DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTED OEDOMETER …
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DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTED OEDOMETER INCORPORATED WITH BENDER ELEMENT AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY MOHAMMED MANSOOR MOFREH GUBRAN A thesis submitted in fulfillment of requirement for the award of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Engineering Technology Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia April 2018
Transcript of DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTED OEDOMETER …
DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTED OEDOMETER INCORPORATED WITH
BENDER ELEMENT AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
MOHAMMED MANSOOR MOFREH GUBRAN
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of requirement for the award of
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Engineering Technology
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
April 2018
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Praised to Allah. Sincerely dedicated to my beloved parents, brothers and wife…
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Deep and humble gratitude to ALLAH Almighty for providing the opportunity and
giving me the strength to complete this work. I would like to express heartiest thanks
to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chan Chee Ming whose encouragement, guidance
and continuous support enabled me to carry out this research work. My appreciation
goes to technicians from Research Center for Soft Soil (RECESS) for their assistance.
I would like to extend my thanks to my family and colleagues for their support and
encouragement throughout my study.
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ABSTRACT
Soft soils are normally associated with high moisture content and fine-grained particles
possessing poor geotechnical properties such as low shear strength and high
compressibility. Solidification, using hydraulic binders could be adopted to improve
these poor properties. The compressibility of soil is quantified by the settlement
reduction due to the application of vertical load. Usually, the compressibility test is
conducted on undisturbed saturated soils using standardised oedometer. In this study,
an instrumented oedometer was developed by incorporating bender element
transducers and electrical conductivity probe to investigate and correlate the
compressibility, shear wave velocity (Vs) and electrical conductivity (EC)
characteristics of solidified dredged marine clay and refined kaolin. Ordinary Portland
cement was used at 5 %, 10 % and 15 % by dry weight of soil as a solidification agent.
All specimens were mixed at twice the liquid limit. Prior to testing, all solidified
specimens were cured for 7 days. It was found that Vs increased continuously with
further curing time whereas EC increased during the first day and decreased with
further curing. The compressibility was reduced and yield stress was developed as the
cement content increased. Vs and EC showed good correlation with applied stress
during the loading stage as the strain increased. For all loading stages, Vs increased
when the strain increased while EC decreased as the strain increased. Similarly, Vs,
EC and e showed good relationship as the vertical stress increased. These results
showed good relationship and strong correlations between the compressibility
parameters and Vs and EC measurements which give some insights on the
solidification mechanism and improvement of stiffness. These results also confirmed
that the instrumented oedometer incorporated with bender element and electrical
conductivity probes can be applied on soft soils to monitor the compressibility
behaviour at micro level. Moreover, the obtained relationships could be adopted in
numerical modelling as well design analysis of similar soils in situ.
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ABSTRAK
Tanah lembut lazim dikaitkan dengan kandungan lembapan yang tinggi dan zarah-
zarah tanah yang halus dengan sifat geoteknik yang lemah, yakni kekuatan ricih yang
rendah dan kebolehmampatan yang tinggi. Solidifikasi tanah dengan menggunakan
bahan tambah hidraulik boleh diaplikasikan untuk menambahbaik sifat tanah yang
lemah ini. Kebolehmampatan tanah dianggarkan melalui pengurangan enapan akibat
aplikasi beban tegak. Lazimnya, ujian pengukuhan dijalankan ke atas sampel tanah tak
terusik dengan alat oedometer piawai. Dalam kajian ini, sebuah oedometer yang
diubahsuai dengan menambah alat ‘bender elements’ dan proba kebolehaliran elektrik
telah dibangunkan untuk mengkaji hubungan di antara parameter kebolehenapan,
halaju gelombang ricih (Vs) serta kebolehaliran elektrik (EC) bagi tanah liat kerukan
marin dan kaolin yang disolidifikasikan. Simen Portland biasa ditambah sebagai bahan
pengikat pada kadar 5%, 10% dan 15% daripada jisim kering tanah. Semua spesimen
telah disediakan pada kandungan lembapan 2 kali ganda had cecair tanah. Sebelum
ujian dijalankan, spesimen dibiarkan untuk mengawet selama 7 hari. Adalah didapati
bahawa Vs meningkat secara berterusan dengan tempoh pengawetan, manakala EC
hanya meningkat pada hari pertama dan disusuli penurunan dengan pengawetan.
