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Transcript of Development & Personality. Human Development Basic Developmental Questions Prenatal Development The...
Development & PersonalityDevelopment & Personality
Human DevelopmentHuman Development
Basic Developmental Questions
Prenatal Development
The Remarkable Newborn
The Infant and Growing Child
Adolescence
Adulthood and Old Age
Basic Developmental Basic Developmental QuestionsQuestions
Developmental Psychology–The study of how people grow, mature, and change over the life span
Two Major Ways to Conduct Research–Cross-sectional Studies
People of different ages are tested and compared
–Longitudinal StudiesThe same people are tested at different times to track changes related to age
Basic Developmental QuestionBasic Developmental QuestionDevelopmental Research Developmental Research
StrategiesStrategies
Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal DevelopmentThe Growing FetusThe Growing Fetus
Zygote– A fertilized egg that undergoes a two-week period
of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
Embryo– The developing human organism, from two weeks
to two months after fertilization
Fetus– The developing human organism, from nine
weeks after fertilization to birth
Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal DevelopmentThe Growing FetusThe Growing Fetus
Fertilization 30 Hours
6 weeks 4 months
Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal DevelopmentThe Growing Fetus:The Growing Fetus:TTeratogenseratogens
Toxic substances that can harm the embryo or fetus during prenatal development – Malnutrition– Viral Infections
AIDS, Rubella (German measles), and others
– X-rays, lead, and other environmental hazards– Drugs
Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome), Cigarettes, Cocaine, Aspirin, Marijuana, and other drugs both licit and illicit
The Remarkable NewbornThe Remarkable Newborn Ways to Study the Abilities of Ways to Study the Abilities of
NewbornsNewbornsHabituation
–The tendency for attention to a stimulus to wane over time (often used to determine whether an infant has “learned” a stimulus
Recovery–Following habituation to one stimulus, the tendency for a second stimulus to arouse new interest (often used to test whether infants can discriminate between stimuli)
The Remarkable NewbornThe Remarkable Newborn Reflexes Reflexes
Grasping Reflex– In infants, an automatic tendency to grasp
an object that stimulates the palm
Rooting Reflex– In response to contact on the cheek, an
infant’s tendency to turn toward the stimulus and open its mouth
The Remarkable NewbornThe Remarkable NewbornSensory CapacitiesSensory Capacities
Visual Preferences in NewbornsVisual Preferences in Newborns Infants spend more time
looking at patterns than solids.
Infants spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face.
Is this just preference for complexity or an adaptation?
The Remarkable NewbornThe Remarkable NewbornSensory CapacitiesSensory Capacities
Newborn Orientation to the FaceNewborn Orientation to the Face
Infants were shown a blank shape, a face, or scrambled facial features.– The face and scrambled face
have same complexity.
Infants looked more intensely at the actual face.
The Remarkable NewbornThe Remarkable Newborn Sensory CapacitiesSensory Capacities
Newborn ImitationNewborn Imitation
Babies sometimes mimic gestures made by others who are within sight.– Sticking tongue out of
mouth– Moving head side to side
The Remarkable NewbornThe Remarkable NewbornSensitivity to NumberSensitivity to Number
Can Infants Add and Subtract?Can Infants Add and Subtract? Infants saw a sequence
of events that illustrated addition or subtraction.
Then they saw a correct or incorrect outcome (2-1=2, for example).
The infant looked longer at outcomes that were incorrect.
