a fabric through theapplication of heat, agitation and moisture, or bymechanical treatment.

fenestration, the arrangement and design of windowsand other openings of a building.

fiber, a material of natural or synthetic derivationcapable of forming a continuous filament, such as yarnor thread.

fiberglass, any number of plastic resins, such aspolyesters, polypropylene, or nylon, reinforced withsegments of glass fibers.

fiberoptics, the transmission of signals as pulses of lightthrough an optical conductor, such as glass cord.

filament, a single continuous strand of fiber.

finish floor, the final visible flooring material orsurface.

Glossary G.8

firebrick, a very hard brick capable of withstanding theintense heat of a kiln or fireplace interior.

flamed, a granite finish produced by passing a flameover the face of a piece of granite, causing it to spall offits outer surface.

flame-resistant fabric, a fabric whose fiber content ortopical finish makes it difficult to ignite, slow to burn,and often self-extinguishing.

flame-retardant finish, a chemical finish that renders afabric made of a flammable fiber resistant to fire ignitionand spread.

flat slice, a method of cutting a log parallel to a planethrough its center which produces a vaulted or cathedral-like grain.

flax, a plant fiber used in the manufacture of linen yarn.

flood lamp, a lamp providing a relatively wide lightdistribution pattern.

floor plan, a drawing that represents the horizontalarrangement of building parts and furnishings.

fluorescent lamp, a low-pressure mercury electric-discharge lamp in which a fluorescent coating(phosphor) transforms ultraviolet energy into visiblelight.

flux, the flow of light or the measure of the flow ofelectric charge in a wire.

footcandle, (fc), a unit of illuminance on a surface equalto that produced by the light of one candle at a distanceof one foot.

fray, to wear by rubbing; to release from a woven fabric.

fuse, to bond together through chemical or thermalaction.

galvanized iron, iron coated with zinc as a means ofretarding rust.

general lighting, that which provides a substantiallyuniform level of illumination throughout an area,exclusive of any provision for special localrequirements.

glare, any brightness or brightness relationship thatannoys, distracts or reduces visibility.

Glossary G.9

glass, a mixture of silicates, alkalis, and lime that isextremely moldable when heated to high temperatures,permitting blown, molded, pressed, and stretched forms,and which cools to a rigid, nonabsorbent, transparent ortranslucent substance.

glass blocks, brick-like forms of glass available in avariety of shapes and sizes. They can be set together orjoined to other materials with mortar.

glaze, protective and/or decorative glass-like coatingformed on the surface of a ceramic piece by firing.

grazing, light directed at a very steep angle to a surface,emphasizing its texture.

hammered, a metal or stone finish produced by directblows of a hammer on the material surface, or a finishgiving the appearance thereof.

hand, the textural feel of a fabric.

hardboard, a mat-formed flat panel consisting ofparticles of wood bonded together with a synthetic resinor other suitable binder.

hard-wire, to permanently connect to an electricalsource; as opposed to plug-in.

header, a horizontal structural member which serves totie vertical members together at the top of an element.

holistic, emphasizing the relationship between the wholeand its parts, and that the whole is greater than the meresum of its parts.

homogeneous, of uniform make-up throughout theextent of a body.

honed, a medium to coarse stone finish produced byabrasion of a cut face.

hue, the attribute of perceived color which determinesits position in the color spectrum.

hydrophobic fibers, those which resist water-bornesoiling.

Glossary G.10

IESNA, (Illuminating Engineering Society of NorthAmerica), the recognized technical authority for theillumination field. The society’s objective is tocommunicate information on all aspects of good lightingpractice to its members, the lighting community andconsumers through a variety of programs, publicationsand services.

illuminance, the density of light falling upon a surface,the units of which are the lux and footcandle.

incandescent filament lamp, (bulb), a lamp in whichlight is produced by a filament heated to incandescenceby an electric current.

incident, falling upon or striking.

indirect lighting, that provided by luminaries whichdistribute 90-100 percent of their emitted light first ontoa reflective surface such as a ceiling or wall.

industrial board, any of a number of engineered woodproducts commonly used in the manufacturing offurniture and casegoods.

ingress, the way in or entrance.

insulation, the prevention, by means of certainmaterials, of an excessive transfer of electricity, heat,cold or sound between the inside and the outside of astructure or between portions of a structure; also, thematerials themselves.

jacquard weave, a fabric of complex pattern, such astapestry or brocade, produced on the Jacquard loom.

jalousie window, adjustable, louvered window units ofnarrow, glass, plastic or wood slats, most often arrangedhorizontally.

junction box, a protective housing for the joining ofelectrical connections.

Kelvin, (K), relating to the thermometric scale in whichthe unit of measurement equals the centigrade degreeand according to which absolute zero, the temperature atwhich all atomic activity ceases, and the equivalent of-273.16° Celsius is 0° Kelvin.