Kebolehenapan didapati menurun dan tegasan alah meningkat dengan penambahan
kandungan simen. Vs dan EC menunjukkan korelasi yang baik dengan tegasan yang
dikenakan semasa pembebanan dan peningkatan terikan. Untuk kesemua peringkat
pembebanan, Vs meningkat dan EC menurun dengan peningkatan terikan. Juga, Vs,
EC dan e menunjukkan korelasi yang baik dengan peningkatan tegasan tegak.
Keputusan yang diperolehi menggambarkan korelasi yang baik di antara parameter
kebolehenapan serta Vs dan EC, yang mencerminkan mekanisme solidifikasi dan
penambahbaikan sifat kekukuhan tanah tersebut. Keputusan ini juga mengesahkan
korelasi ini boleh juga digunapakai dalam menyediakan model numerikal serta reka
bentuk analisis tanah lembut serupa di tapak. Juga bahawa Oedometer yang diubahsuai
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dengan menambah alat “bender elements” dan proba keboleh aliran elektrik boleh
digunrakan ke atas tanah lembut untuk memantau kebolehenapan pada tahap mikro.
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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES i
1CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Problem statement 2
1.2 Objectives of the research 3
1.3 Scope of Research 4
1.4 Significance of Study 4
1.5 Thesis Layout 5
2CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Oedometer Test 6
2.1.1 Overview 6
2.1.2 Principle of Consolidation 7
2.1.3 Historical Development 8
2.1.4 Standard Oedometer Test 9
2.1.5 Modified Oedometer cells 10
2.2 Bender Element (BE) 16
2.2.1 BE System Design 16
2.2.2 Arrival Time Determination 18
2.2.3 Shear wave velocity (Vs) Mechanism (Propagation) 23
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2.2.4 Relationship Between Vs and Compressibility 26
2.3 Electrical Conductivity 28
2.4 One-Dimensional Consolidation Test 30
2.4.1 Effects of High Moisture Content 30
2.4.2 Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) 32
2.5 Treatment Effects on Compressibility 35
2.6 Mechanism of Cement Solidification 41
2.7 Curing Time Effects 44
2.8 Yield Stress 46
3CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 50
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Instrumented Oedometer Test 52
3.2.1 Bender Element 55
3.2.2 Electrical Conductivity 64
3.3 1-D Consolidation Test Preparation 66
3.4 Materials 67
3.4.1 Dredged Marine Soil 68
3.4.2 Kaolin 71
3.4.3 Cement 71
3.5 Characterisation Tests 72
3.5.1 Moisture Content (MC) 72
3.5.2 Particle Density 72
3.5.3 Particle Size Distribution (PSD) 73
3.5.4 Atterberg Limit (AL) 74
3.5.5 Loss of Ignition (LOI) 74
3.5.6 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) 74
4CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 75
4.1 Calibration of Instrumented Oedometer Cell 76
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4.1.1 Consolidation 76
4.1.2 Bender Element 78
4.1.3 Electrical Conductivity 78
4.2 Cement Effects on Curing Time 80
4.2.1 Moisture Content (MC) 80
4.2.2 Shear Wave Velocity (Vs) 82
4.2.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 85
4.3 Compressibility Behavior 87
4.3.1 Void ratio 87
4.3.2 Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv) 90
4.3.3 Coefficient of Volume Compressibility (Mv) 93
4.3.4 Compression Index 95
4.4 Yield Stress 96
4.5 Shear Wave Velocity 99
4.5.1 Relationship between ε and Vs with Time 99
4.5.2 Void Ratio (e) and S-Wave Velocity (Vs) 111
4.6 Electrical Conductivity 120
4.7 Correlation Parameters 127
4.7.1 Vs and EC during Curing 127
4.7.2 Vs and EC with ε-log t 129
4.7.3 Vs and EC with e-log σ’ 130
5CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 132
5.1 Summary 132
5.2 Recommendations for Further Studies 135
REFERENCES 136
6 APPENDIX 145
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Modified oedometers in previous studies 15
Table 2.2: Dynamic properties of tested organoclays 27