The Infant and Growing ChildThe Infant and Growing ChildBiological DevelopmentBiological Development
The Developing BrainThe Developing Brain
The Infant and Growing ChildThe Infant and Growing ChildCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Piaget’s TheoryPiaget’s TheorySchemas
– In Piaget’s theory, mental representations of the world that guide the processes of assimilation and accommodation
– Assimilation The process of incorporating and, if necessary, changing new
information to fit existing schemas
– Accommodation The process of modifying existing schemas in response to new
information
The Infant and Growing ChildThe Infant and Growing ChildCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Changing Schemas of the EarthChanging Schemas of the Earth
From preschool through about the 5th grade, children gradually assimilate and then accommodate their schemas to form an accurate representation of the earth’s shape. Preschool
5th grade
The Infant and Growing Child The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Piaget’s Stages of DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of DevelopmentStages of Development
– Each stage is qualitatively different from others– Ages for stage transitions are approximate– Sensorimotor– Preoperational– Concrete Operational– Formal Operational
The Infant and Growing Child The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Piaget’s StagesPiaget’s Stages
The Infant and Growing Child The Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Separation AnxietySeparation Anxiety Separation anxiety is a
fear reaction in response to the absence of the primary caregiver.
It is seen in all cultures. It corresponds with the
development of object permanence and the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.
The Infant and Growing ChildThe Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Tasks Used to Test ConservationTasks Used to Test Conservation
The ability to conserve marks the transition from the preoperational stage to the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
The Infant and Growing ChildThe Infant and Growing Child Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Speed of Inf. ProcessingSpeed of Inf. Processing
Response times decrease from 7 - 12 years of age– Consistent across several different types of tasks
This may be due to the biological maturation of the brain– Increased myelination of axons which speeds up neural processing
The Infant and Growing ChildThe Infant and Growing ChildSocial DevelopmentSocial Development
The Parent-Child RelationshipThe Parent-Child RelationshipCritical Period
– A period of time during which an organism must be exposed to a certain stimulus for proper development to occur
Attachment– A deep emotional bond that an infant
develops with its primary caretaker
The Infant and Growing Child The Infant and Growing Child Social DevelopmentSocial DevelopmentStyles of AttachmentStyles of Attachment
Strange Situation Test– A parent-infant “separation and reunion” procedure
that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child’s attachment
Secure Attachment– The baby is secure when the parent is present,
distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion.
Insecure Attachment– The baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and
reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.
AdolescenceAdolescenceAdolescence
–The period of life from puberty to adulthood, corresponding roughly to the ages of 13 to 20
Puberty–The onset of adolescence, as evidence by rapid growth, rising levels of sex hormones, and sexual maturity
Menarche–A girl’s first menstrual period
Adolescence: Adolescence: PubertyPubertyAdolescent Growth SpurtAdolescent Growth Spurt
At about age 13 for girls, 16 for boys, there is a final maturational growth spurt in height.
Adolescence: Adolescence: PubertyPubertyThe Timing of Puberty and Body Images The Timing of Puberty and Body Images
in Girlsin Girls
Girls who mature earlier than their peers are usually less satisfied with their size, weight, and figure.
Adolescence: Adolescence: PubertyPubertyThe Timing of Puberty and Body The Timing of Puberty and Body
Images in BoysImages in Boys
Boys who mature later than their peers have negative body images, but they are only temporary.
AdolescenceAdolescenceCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningKohlberg’s Stages of Moral ReasoningMoral Reasoning: The way people think
and try to solve moral dilemmas. – Preconventional Level
Morality judged in terms of reward and punishment
– Conventional Level Morality judged in terms of social order and approval
– Postconventional Level Morality judged in terms of abstract principles, like
equality and justice
AdolescenceAdolescenceCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Dev. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Dev. Most 7-10 year olds are
reasoning at the preconventional level.
Most 13-16 year olds are reasoning at the conventional level.
Few participants show reasoning indicative of the postconventional level.
AdolescenceAdolescenceCognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s TheoryCriticisms of Kohlberg’s TheoryCultural Bias
– Some cultural differences are not reflected in this theory.
Gender Bias– Empirical support for this claim is weak.
Connection between moral reasoning and moral behavior is often indirect.
AdolescenceAdolescenceSocial and Personal DevelopmentSocial and Personal Development
Adolescent DisengagementAdolescent Disengagement
The proportion of time spent with the family decreases almost 3% per year
This decline was not found for time spent alone with parents
Identity Crisis– An adolescent’s struggle to
establish a personal identity, or self-concept
AdolescenceAdolescenceSocial and Personal DevelopmentSocial and Personal Development
Adolescents in the 7th and 8th grades felt worse while with their family.