Glossary G.11

Kelvin temperature, (K), represents the relativewhiteness of a light source; whether the source appearswarm, cool, or neutral. The higher the temperature, thecooler the appearance of the source. The Kelvintemperature assigned is that of a unit black body radiatorheated to the same whiteness.

kilim, a hand-woven, flat, reversible tapestry rugtraditionally made of wool.

lacquer, a family of fast drying resin or syntheticfinishes capable of being polished to a high gloss sheen.

laminate, the process of bonding together, thin sheets orsmall pieces of material to create a substance havingproperties the material would not otherwise possess,such as strength, durability or intricate form.

lamp, a generic term for a man-made source of light.

lath, a framework of thin wood or metal ribs integralwith a building skeleton for the support of tile, plaster,reinforced concrete, plastic forms, or the like.

LeCorbusier, considered by many as the father of theModern Movement in architecture. LeCorbusier (Corbu,Corb) practiced architecture throughout Europe in thefirst half of the twentieth century.

letter of agreement, a legal contractual agreementbetween two parties that describes the obligations andresponsibilities of each.

level loop, a carpet style having all tufts in a loop formand of identical height; may be woven or tufted.

life-cycle cost, the initial cost of a product (includinginstallation) plus the cost of maintenance or operationover its useful life.

lumen, a unit of light flow equal to the light emitted intoa unit solid angle by a uniform point source of onecandle.

luminaire, a complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp,or lamps, together with parts designed to distribute thelight, to position and protect the lamps, and to connectthe lamps to the power supply; a ceiling or wall mountedlight fixture, or a portable lamp.

Glossary G.12

luminance, (photometric brightness), the luminousintensity of any surface in a given direction per unit areaof that surface as viewed from that direction. All thingsvisible have some luminance. Luminance is measured incandelas per square meter (candelas per square foot, orfootlamberts).

luminance ratio, an expression of the relative brightnessof any two areas in the visual field.

masonry, architectural construction of stone, brick, tile,concrete block, or glass block joined together withmortar; in broader usage, construction of plaster orconcrete.

mastic, originally a resin used in the production ofadhesives, now commonly the generic term for flooringadhesives.

matte, a flat, non-shiny finish which thoroughly diffusesincident light.

medium density fiberboard, (MDF), a fine-grainedsmooth faced industrial board product, composed ofwood fiber and adhesives. Easily cut, worked andfinished.

medullary rays, capillary-like structures within thebody of a tree that run radially from the core to the barkand their expression in quarter-sawn lumber.

metamerism, the shift in visual appearance of colorsunder varied illumination.

metamers, lights of the same apparent color but ofdifferent spectral energy.

microbial, relating to micro-organisms such as bacteria.

microblind, horizontal blinds with 13 mm (1/2") slats;also called micro-miniblinds.

miniblinds, horizontal blinds with 25 mm (1") slats.

modacrylic, synthetic fiber that is highly flame resistantand bulky. It has moderate resiliency, moderatedimensional stability, and high elastic recovery. It alsohas a low melting point and low abrasion resistance.

modular, built of unit pieces or according tostandardized sets of measurements.

Glossary G.13

module, one of a series of units designed and scaled tointegrate with others in different combinations to form,for example, a set of furnishings, a system ofconstruction, or whole buildings. In current usage, theterm is most often applied to mass-producedprefabricated units.

mohair, a specialty wool fiber. The most resilient of allnatural fibers, strong, and possessing a good affinity fordyes.

molding, an ornamental strip of wood or plaster thatprotrudes from a ceiling or wall surface.

monolithic construction, a system in which the majorpart of a structure consists of a single, self-supportingmass, usually of reinforced concrete, plastic orfiberglass.

mortar, cement, lime or plaster combined with sand andwater. When wet, the substance is moldable; it hardensto form the binding agent of masonry construction.

Munsell color system, a system of object colorspecification based on perceptually uniform color scaledfor the three variables: hue, value and chroma.

needle-punched fabric/needle felt, a nonwoven fabricin which webs of fibers are closely entangled by theaction of hundreds of barbed needles.

nonwoven fabric, a fabric which is either fibrous, butnot made in a loom, or non-fibrous, made directly from asolution. See needle-punched and spunbonded fabric.

nylon, the generic term (as well as trade name) for afamily of plastics exhibiting high tensile strength in fiberor sheet form. It has excellent abrasion resistance, andresiliency, retains appearance well. Fiber modificationsare antistatic, anti-soil, sunlight resistant, and flameretardant.

olefin, a plastic used for fiber and containermanufacturing. Advantages of olefin fibers include goodabrasion resistance, tenacity, excellent resiliency, gooddimensional stability, static resistant, and excellentresistance to most chemicals. It resists mildew andstains. Fiber modifications contribute to heat and lightstabilization. Often referred to as polypropylene.

Glossary G.14

open plan, an architectural plan organized with fewfixed partitions; provides maximum flexibility in the useof interior space.

orientation, arrangement, alignment, or position inrelation to other factors or elements.

oriented strand board, an industrial board productcomposed of wood chips created and bound specificallyto take advantage of their non-homogeneous nature toproduce a product with specific structural properties.