Table 2.3: Typical Cv of different soil clay 34
Table 2.4: Cv values of different soils using different methods 34
Table 2.5: Curing time for some previous studies for DMS 44
Table 2.6: Curing effects on initial water, Cs, Cc and yield stress of treated
DMS 45
Table 2.7: Yield stress of dredged soil from Chinese lake (L), marine (M) and
river sediment (R) 49
Table 3.1: Instrumented oedometer components 55
Table 3.2: GDSBEAT analysis parameters summary 63
Table 3.3: Specifications of EC probe 65
Table 3.4: Loading-unloading scheme 67
Table 3.5: Kaolin and DMS specimens 67
Table 3.6: Physical properties of Kuala Perlis DMS 69
Table 3.7: Mineral concentration in Kuala Perlis DMS 70
Table 3.8: Physical and chemical properties of Kaolin clay 71
Table 3.9: Typical chemical composition of the OPC 72
Table 4.1: Summary of the Vs in curing, yielding and post yield stages for all
specimens 117
Table 4.2: Coefficient of correlation (R) between the void ratio e, Vs, EC and
σ’ for kaolin 131
Table 4.3: Coefficient of correlation between the void ratio e, Vs and σ’ for
DMS 131
Table 5.1: Summarised relationships of the parameters 134
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Spring and piston analogy illustrating the principle of
consolidation 7
Figure 2.2: Standard oedometer cell 10
Figure 2.3 (a, b, c, d, e, f): Schematic diagrams for modified oedometers from
previous studies 12
Figure 2.4: (a) Typical components of BE (b) Series and (c) Parallel type
connection 17
Figure 2.5: Conventional BE setup 18
Figure 2.6: (a) Crosstalk (b) Vp interference (c) Peripheral electronics 20
Figure 2.7: Typical transmitted and received sinusoidal Vs wave. (1) first
deflection (2) first maximum (3) zero crossing (4) major peak 21
Figure 2.8: Vs second arrival time 22
Figure 2.9: Relationship between the Vs and resonant frequency 23
Figure 2.10: Source and receiver polarization 25
Figure 2.11: Primary and secondary wave propagation 25
Figure 2.12: Relationship between the Vs and solidified granular soil with
respect to effective stress 27
Figure 2.13: Relationship between void ratio (e), vertical effective stress σ’
(kPa) and electrical conductivity σ (mS/cm) on Ticino sand 30
Figure 2.14: Effects of initial moisture content on secondary clay 31
Figure 2.15: Effects of initial moisture content on natural clay 32
Figure 2.16: Relationship between MC and cement during curing time 35
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Figure 2.17: Compression curves of Ariake clay for 7 days curing at different
water content, initial w= 130% LL=120%, PL=57%, G= 2.61 36
Figure 2.18: Compression curves for Ennore (India) solidified DMS (LL=54
PL=30 ps=2.69 clay 57% sand 10% 37
Figure 2.19: Compression curves for Ouistreham (France) solidified DMS
(MC=120, LL=104, PL=38, LOI=7, Sand=25, clay=25) 38
Figure 2.20: e-log σ’ compression curve of solidified Port Taranto (Italy)
LOI=2.2-1, LL=55, PL=26 39
Figure 2.21: e-log σ’ curves for solidified clay at different MC (a) 5% (b)
10% and (c) 15%, LL=103 Pl=43 clay=69 sand= 3% 40
Figure 2.22: Cement-clay-water interrelated phases during stabilisation
process 42
Figure 2.23: Relationship between Vs and curing time of fresh cement mix 46
Figure 2.24: Yield stress determination following Casagrande graphical
method 47
Figure 2.25: Effects of the cement content and curing time on solidified DM 48
Figure 2.26: Preconsoildation stress of Busan specimen determined by (a)
Casagrande(b) Janbu (c) Becker (d) Sridharan (e) Ontisuka (f) Vs 48
Figure 3.1: Experimental program flowchart 51
Figure 3.2: Instrumented oedometer setup 53
Figure 3.3: Instrumented oedometer components 54
Figure 3.4: Source and receiver bender element transducers 56
Figure 3.5: BE system set up 56
Figure 3.6: Hardware option (interface 1) 57