Boys feel better after 8th grade and feel the best in 9th and 10th grades.
Girls continue to feel bad until the 10th grade.
Patterns of Adolescent “Transformation” Within the Family
AdolescenceAdolescenceSocial and Personal Social and Personal
DevelopmentDevelopmentPeer Influences
– Adolescent relationships are intimate.– Adolescents begin to discover friendships with
other-sex peers. – Conformity rises steadily with age, peaks in
ninth grade, and then declines.
AdolescenceAdolescenceSocial and Personal Social and Personal
DevelopmentDevelopmentSexuality
– Whether teens act on sexual impulses depends on social factors.
– Adolescents who engage in sexual behavior with others are not necessarily informed about health risks and contraception .
– Adolescent sexual behavior may be due to attempts to be more like an adult or as a way to rebel.
AdolescenceAdolescenceAdolescence and Mental HealthAdolescence and Mental Health
The stereotypic images of adolescents are:– Mood swings, identity crises, anxiety, rebelliousness,
depression, drug use, and suicide
Three perceived sources of difficulty in adolescence are:– Conflict with parents, risk-taking behavior, and mood
disruption
Conflict with parents and risk-taking do occur, but the idea that adolescents are in a state of distress is exaggerated.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgePhysical Changes in AdulthoodPhysical Changes in Adulthood
Life Span– The maximum age possible for members of a
given species.
Life Expectancy– The number of years that an average
member of a species is expected to live.
Menopause– The end of menstruation and fertility.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual FunctionsAging and Intellectual Functions
Memory and Forgetting – Cognitive abilities do not inevitably decline. – Some elderly may show declines on free-recall
tasks, however declines on tests of recognition memory are less likely.
– Memory declines may be due to impairments in sensory acuity and a slowing of neuronal processing.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual FunctionsAging and Intellectual Functions
The Alzheimer’s ProblemThe Alzheimer’s Problem Alzheimer’s Disease
– A progressive brain disorder that strikes older people, causing memory loss and other symptoms.
In the U.S., the projected number of Alzheimer’s patients is 14 million in 2050.
The cost is at least $100 billion per year.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual FunctionsAging and Intellectual Functions
Age Trends in IntelligenceAge Trends in Intelligence Fluid intelligence, which
includes inductive reasoning and spatial ability, declines steadily throughout middle and late adulthood.
Crystallized intelligence, which includes verbal ability and numeric ability, remains stable into the 70’s.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeAging and Intellectual FunctionsAging and Intellectual Functions
Timed vs. Untimed Vocabulary TestsTimed vs. Untimed Vocabulary Tests
Some abilities are less affected by age than are others. Scores declined only in the timed test.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal DevelopmentSocial and Personal Development
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development - IDevelopment - I
Trust vs. Mistrust– Infancy (0-1 year)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt– Toddler (1-2 years)
Initiative vs. Guilt– Preschool (3-5 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority– Elementary School (6-12 years)
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal DevelopmentSocial and Personal Development
Erikson’s Stages of Development - IIErikson’s Stages of Development - II Identity vs. Role confusion
– Adolescence (13-19 years)
Intimacy vs. Isolation– Young adulthood (20-40 years)
Generativity vs. Stagnation– Middle adulthood (40-65 years)
Integrity vs. Despair– Late adulthood (65 and older)
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal DevelopmentSocial and Personal Development
Life SatisfactionLife Satisfaction
In multiple cultures, 75-80% say they are satisfied with life.
Ratings of life satisfaction do not vary with age.
Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin ©2004 Prentice Hall
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeSocial and Personal Dev.Social and Personal Dev.
Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem
Self-esteem is highest in childhood.
It drops sharply during adolescence.
It increases gradually during adulthood, peaks in the sixties, and declines in old age.