OSHA, (Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration), a federal regulatory agency in the U.S.Department of Labor with responsibilities of establishingoccupational safety and health standards, conductinginspections to see if standards are being observed, andinitiating enforcement actions whenever an employer isnot in compliance with these standards.

oxidation, a chemical process by which one materialcombines with oxygen to form a second (iron oxidizes toform rust).

paneling, thin, flat wooden boards or other similarlyrectangular pieces of construction material joined side byside to form an interior decorative surface for walls orceilings.

parquetry, inlay of wood that takes the form ofgeometric patterns; used primarily for floors andsometimes for tabletops.

particleboard, a mat-formed flat panel consisting ofparticles of wood bonded together with a synthetic resinor other suitable binder.

partition, a non-loadbearing subordinate wall betweentwo piers or other supporting members.

passive solar heating system, a technique of solarheating that uses parts of the building structure tocollect, store and distribute solar heat without pumps orfans.

patina, the sheen, color and texture of an object,produced by age, use, waxing, or design. On metal,patina is the film that develops from long exposure tothe atmosphere.

pattern, an artistic, decorative, usually repetitive design.

Glossary G.15

perceived object color, the color perceived to belong toan object, resulting from characteristics of the object, theincident light, the surround, the viewing direction, andobserver adaptation.

perspective, a system of realistic pictorial representationof objects and spaces in relative distance or depth. Theoptical effects perceived in viewing objects over adistance.

pile, the visible wear surface of carpet, consisting ofyarn tufts in loop and/or cut configuration; also calledface or nap.

pile weave, a fabric construction in which cut or uncutloops protrude from the ground cloth.

pile yarn, a yarn which forms the tuft of carpet; alsocalled face yarn.

pill, the tendency of staple fibers to be shed from somefabrics and to form small tufts or balls on the face of thefabric.

plain slice, a method of cutting a log parallel to a planethrough its center which produces a vaulted or cathedral-like grain.

plan, the configuration of spaces and rooms, walls andopenings in an architectural structure; also, the graphicrepresentation of such an arrangement.

plane, a two-dimensional expanse; a flat surface.

plaster, a paste, usually of lime, sand, and water, whichhardens as it dries. Often used as a finish for interiorwall and ceiling surfaces.

plastic, a malleable, ductile material. More specifically,a member of any of the several families of syntheticpolymer substances.

plenum, that space between ceiling and structure wheremechanical and electrical components are typically run.In some instances the plenum itself may serve as a sortof superduct for air returning to the mechanical systemfrom the volume beneath the ceiling.

plumbing, the system of pipes which carries water andsewage within a building.

Glossary G.16

plush carpet, a smooth carpet surface texture in whichindividual tufts are minimally visible and the overalleffect is that of a single level of fiber ends.

ply, a single thickness, layer or strand.

plywood, a composite sheet of laminated veneers, someor all of which are made of wood, with the grain ofadjacent strata arranged at perpendicular angles forincreased strength.

pocket door, a door that opens by sliding into a pocket.

polished, smooth and glossy.

polyester, a synthetic fiber with excellent strength, goodabrasion resistance, and which resists wrinkling.Characterized by permanent body. Fiber modificationscontribute to pill resistance, antistatic, and flameretardancy.

polyethylene, a group of lightweight, flexible plasticscharacterized by a waxy surface and resistance tochemicals and moisture but not high temperatures.

polypropylene, a family of plastics which are resistantto water-borne but not oil-borne staining.

polystyrenes, a family of rigid, transparent-to-opaqueplastics that are durable, capable of accepting variedfinishes, and possessed of good insulation properties.

porcelain, high-grade, translucent white ceramicwarefixed at extremely high temperatures; most common infine dishes and ornaments, but having many industrialapplications, such as plumbing fixtures electricalinsulators, and tiles.

portable luminaire, table or floor lamp, or wall unit,which is not permanently connected to the electricalpower supply.

prefabricate, to mass-produce standardized constructionparts or modules for later assembly and/or combination.

primary backing, a component of tufted carpetconsisting of woven or nonwoven fabric into which pileweave tufts are inserted by the tufting needles.

primer, a coating that is applied before any other finishtreatment to seal the pores in or otherwise prepare asurface to be treated.

Glossary G.17

printing, as applied to textiles (fabric, carpet, etc.), theapplication of dyes according to a selective pattern tocreate a design by such methods as woodcut, silk screen,tie-dye, or injection.

problem statement, a brief statement identifying adesign project according to its purpose, location andclient.

programming, the research phase of design whichdetermines the objectives and requirements of a designproject.

proportion, the relation of parts to each other or to thewhole in terms of magnitude, quantity, or degree.

proxemics, the study of human interaction with spaceand of personal and cultural spatial needs.

PVC, (polyvinyl chloride), a tough, moldablethermoplastic used in the manufacture of plumbing pipesand furniture.

quality of lighting, distribution of luminance in a visualenvironment with regard to visual performance, visualcomfort, ease of seeing, safety and aesthetics for thespecific visual tasks involved.

rag rug, a plain weave rug woven with strips of fabric,historically rags or recycled clothing remnants.

ravel, to untwist or unweave.

rayon, a natural fiber made from cellulose which hasbeen chemically prepared. Soft hand, high moistureregain, smooth and soft fibers, good conductor of heatand static. Accepts durable press and dimensionalstability finishes. Disadvantages include poor resiliency,progressive shrinkage, and weakness, especially whenwet.

reflectance, the ratio of the light reflected by a surfaceor medium to the light incident upon it.

reflected glare, results from specular reflections of highcontrast from polished or glossy surfaces in the field ofview.

reflection, the process by which light or sound leaves asurface from the incident side.