Figure 3.7: Acquisition option wizard (interface 2) 58
Figure 3.8: Waveform, wave frequency and amplitude wizard (interface 3) 59
Figure 3.9: Time Domain Stacking and Trigger Type (interface 4) 59
Figure 3.10: Test display screen example 60
Figure 3.11: Data sheet format 61
Figure 3.12: Arrival time for different loading stages (15DMS) 62
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Figure 3.13: Interactive and batch travel time analysis 63
Figure 3.14: Frequency domain analysis 64
Figure 3.15: EC probe 65
Figure 3.16: Sampling locations of dredged marine sediments 68
Figure 3.17: Clamshell dredger 68
Figure 3.18: Stored DMS in RECESS laboratory 69
Figure 3.19: Kuala Perlis DMS particle size distribution (PSD) 70
Figure 4.1: e-log σ' of standard and IOC (calibration) 77
Figure 4.2 Mv- log σ' of standard and IOC (calibration) 77
Figure 4.3: Cv- log σ' of standard and IOC (calibration) 77
Figure 4.4: BE calibration 78
Figure 4.5: EC vs NaCl concentration 79
Figure 4.6: EC for DMS diluted with distilled water to reduce the salt
concentration 79
Figure 4.7: Moisture content reduction after mixing and curing against
cement content (a) kaolin (b) DMS 81
Figure 4.8: Relationship between Vs and elapsed curing time for solidified
Kaolin specimens 83
Figure 4.9: Relationship between Vs and elapsed curing time for solidified
DMS specimens 84
Figure 4.10: Effects of (a) cement content on the final Vs and (b) final MC on
the final Vs at the end of curing time 85
Figure 4.11: Curing effects on EC for solidified kaolin specimens 86
Figure 4.12: Initial void ratio for kaolin and DMS 88
Figure 4.13: Compression curves (e-log σ’) of kaolin specimens 89
Figure 4.14: Compression curves (e-log σ’) of DMS specimens 90
Figure 4.15: Coefficient of consolidation (Cv) of kaolin specimens 91
Figure 4.16: Coefficient of consolidation (Cv) of DMS specimens 92
Figure 4.17: Coefficient of volume compressibility (Mv) of kaolin specimen 93
Figure 4.18: Coefficient of volume compressibility (Mv) of DMS specimens 94
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Figure 4.19: Compression index of the kaolin and DMS specimens 95
Figure 4.20: Relationship between yield stress and cement content for kaolin
and DMS 97
Figure 4.21: Relationship between yield stress and Vs with cement content for
kaolin specimens 98
Figure 4.22: Relationship between yield stress and Vs with cement content for
DMS specimens 98
Figure 4.23: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for each loading stage
in 0DMS 103
Figure 4.24: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for loading stage in
5DMS 104
Figure 4.25: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for loading stages in
10DMS 105
Figure 4.26: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for loading stages in
15DMS 106
Figure 4.27: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for each loading stage
in 0K 107
Figure 4.28: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for each loading stage
in 5K 108
Figure 4.29: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for each loading stage
in 10K 109
Figure 4.30: Relationship between ε-log t and Vs-log t for each loading stage
in 15K 110
Figure 4.31: Relationship between e-log σ' and Vs-log σ' curves for kaolin 112
Figure 4.32: Maximum Vs at the end of the last stage (800 kPa) for kaolin
specimens 113
Figure 4.33: Vs-log σ' curves for 5K and 15K 114
Figure 4.34: e-log σ' curves for 5K and 15K 114
Figure 4.35: Relationship between e-log σ' and Vs-log σ' curves for DMS 117
Figure 4.36: Vs-log σ' curves for DMS 118
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Figure 4.37: Maximum Vs at the end of the last stage (800 kPa) for DMS
specimens 119
Figure 4.38: Comparison between the Vs in kaolin and DMS 119
Figure 4.39: Relationship between ε-log t and EC-log t for each loading stage