Adulthood and Old AgeAdulthood and Old AgeDying and DeathDying and Death
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross proposed five stages in approaching death:– Denial (“It must be a mistake.”)– Anger (“It isn’t fair!”)– Bargaining (“Let me live longer and I’ll be a better
person.”)– Depression (“ I’ve lost everything important to me.”)– Acceptance (“What has to be, has to be.”)
Not everyone follows this sequence through the stages and all people do not experience all stages.
PersonalityPersonality
Psychoanalysis
The Cognitive Social-Learning Approach
The Humanistic Approach
The Trait Approach
PersonalityPersonality
The word comes from the Latin persona, meaning “mask.”
Personality– An individual’s distinct and relatively
enduring pattern of thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Freud’s Theory of PersonalityFreud’s Theory of Personality
Psychoanalysis– Freud’s theory of personality and method of psychotherapy, both of which assume that our motives are largely unconscious
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Freud’s Theory of PersonalityFreud’s Theory of Personality The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Freud’s Theory of PersonalityFreud’s Theory of Personality
The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality
Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle – Primitive and unconscious, hidden from view– Contains basic drives
Ego: Operates according to the reality principle– Mediates the conflict between id and superego
Superego: Consists of moral ideals and conscience
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis The Structure of PersonalityThe Structure of Personality
Pleasure Principle: – In psychoanalysis, the id’s boundless drive
for immediate gratification
Reality Principle– In psychoanalysis, the ego’s capacity to delay
gratification
PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysisPsychosexual DevelopmentPsychosexual Development
Psychosexual Stages– Freud’s stages of personality development during
which pleasure is derived from different parts of the body
– Oral (the first year of life)– Anal (ages 2-3)– Phallic (ages 4-6)
When Oedipus complex and identification occur
– Latency period (ages 7-12)– Genital (starting at puberty)
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis The Psychodynamics of The Psychodynamics of
PersonalityPersonality
Unconscious sexual and aggressive urges find acceptable forms of expression.
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis The Dynamics of PersonalityThe Dynamics of Personality
To minimize the anxiety due to the conflict between the id and the superego, the ego uses defense mechanisms.– Unconscious methods of minimizing anxiety by denying
and distorting reality– Repression (forgetting)– Denial (ignoring)– Projection (attributing to others)– Reaction Formation (converting to its opposite)– Rationalization (making excuses)– Sublimation (channeling into acceptable outlets)
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Freud’s LegacyFreud’s Legacy
Neo-Freudian TheoristsNeo-Freudian TheoristsCarl Jung
– Proposed the idea of a Collective Unconscious A kind of memory bank that stores images and
ideas that humans have accumulated over the course of evolution
Alfred Adler– Proposed the idea of the inferiority complex
and the notion that social conflicts are important in the development of personality.
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Freud’s LegacyFreud’s Legacy
Neo-Freudian TheoristsNeo-Freudian TheoristsLater generations considered themselves
classical Freudians or expanded psychoanalysis in two directions.– One direction focused on social relationships.– The other direction enlarged the role of the ego.
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Projective Personality TestsProjective Personality Tests
Projective Tests– Allow people to “project” unconscious needs,
wishes, and conflicts onto ambiguous stimuli
– RorschachA test in which people are asked to report what
they see in a set of inkblots
– Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)A test in which people are asked to make up
stories from a set of ambiguous pictures
Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test
Sample Item– Tell a story of what is
happening in the picture
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Current Perspectives on Current Perspectives on
PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysisThere are three major criticisms of
psychoanalysis:– The theory’s portrait of human nature is too
bleak. – The theory does not meet acceptable scientific
standards.– Research fails to support many of its
propositions.
Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis Current Perspectives on Current Perspectives on
PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis
Two enduring aspects of the theory remain influential:– The view of the mind as an iceberg (i.e., the
importance of the unconscious). – The analysis of defense mechanisms, which is
supported throughout psychology in studies of attention, thinking, feeling, etc.