Glossary G.18

refraction, the change in direction or propagation of asound or light wave due to a change in the velocityoccurring when a change in materials, a thermal gradientor a wind velocity gradient is encountered.

regain, a measure of the recovery of moisture lost to theatmosphere through drying.

reinforced concrete, concrete embedded beforehardening with steel rods that lend the material a tensilestrength far beyond its original capacity.

rendering, a pictorial representation of a proposeddesign, usual in perspective and full color.

renovate, to restore condition by rebuilding, repairing orcleaning.

restore, to renew or return to an original state orcondition.

retrofit, to fit with new parts or equipment not availableat the time of initial construction or production.

reverberation, a sound effect similar to that of acontinuous echo.

rheostat, a device used to control the intensity of lightemitted by a luminaire through control of the voltage orcurrent available to it.

riser, the individual vertical faces of a stair. Thecollection of ducts or pipes which provide verticaltransport of air or water through a building.

r-value, the thermal resistance of a material. A higher r-value indicates greater resistance.

rya rug, a deep shag-like rug handknotted with abstract,contemporary patterns, from Scandinavia.

sandblast, abrasive cleaning with sand moved by an airjet.

sash curtain, a semi-sheer fabric gathered or shirredonto rods at top and bottom and hung onto a windowsash.

scale, dimension relative to a standard or to a familiarreference.

schedule, a table that indicates the finish material usedon floors, walls, and ceilings, or lists types of doors andwindows.

Glossary G.19

schematic design drawings, quick initial drawings usedto generate or show ideas.

seasoning, to bring to the proper state for use, as inseasoning wood by drying.

secondary backing, a woven or nonwoven fabricreinforcement laminated to the back of tufted carpet foradded strength and stability.

shade, a low-value or dark color produced by addingblack to a hue. A cover for window or lamp to controllight distribution.

silk, the only natural continuous filament fiber. Silk fiberis harvested from the cocoon of the silk worm. Silkfabric is highly valued for its strength, hand and luster.

simultaneous contrast, the accentuation of differencesbetween the hue, value, and intensity of colors due toadjacent or background colors.

sisal, a natural plant fiber; smooth, straight, and yellow.May be used by itself or in blends with wool and acrylicfor a softer bond. Sisal is used in wall coverings,especially in heavy-duty commercial applicationsbecause of its durability and ease of application to avariety of surfaces.

soffit, a dropped horizontal surface.

space plan, a drawing which shows the arrangement offunctional elements within an area.

space planning, the functional planning of interiorspace; a design specialty which concentrates onestablishing space needs and utilization in the earlystages of design.

spall, the breaking away of a surface due to mechanicalaction within the material itself such as thermalexpansion.

specification, the criteria of minimum durability, costand safety requirements of finished materials; all of theinformation necessary for the construction of custom-made items.

specular angle, that angle between the perpendicularsurface and the reflected ray. It is numerically equal tothe angle of incidence.

Glossary G.20

specular reflection, that process by which incident fluxis redirected without diffusion.

specular surface, shiny or glossy surface (includingmirror and polished metals) from which the reflection ispredominantly specular.

spunbonded, fabric manufactured by a nonwovenmethod in which fibers are deployed in a near-randomfashion and bound by chemical or thermal means.

spunlaced, see spunbonded.

standpipe, station pipe for use by a fire department toallow connection of a pumper truck to the outside of abuilding for delivery of water to hose stations on theinterior of the building.

stipple, to decorate by repeated touching as in dots.

structural plan, a drawing, the primary purpose ofwhich is to show the means of supporting a thing.

substrate, the underlying or supporting layer.

surface-mounted unit, a luminaire mounted directly onthe ceiling.

temper, to harden a material (metal or glass) through aspecific process of heating and cooling, thereby releasinginternal stresses created during the forming process.

tenacity, resistance to tearing.

tensile strength, the capacity to resist breaking ortearing apart under longitudinal stress.

terrazzo, a polished concrete flooring traditionally madeof crushed marble and cement.

textile, a fiber construction; technically, a woven fabric.

texture, tactile surface quality, perceived directlythrough touch or indirectly through vision.

thermoplastic, a material that softens with applicationof heat and hardens again when cooled.

thermoset, an irreversible property of a substance that isattained by application of heat to change the chemistry ofthe substance, thereby making it firm.

Glossary G.21

tile, stone, concrete, or ceramic pieces, flattened and/orcurved, used for roofing as well as wall, ceiling and floorcovering. Also, thin modules of cork, vinyl, or otherresilient material used primarily to protect and enhanceinterior walls, floors, and ceilings.

tip-shear carpet, a carpet texture created by shearingeither level loop or high-low loop carpet lightly so thatonly the higher filaments within the loops are sheared.

torchere, an indirect floor lamp directing all, or nearlyall, of the luminous flux upward.

track, an electrical raceway permitting the flexible useand placement of various types of luminaries along itslength.

transformer, an electrical device for convertingelectrical potential.

translucent, able to transmit light, but not form.

traverse rod, a rod that uses carriers, pulleys, and cordsto draw draperies open and closed.

tread, the individual run, or horizontal distance from theface of one riser to the next, in a flight of stairs

trevira, a polyester in which resistance to matting andcrushing has been enhanced by autoclaving or heatsetting the fibers.

tuft bind, a measure of the effort required to remove acarpet tuft from its primary backing.

tufting, a method of carpet construction which utilizeshundreds of needles to push pile yarns through apreviously constructed primary backing sheet, formingloops or tufts of yarn which may be left uncut, cut, orselectively sheared to form a variety of surface textures,or by which high-low loops and sculptured effects can becreated.

twisting, the winding of two or more strands of fiber oryarn together to make a single multiple-ply yarn.