in 5K 122
Figure 4.40: Relationship between ε-log t and EC-log t for loading stages in
10K 123
Figure 4.41: Relationship between ε-log t and EC-log t for each loading stage
in 15K 124
Figure 4.42: Relationship between the e-log σ' and EC-log σ' for solidified
kaolin specimens 126
Figure 4.43: Relationship between the EC peak time and cement content 126
Figure 4.44: Relationship between the Vs and EC for solidified kaolin
specimens 128
Figure 4.45: Relationship between the ε, and EC during the loading stage 129
Figure 4.46: Relationship between the ε, and EC during the loading stage 130
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION
A - Al2 O3
AL - Atterberg limit
BE - Bender Element
C - Ca
CAH - Calcium Aluminate Hydrate
CASH - Calcium Silicate Hydrate
Cc - Compression Index
R - Correlation Coefficient
Cv - Coefficient of Consolidation
C3A - Tricalcium Aluminate
C4AF - Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
CSH - Calcium Silicate Hydrate
C2S - Dicalcium Silicate
C3S - Tricalcium Silicate
DMS - Dredged Marine Soil
e - Void Ratio
EC - Electrical Conductivity
F - Fe2O3
GDS - Global Digital Systems Ltd
IOC - Instrumented Oedometer Test
Kg - Kilogram
KPa - Kilopascal
LL - Liquid Limit
LOI - Loss of Ignition
MC - Moisture Content
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Mv - Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
OMC - Organic Matter Content
PI - Plasticity Index
PL - Plastic Limit
PSD - Particle Size Distribution
S - SiO2
T50 - Time Corresponding to 50 % Settlement
Vs - Shear Wave Velocity
XRD - X-Ray Diffraction
XRF - X-Ray Fluorescence
σ' - Vertical Effective Stress
ε - Vertical Strain
ρ - Particle Density
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1 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Marine dredging is a process of excavating sediments from the bottom of waterbodies
by mechanical or hydraulic machineries. The common purposes of marine dredging
are to make waterways for marine vessels navigation, coastal development projects,
and removal of contaminated sediments. There are two methods for disposal; open
water dumping and inland disposal. However, there are harmful environmental
consequences associated with each method. For instance, coral reefs, flora-fauna and
benthic organism could be affected directly by burial or indirectly by smothering
(Katsiaras et al., 2015). Moreover, finding a place inland is a challenge and there is
always a concern of contamination leaching to the groundwater table.
The normal practice in Malaysia is open water dumping which is restricted in
more advanced countries. Instead of dumping, these countries started utilising these
materials for beneficial purposes in civil engineering construction i.e. land
reclamation. However, the challenge for fine grained dredged marine soil is the high
moisture content and the presence of a considerable amount of organic matters making
direct use impossible due to the high compressibility and low shear strength.
Therefore, appropriate treatment must be adopted to reduce DMS compressibility.
Solidification technique could be adopted to reduce the compressibility. Past research
on soft soil have found that hydraulic binders (i.e. cement) and other pozzolanic by-
products (i.e. coal ash, steel slag) could successfully solidify and stabilise soft soils.
Usually 1-D consolidation test is conducted to evaluate the compressibility.
Conventional oedometer has been used to test compressibility primarily for
undisturbed saturated fine-grained soils in laboratory. Although, the outcomes of the
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test are useful in drawing the relationship between the applied vertical stress and the
associated 1-D consolidation deformation, but it didn’t give information about the
mechanism of consolidation.