The Cognitive The Cognitive Social-Learning ApproachSocial-Learning Approach
Cognitive Social-Learning Theory– An approach to personality that focuses on social learning (modeling), acquired cognitive factors (expectancies, values), and the person-situation interaction
The Cognitive Social-Learning The Cognitive Social-Learning Approach Approach
Principles of Learning and BehaviorPrinciples of Learning and BehaviorClassical ConditioningOperant Conditioning Stimulus GeneralizationDiscrimination Extinction
The Cognitive Social-Learning The Cognitive Social-Learning Approach Approach
Social-Learning TheorySocial-Learning Theory Modeling– The social-learning process by which behavior is
observed and imitated Locus of Control
– The expectancy that one’s reinforcements are generally controlled by internal or external factors
Self-Efficacy– The belief that one is capable of performing the
behaviors required to produce a desired outcome
The Cognitive Social-Learning The Cognitive Social-Learning Approach Approach
Perspectives on Cognitive Social Learning Perspectives on Cognitive Social Learning Theory Theory Reciprocal DeterminismReciprocal Determinism
Personality emerges from the mutual interactions of individuals, their actions, and their environments.
The Humanistic ApproachThe Humanistic Approach
Humanistic Theory– An approach to personality that focuses on the self, subjective experience, and the capacity for fulfillment
The Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Approach The Personality Theory of Carl The Personality Theory of Carl
RogersRogers
The Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Approach Rogers’ TheoryRogers’ Theory
Unconditional Positive Regard– The acceptance and love one receives from
significant others is unqualified
Conditional Positive Regard– The acceptance and love one receives from
significant others is contingent upon one’s behavior
The Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Approach Carl RogersCarl Rogers Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem
– A positive or negative evaluation of the self
Self-Schemas– Specific beliefs about the self that influence
how people interpret self-relevant information
The Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Approach Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem
Self-Discrepancy TheorySelf-Discrepancy Theory
According to this theory, self-esteem is defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves.
The Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Approach Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow
The State of Self-ActualizationThe State of Self-Actualization Csikszentmihalyi
studied this, based on Maslow’s writings.
A state of “flow” arises when engaging in activities demanding skill and challenge, but are not too difficult.
Flow, The Optimal Experience
The Humanistic Approach The Humanistic Approach Perspectives on the Humanistic Perspectives on the Humanistic
ApproachApproach
Praise for the Humanistic Approach– For the idea that people are inherently good– For placing importance on conscious mental experience– For the idea that the self-concept is the heart of
personality
Criticisms of the Humanistic Approach– For taking people’s self-report statements at face value– For being too optimistic about human nature and ignoring
human capacity for evil
The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachThe Building Blocks of The Building Blocks of
PersonalityPersonalityTrait
–A relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way
Five-factor Model– A model of personality that consists of five basic traits:
Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness,Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness
The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachConstruction of InventoriesConstruction of Inventories
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)Inventory (MMPI)
– A large scale test designed to measure a multitude of psychological disorders and personality traits
– Most widely used personality instrument– Now the MMPI - 2– Used in clinical and employment settings– Easy to administer and relatively objective– Caution should be used when interpreting the
responses of people from different cultures
The Trait ApproachThe Trait Approach MMPI Score Profile Showing Clinical ScalesMMPI Score Profile Showing Clinical Scales
The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachBiological Roots of PersonalityBiological Roots of Personality
The “Big Five” personality dimensions were measured in 168 pairs of identical twins and 132 pairs of fraternal twins.
Results suggest that personality differences in the population are 40 to 50% genetically determined.
The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachIntroversion and ExtraversionIntroversion and Extraversion
This is one of the most powerful dimensions of personality and is seen in infants, adults, and all over the world.
Extravert– A kind of person who seeks stimulation and is
sociable and impulsive
Introvert– A kind of person who avoids stimulation and is
low-key and cautious
The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachPerspectives: Do Traits Exist?Perspectives: Do Traits Exist?
Personality Consistency Across the LifespanPersonality Consistency Across the Lifespan
Evidence indicates that personality is least stable during childhood.
The consistency of personality increases with age.