UBC, (Uniform Building Code), a set of specificationsprepared by the International Conference of BuildingOfficials regulating materials and methods used inconstruction and establishing consistent standards toassure healthy, safe and sanitary conditions.

Glossary G.22

universal design, appropriate to people of all ages,abilities, and sizes.

upholstery, a soft covering of fabric on seating units,sometimes but not necessarily over padding, stuffingand/or springs.

urethane, lightweight, cellular plastic capable ofassuming nearly any density and thus any hardness fromresilient to rigid. Urethane can be sprayed as surfacecoating, preformed as cushioning and insulation, or castto form rigid components.

utility core, a central space or unit, sometimesprefabricated, that contains all service elements,including bathrooms, heating, air conditioning, and thelike.

vacuum-formed, a plastic formed in a mold in which allof the air is drawn out to form a vacuum that forces theplastic around the mold.

valance, a decorative fabric heading at the top of awindow.

value, the attribute of perceived color by which it seemsto transmit or reflect a greater or lesser fraction of thelight incident upon it.

vaulted ceiling, a ceiling constructed as an extendedarch, often semicylindrical in form (a barrel vault).Intersecting arches produce a groin vault; a ribbed vaultreveals the framework of arched ribs.

vehicle, the carrying liquid of a suspension such as paint.

veiling reflection, partially or totally obscures thedetails to be seen by reducing the contrast.

velvet, a fabric covered with a close, short, fine, densenap or pile.

venal structure, of or similar to the branching vesselswhich carry nutrients though living things.

vinyl, a versatile family of strong, lightweight plasticsavailable in flexible, rigid, molded, film, foam, andcellular forms.

viscose, a fiber manufactured from chemically treatedcellulose.

Glossary G.23

visual comfort probability, (VCP), the rating of alighting system expressed as a percentage of people who,when viewing from a specified location and in aspecified direction, will be expected to find it acceptablein terms of discomfort glare.

visual field, the sum of objects or points in space whichcan be perceived when the head and eyes are kept fixed.

visual surround, all portions of the visual field exceptthe visual task.

visual task, those details and objects which must beseen for the performance of a given activity, includingthe immediate background of details or objects.

visual weight, the effect of visual impact regardless ofactual weight, determined in part by color, texture andpattern.

vitrify, to convert into glass by fusion; typically by heat.

VOC, (Volatile Organic Compounds), a gaseous,sometimes harmful by-product of the curing process ofsome paints or adhesives.

wafer board, a course-grained, rough-faced industrialboard product, composed of wood flakes and adhesive;easily cut, but not intended for finish work.

warp, the lengthwise yarns of a fabric, running throughthe loom, parallel to the edges of the run of fabric. Thetwist of an element away from its intended positioncaused by internal stresses due to changes in temperatureor moisture.

weaving, the process of interlacing two or more sets ofyarns, usually at right angles to each other, to maketextiles.

weft, woven fabric. Also woof, the threads on a wovenfabric which cross the warp.

Wilton, a specific weave of carpet in which yarns ofdifferent colors are raised in loops to form a pattern,after which the loops are cut to form a diverse plus pile.

woof, the threads on a woven fabric which cross thewarp.

working drawings, the final drawings that are used toobtain bids for and construct a design.

Glossary G.24

workplane, the plane at which work is done and onwhich illuminance is specified and measured. Unlessotherwise indicated, this is assumed to be a horizontalplane 0.76 m (30 in.) above the floor.

Bibliography

Bibliography B.1

BibliographyAmericans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Washington,D.C.: U.S. Architectural & Transportation BarriersCompliance Board, 1991.

Architectural Woodwork Quality Standards. Centreville,VA: The Architectural Woodwork Institute, 1994.

Arnheim, Rudolph. Art & Visual Perception: APsychology of the Creative Eye. Berkeley, CA:University of California Press, 1974.

Arnheim, Rudolph. Parables of Sun Light: Observationon Psychology, the Arts and the Rest. Berkeley, CA:University of California Press, 1989.

Bevlin, Marjorie E. Design through Discovery anIntroduction to Art and Design. 5th ed. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1989.

BOCA Basic/National Building Code. Country ClubHills, IL: Building Officials and Code AdministratorsInternational, Inc., 1984.

Boylan, Bernard. Lighting Primer. Ames, IA: Iowa StateUniversity Press, 1987.

Ching, Francis D.K. Architectural Graphics. New York:Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.

Ching, Francis D.K. Architecture Space & Form &Order. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979.

Ching, Francis D.K. Building Construction Illustrated.New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975.

Ching, Francis D.K. Interior Design Illustrated. NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1987.

Calloway, Stephen. The Elements of Style: A PracticalEncyclopedia of Interior Architectural TwentiethCentury Decoration. New York: Rizzoli, 1988.