Bender elements are piezoelectric transducers that can produce compression
waves and shear waves. Shear waves propagate through the solid medium while the
compression wave propagates through both solid and liquid. Thus, shear wave is
commonly used for soil stiffness assessment. It has the advantage of giving some
insights about small strain stiffness in the range of 10-6 and hence the interparticle state
of the soil. Since its first introduction to the soil testing by Shirley & Anderson (1975),
it has been showing promising indications of the inner state of soil particularly small
strain stiffness. Even though there is an agreement of its usefulness in determining the
small strain stiffness, it is worth mentioning that some obstacles have been faced
related to the results interpretation which hindered global standardisation, (such as
arrival time interpretation, near field effects).
Other non-destructive measurements are useful in quantifying the state of soil
without disturbing. In geophysics, however, there were attempts of utilising these
techniques to evaluate the soil. Yet, it couldn’t replace the conventional destructive
measurements due to the particulate nature of the soil. Nevertheless, it can give useful
insights on the soil behaviour in micro level. Electromagnetic and electrical
conductivity / resistivity deal with the pore fluid and surface charges of the soil. Hence,
it complements the shear wave velocity paralleled with the 1D consolidation especially
in evaluating the compressibility of the solidified soft soil.
1.1 Problem statement
Soft soils are normally associated with high moisture content and fine-grained particles
resulting in poor geotechnical properties such as high compressibility and low shear
strength. DMS is a truly example of such soil which requires proper treatment to be
useable for beneficial purposes (i.e. reclamation works as fill materials).
Solidification/stabilisation of these soils using hydraulic binders (i.e. cement) is
usually conducted to improve these poor properties. The conventional oedometer test
is designed to test the compressibility of undisturbed saturated fine-grained soil.
However, the specimen’s preparation of soils in slurry form using the conventional
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setup is impractical with inadequate travel distance for the expected large settlement.
Furthermore, the solidification mechanism and consolidation of the soil is still not
well-understood which requires more investigations. Therefore, modification for the
conventional oedometer is required with additional tools to monitor the solidification
and consolidation processes. Invasive and minimally invasive testing techniques for
geotechnical engineering purposes, nowadays, are developing progressively.
Nonetheless, due to the particulate nature of soil, there exists a transitional zone where
the conventional testing (macro-level), which is the compressibility in this study, is
studied simultaneously in micro-level using these techniques. For this purpose, an
instrumented oedometer test was developed with incorporation of bender element (BE)
transducers and electrical conductivity probe to investigate and correlate the
compressibility, shear wave velocity (Vs) and electrical conductivity (EC)
characteristics of solidified dredged marine clay and refined kaolin. The advantage of
using BE is that it can measure the small strain stiffness for less than 10-6 which can
evaluate the inter-particle condition of cementation process whereas EC measurements
can give an indication of the chemical reactions and water availability within cement-
water-soil mixture.
1.2 Objectives of the research
The aim of this research is to investigate and correlate the compressibility, shear wave
velocity and electrical conductivity characteristics of solidified fine-grained soils
using an instrumented oedometer. The following objectives are to be achieved in the
present study:
1. To develop an instrumented oedometer cell incorporated with electrical
conductivity and bender elements measurements.
2. To investigate the one-dimensional compressibility of solidified DMS and
kaolin in relation to the electrical conductivity and shear wave velocity
measurements.
3. To establish the correlations between the electrical conductivity and shear
wave velocity measurements with the improved compressibility of the tested
soils.
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1.3 Scope of Research
Based on the objectives of this study, the scope of study can be classified into two
phases. The first phase is about the development of the instrumented oedometer.
Modifications on the conventional oedometer were made considering enough travel
distance for slurry soil to settle and providing enough space for the additional probes
to be installed. One pair of BE was installed in the top cap and bottom platen, while
the EC probe was installed on the top cap. GDS master box was used to operate the
BE via computerised system.
The second phase is the implementation of the work. In this study two types of
soils were used; dredged marine soil collected from Kuala Perlis and refined
Malaysian kaolin clay. Ordinary Portland cement was used as solidification agents
with 5 %, 10 % and 15 % by dry weight. Characterisations of the DMS and kaolin
were conducted on the moisture content, plastic limit, liquid limit, particle density,
LOI and XRF. After specimen preparation, the treated specimens were cured for
7 days prior to testing. The shear wave velocity was determined using bender
element transducers and EC were taken during the curing time. Loading the soil
incrementally and taking the BE and EC simultaneously with the settlement.