Farren, Carole E. Planning and Managing InteriorProjects. Kingston, MA: R.S. Means Company, Inc.,1988.

Freifeld, Roberta. Space Planning. Washington, D.C.:Special Libraries Association, 1991.

Garstein, A.S. The How-To Handbook of Carpets. NewYork: The Carpet Training Institute, 1979.

Bibliography B.2

Graf, Don. Basic Building Data. 3rd ed. New York:Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.

Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City,NJ: Doubleday & Co./Anchor Book, 1990.

Harrigan, J.E. Human Factors Research: Methods andApplications for Architects and Interior Designers. NewYork: Elsevier Dutton, Inc., 1987.

Heschong, Lisa. Thermal Delight in Architecture.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1979.

Karlen, M. Space Planning Basics. New York: VanNostrand Reinhold, 1992.

Knackstedt, Mary V. The Interior Design BusinessHandbook. 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,1992.

Laseau, Paul. Graphic Thinking for Architects andDesigners. 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,1989.

Laseau, Paul. Lighting Handbook: Reference &Application. 8th ed. New York: IlluminatingEngineering Society of North America, 1993.

McGuiness, William; Stein, Ben M; and Reynolds,Frederick H. Mechanical and Electrical Equipment forBuilding. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1986.

Muller, Edward. Architectural Drawing and LightConstruction. 3rd ed. Old Tappen, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1985.

NFPA 101 Life Safety Code. Quincy, MA: National FireProtection Association, 1994.

Nuckolls, James L. Interior Lighting for EnvironmentalDesigners. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,1983.

Panero, Julius and Zelnick, Martin. Human Dimensionsand Interior Space. New York: Whitney Library ofDesign/Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc. 1979.

Pile, John. Interior Design. New York: Harry N.Abrams, Incorporated, 1988.

Pile, John. Open Office Planning: A Handbook forInterior Designers and Architects. New York: Whitney

Bibliography B.3

Library of Design/Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc.,1986.

Ramsey, Charles George and Sleeper, Harold Reeve.Architectural Graphic Standards. 8th ed. New York:John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1988.

Raschko, Bettyann Boetticher. Housing Interiors for theDisabled and Elderly. New York: Van NostrandReinhold, 1982.

Reznikoff, Sivon C. Interior Graphic and DesignStandards. New York: Whitney Library ofDesign/Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc., 1986.

Reznikoff, Sivon C. Specifications for CommercialInteriors. New York: Whitney Library ofDesign/Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc., 1989.

Riggs, J. Rosemary. Materials and Components ofInterior Design. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989.

Shopsin, William C. Restoring Old Buildings forContemporary Uses: An American Sourcebook forArchitects and Preservationists. New York: WhitneyLibrary of Design/Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc.,1989.

Smith, Fran Kellogg and Bertolone, Fred J. BringingInteriors to Light: The Principles and Practices ofLighting Design for Interior Designers. New York:Whitney Library of Design/Watson-Guptill Publications,Inc., 1986.

Staebler, Wendy. Architectural Detailing in ContractInteriors. New York: Whitney Library ofDesign/Watson-Guptill Publications, Inc., 1988.

Standard Building Code. Birmington, AL: SouthernBuilding Code Congress International, Inc., 1991.

Sundstrom, Eric. Work Places: Psychology of thePhysical Environment in Offices & Factories.Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Uniform Building Code. Whittier, CA: InternationalConference of Building Officials, 1994.

Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Architectural & Transportation BarriersCompliance Board, 1988.

Bibliography B.4

Waier, Phillip R. 1993 Means Building ConstructionCost Data. 51st ed. Kingston, MA: R.S. MeansCompany, Inc., 1992.

Yeager, Jan. Textiles. New York: Harper & Row, 1988.

Zeisel, John. Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment -Behavior Research. Monterey, CA: Brooks/ColePublishing Co., 1981.

IInnddeexx II ..11

Index

A

Accessories, 7.10Acoustic ceilings systems, 6.11Acoustic, 5.5Aesthetics, 2.6Alarm systems, 5.20American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 4.9Analogous colors, 3.8Anthropometrics, 2.7Application guidelines, 6.31

for ceilings, 6.35for floors, 6.32for walls, 6.34

Applicability of the Design Guide for Interiors,AR 415-15, 1.2ER 1110-345-122, 1.2

Architectural systems, 5.1Architectural and Engineering Instructions,

Appendix A.2Army interior design process, Appendix A.1Army Regulation 415-15, Appendix A.2Art, 7.11Audio visual equipment, 7.10

B

Balance, 4.4Asymmetrical balance, 4.4Radial balance, 4.5Symmetrical balance, 4.4

Blinds, 7.6Brightness, 3.4Building systems and components, 5.1Building-related interior design, 1.2, Appendix A.9

C

Carpet, 6.12Backing systems:

Action-back, 6.16Padded backing, 6.17Primary backing, 6.16

IInnddeexx II ..22

Secondary Backing, 6.16Unitary backing, 6.16

Broadloom, 6.14Carpet tile, 6.14Cleaning, 6.17

Dry extraction, 6.20Dry foam, 6.20Hot water extraction, 6.20Wet shampoo, 6.20

Construction:Fusion bonded, 6.15Knit, 6.15Tufted, 6.14Woven, 6.15

Dye process:Piece-dyed, 6.13Skein-dyed, 6.13Solution-dyed, 6.13Yarn-dyed, 6.13

Face types:Cut and loop pile, 6.16Cut pile, 6.15Loop pile, 6.16Tip shear, 6.16

Installation methods:Direct Glue, 6.17Free Lay, 6.17Stretched, 6.17

Material:Nylon, 6.13Olefin, 6.13Wool, 6.13

Casegoods, 7.3Ceilings, 5.2Cellular floor systems, 5.22Ceramic tile, 6.10Chroma, 3.7Cognition, 2.3Color, 4.2Color fastness, 6.27Color harmonies, 4.3Color rendering index (CRI), 5.29Color retention, 6.27Color triad, 3.8Color wheel, 3.7

IInnddeexx II ..33

Communication, 2.5Communications systems, 5.19Complementary colors, 3.8Concept design, Appendix A.6Concrete, 6.1Construction and life safety, 5.5Contract furnishings, 7.1Contract seating, 7.1Contrast, 3.5Contrasting color schemes, 4.3Convection, 5.14Conventional casegoods, 7.3Cork, 6.11Correlated color temperature (CCT), 5.29Crowding, 2.2Custom casegoods, 7.5

Custom grade, 7.5Economy grade, 7.5Premium grade, 7.5

D

Data and communications, 5.19Data collection and programming, Appendix B.1Decorative accessories, 7.10Design, Appendix A.5Design directives, Appendix A.3

Code 1, Appendix A.3Code 2, Appendix A.3Code 3, Appendix A.3Code 4, Appendix A.4Code 5, Appendix A.4Code 6, Appendix A.4Code 9, Appendix A.4

Design services during construction and installation,Appendix A.9

Designing with light, 5.31Ambient, 5.31Direct 5.32Indirect, 5.32Task, 5.30

Desk/conference chairs, 7.2Active ergonomic, 7.2Passive ergonomic, 7.2

Developing a color scheme, 4.9

IInnddeexx II ..44

Dimensional stability, 6.27Direct glare, 3.5Directional signage, 7.8Doors, 5.4Drain pipes, 5.17

E

Electrical systems, 5.19Elements of design, 4.1Emphasis, 4.5Engineered wood products, 6.7Ergonomic design, 2.7

F

Fabric and textiles, 6.25Drapeability, 6.25Durability, 6.25Hand, 6.25Performance enhancers, 6.27

Acrylic backing, 6.28Foam backing, 6.28Paper backing, 6.28Spunbonding, 6.28

Treatments, 6.28Anti-microbial finishes, 6.30Flame-retardant coatings, 6.28Soil and stain repellents, 6.30Staph fluid barriers, 6.30Vinylized fabrics, 6.30

Types, 6.26Natural textiles, 6.26Synthetic textiles, 6.26

Weight, 6.25Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR), Appendix A.7Federal Prison Industries (FPI) UNICOR, Appendix A.8Fibers:

Continuous Filament, 6.12Staple Fibers, 6.12

Film-applied finishes, 6.21Final design, Appendix A.7Fire hose stations, 5.18Fire protection, 5.18Flat wire, 5.21Floors, 5.2

IInnddeexx II ..55

Fluorescent lamps and fixtures, 5.26, 5.30Compact fluorescent, 5.26Straight-linear fluorescent "T" lamps, 5.26

Flush door, 5.4Forced air, 5.14Form, 4.1Formal group, Appendix B.7Functional efficiency, 2.6Funding for Military Construction Projects,

Appendix A.4Furnishings, 1.3, 7.1Furniture, 7.1Furniture-related interior design, 1.2, Appendix A.9,Appendix A.10

G

Glass, 6.8Glare, 3.5General Services Administration (GSA) schedules,

Appendix A.7Granite, 6.2Group dynamics, 2.4

H

Hard window treatments, 7.6Hardwoods, 6.3Harmony, 4.5

Unity, 4.5Variety, 4.5

Hearing, 2.6Heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC), 5.12

Central air distribution systems, 5.13Central water distribution systems, 5.13Hybrid distribution systems, 5.14Local distribution systems, 5.14

High intensity discharge (HID) lamps and fixtures, 5.27, 5.30High pressure sodium (HPS), 5.30Metal halide, 5.28

Horizontal blinds, 7.6Hue, 3.6Human behavior and the interior environment, 2.1Human response to the interior environment, 2.4Humidity control, 5.15

IInnddeexx II ..66

HVAC system, (See Heating, ventilating and airconditioning)

I

Incandescent lamps and fixtures, 5.24Decorative - F, G, C, and B, 5.24General service - A, S, P, PS, and T, 5.24Low voltage, 5.25Reflector - R, ER, and PAR, 5.24Tungsten-halogen lamps, 5.25

Industrial composite boards, 6.7Medium density fiberboard, 6.7Oriented strand board, 6.7Wafer board, 6.7

Individual space, Appendix B.6Informal group space, Appendix B.7Informational signage, 7.8Initiation of design, Appendix A.5Installation Design Guide, Appendix A.11Institutional furnishings, 7.1Integral distribution systems, 5.21Interaction levels, 2.1Intimate space, 2.2