Then, the relationship among these three parameters were investigated and the
relationship between these parameters was established.
1.4 Significance of Study
The oedometer was modified to incorporate additional instrumentation which can help
in understanding the mechanism of the compressibility of the solidified soil to assess
the quality control. Moreover, the non-destructive testing is more desirable in
geotechnical engineering. Instead of dumping the DMS into the open water, it could
be used for beneficial purposes after proper treatment. Hence, two things can be
achieved: (1) to avoid bad environmental consequences caused by dumping and (2)
utilise DMS instead of natural resources by adopting the solidification technique to
improve the compressibility of this soils to be used for reclamation hence providing
more areas/land especially at places where more space is needed such as recreational
spots (i.e. Dubai) and creating new infrastructures (i.e. airports in Japan).
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1.5 Thesis Layout
Chapter one presents the background of study, problem statement, research objectives,
scope of study, significance of study and theses layout.
Chapter two covers the literature review and results obtained by the previous related
works. Review on previous studies on modified oedometers incorporating bender
element and electrical conductivity measurements was providing in beginning of this
chapter followed by bender element and electrical conductivity. One-dimensional
consolidation test, treatments effects on compressibility, mechanism of solidification,
curing time effects, yield stress, physicochemical, solidification agent and DMS were
also reviewed in this chapter.
Chapter three describes the methodology, materials and experimental approach
adopted to achieve the objectives of this study. The first part describes the
instrumented oedometer and calibration. The second part describes the one-
dimensional consolidation test and samples preparations. The third part describes the
material used in this study followed by soils characterisation tests.
Chapter four presents the results and discussion in six subsections. The first part is
about the cement effects on the moisture, Vs and EC during the specified curing period.
The second part presents the compressibility parameters namely, void ratio, coefficient
of consolidation, coefficient of volume compressibility and compression index. The
third part is about the yield stress. The fourth and fifth part presents the relationship
between the compressibility and Vs and EC respectively. The last section compares
the correlation between the compressibility, Vs and EC parameters.
Chapter five concludes the results of the study and the recommendations for future
research.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter evaluates critically on oedometer test including standard, modified
oedometers, bender element, electrical conductivity, soft soil treatment,
physicochemical properties of soft soil and dredged marine soil are presented. In
addition, a discussion of advanced analysis techniques of solidification is also
presented.
2.1 Oedometer Test
The oedometer test is commonly used in soil mechanics to determine parameters for
calculation of consolidation, settlement and for assessing stress history of soils.
2.1.1 Overview
As mentioned above, the oedometer consolidation test is used for the determination of
the compressibility characteristics of soils with low permeability. There are two
parameters required for this test: (1) The soil compressibility which is a measure of the
amount by which the soil will compress when loaded and allowed to consolidate which
can be expressed of the settlement or void ratio reduction. (2) The time related
parameter which indicates the rate of compression and hence the time-period over
which consolidation settlement will take place.
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The test is conducted by applying a sequence of specified incremental vertical
loads to a laterally confined specimen. The vertical compression under each load is
observed until the primary consolidation is achieved. Since no lateral deformation is
allowed, it is considered a one-dimensional test. The consolidation cell consists
essentially of a consolidometer and a supporting frame as detailed in section 2.1.4.
2.1.2 Principle of Consolidation
The theory of consolidation states that the compressibility of solid particles and water
can be negligible compared to the compressibility caused by the escaping of water.
Consolidation is rapid in low permeable soils such as sand and slow in high permeable
soils like clays hence requires longer time. Analogical illustration of the consolidation
was introduced by Terzaghi & Peck (1948) and Taylor (1948). The process of
consolidation is often explained with an idealized system composed of a spring in a
container, filled with water, with a hole in its top cap as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Spring and piston analogy illustrating the principle of consolidation
(Taylor, 1948)
The spring represents the solid structure of the soil and the water represents the pore
water in the soil. When applying a load on the top cap, while the hole is closed, the
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