L

Lacquer, 6.23Laminated safety glass, 6.9Lamp types, 5.23Lamps and their effect on color, 5.29

Fluorescent, 5.30High intensity discharge, 5.30Incandescent, 5.30Tungsten-halogen, 5.30

Life safety and health concerns, 2.8Light and color, 3.1Light in relation to surface, 3.6Lighting, 5.23Lighting rules of thumb, 5.33Line, 4.1Linoleum, 6.11Lounge seating, 7.1

IInnddeexx II ..77

M

Maison Domino, 5.10Marble, 6.2Masonry, 6.1Materials, 6.1Matte reflection, 3.6Mechanical system, 5.12Metals, 6.2Military Construction Projects, Appendix A.4Millwork, 5.3Mobility, 2.7Modular casegoods, 7.3Multiple seating, 7.1

O

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),4.9

Open office, Appendix B.6Operations and Maintenance Projects, Appendix A.5Operations policy, Appendix A.11Overhead cable distribution systems, 5.20

P

Paint, 6.21Acrylic, 6.21Alkyds, 6.21Epoxy, 6.22Finishes:

Flat, 6.22Eggshell, 6.22High-gloss, 6.22Semi-gloss, 6.22

Latex, 6.21Oil-based, 6.21Water-based, 6.21

Paneling, 5.4Partition, 5.1Perception, 2.3Personal space, 2.2Perspective, 3.2Physiological determinants, 2.6Planning, Appendix B.5

IInnddeexx II ..88

Planning administrative work environments,Appendix B.1

Planning and programming, Appendix A.4Plants, 7.12Plastic, 6.7Plastic laminate, 6.8Plumbing, 5.16Poke-through electrical distribution systems, 5.22Porcelain tile, 6.10Power poles, 5.21Primary interior finish materials, 6.1Principles of design, 4.1, 4.4Privacy, 2.1Procurement, Appendix A.7Progression, 4.5Project engineering with parametric estimating,

Appendix A.6Proportion, 4.6Psychological determinants, 2.5Psychological human response, 2.3Public space, 2.2

Q

Quarry tile, 6.10

R

Radiant heat, 5.14Raised access flooring, 5.21Reflectance, 3.4Reflecting glare, 3.5Reflection, 3.6Regulatory signage, 7.8Related color schemes, 4.3Relative humidity, 5.15Reorganization and changing mission, Appendix A.11Repetition, 4.5Residential furnishings, 7.1Resilient flooring, 6.11Rhythm, 4.5Risers, 5.16Rubber, 6.12Running trim, 5.4

IInnddeexx II ..99

S

Scale, 4.6Secondary colors, 3.7Sedimentary stone, 6.2Semi-specular reflection, 3.6Shade, 3.7Shape, 4.1Sheet vinyl, 6.12Sick Building Syndrome, 5.15Side chairs, 7.1Signage/graphics, 7.8Social space, 2.2Sociological determinants, 2.4Sociological human need, 2.1Softwoods, 6.3Soil and stain repellents, 6.30Space, 4.2Spatial behavior, 2.3Spatial perception and definition, 3.2Specialty coatings, 6.22Specular reflection, 3.6Sprinkler systems, 5.17

Dry pipe, 5.17Wet pipe, 5.17

Stability, 2.6Stain, 6.23Stain resistance, 6.27Standard designs, Appendix A.3Standing trim, 5.4Standpipes, 5.18Static-conductive tiles, 6.12Static electricity, 5.15Stile and rail doors, 5.5Stone, 6.2

Igneous, 6.2Metamorphic, 6.2

Structural systems, 5.10Systems furniture, 7.4

T

Team space, Appendix B.7Terrazzo, 6.10Territoriality, 2.2Tertiary colors, 3.7

IInnddeexx II ..1100

Texture, 4.2Textile characteristics, 6.27Textile wallcoverings, 6.24The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

(IESNA), 3.4Tile, 6.10Traps, 5.17Trench duct, 5.22

U

Underfloor duct systems, 5.21User responsibilities, Appendix A.11

V

Value, 3.6Varnish, 6.23Ventilation, 5.15Vent, 5.17Vertical blinds, 7.6Vinyl composition tile (VCT), 6.11

Static-conductive, 6.12Vinyl wallcoverings, 6.24Vision, 2.6Visual privacy, 2.5Volatile organic compounds (VOC), 6.24Volume, 4.2

W

Wall board, 6.9Wallcovering, 6.24Wallpapers, 6.24Window treatment, 7.5

Cornices, 7.7Curtains, 7.6Draperies, 7.6Maintenance of, 7.8Sagging, 7.7Shades, 7.6Shrinkage, 7.7Valances, 7.7

Wire glass, 6.9Wood, 6.3

Dimensional sizes, 6.4

IInnddeexx II ..1111

Grading, 6.3Laminated, 6.4Nominal sizes, 6.4Plain sawn, 6.3Quarter sawn, 6.3Seasoning, 6.3Surfacing, 6.3Veneers, 6.4

Book matching, 6.6Plain slicing, 6.5Quarter sawn, 6.5Random matching, 6.7Rift cut, 6.6Rotary cut, 6.5Slip matching, 6.7

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