Detectors Fundamentals (for Dark Matter)
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Transcript of Detectors Fundamentals (for Dark Matter)
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Detectors Fundamentals (for
Dark Matter)
Paolo Privitera
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Detection of Dark Matter particles
• Weak Interacting Massive Particles:
- weakly interacting
- electrically neutral
- massive (> GeV)
- non relativistic – low velocity
• WIMP interaction with matter
- extremely low rates
- does not ionize directly
- low energy elastic scattering with nuclei (WIMP and nucleus
do not change their identity)
WIMP
nucleus
MW
Mn
Detection of nucleus (charge!) interaction with matter
WIMP escapes detector (weakly interacting)
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Interaction of Dark Matter particles
Cross section, σ
σ = area of target particle disk
A = total area
N σA
= Probability of interaction
N = n. of target nuclei in A
Proxima CentauriEarthwater
≈ 1 interaction
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WIMP-nucleus elastic scattering
WIMP
nucleus
MW = 100 GeV/c2
Mn
pc = MW v c = MW c2 (v/c) = 1011 10-3 = 108 eV
λW= pchc =
1240 nm pc(eV)
λW ≈ 10 F ≈ size of the nucleus
v/c =(230 km/s) / (300 000 km/s) ≈ 10-3
De Broglie wavelength
The WIMP cannot “see” inside the nucleus, thus elastic scattering
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WIMP-nucleus elastic scattering
WIMP
nucleus
MW
Mn
Detection of nucleus (charge!) interaction with matter
WIMP escapes detector (weakly interacting)
v
vn
EW = ½ MW v2 = ½ MW c2 (v/c)2 = 50,000 eV
EW
EW
En
‘
EW = EW + En En ≈ thousands of eV‘
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WIMP-nucleus elastic scattering
WIMP
nucleus
MW
Mn
v
vn
EW
En
‘
If MW ≈ Mn , maximum energy for the recoil nucleus (billiard ball on a billiard ball)
If MW < Mn , low energy for the recoil nucleus (table tennis ball on a billiard ball)
Important to detect the lowest possible recoil energy
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Nucleus interaction in matter
nucleus
Ionized atom electron
Excited atom
photon
Charge Z
visible to X ray
The nucleus electromagnetic interactions produce electrons and photons which can be detected
high energy ejected electron
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Typically tens of eV to ionize an atom, hydrogen atom 13.6 eV
Argon: ≈ 30 eV / ion-electron pair , ≈ 30 eV / scintillation photon
Ionization and scintillation
Fluorescent lamp 110 V
En / Eion ≈ 3 keV / 30 eV = 100 ionizations or photons
A very small charge or n. of photons to detect!
A WIMP will produce:
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Concept of a Dark Matter detector
1)Choose a dense material with high scintillation yield
Photon detection
Scintillator crystals
Noble liquids
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Concept of a Dark Matter detector
Human eye: sensitive to 100 photons in 100 ms
Photomultiplier tube (PMT): electronic eye sensitive to a single photon
Photon detection
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Photomultiplier tubes Photon detection
Hamamatsu
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Photons eject electrons via photoelectric effect
Photocathode
Each incidentelectron ejectsabout 4 newelectrons at eachdynode stage
Vacuum insidetube
An applied voltagedifference betweendynodes (≈100 V) makeselectrons acceleratefrom stage to stage
“Multiplied” signalcomes out here(412 = 16 million!) to oscilloscope or electronics
PMT
≈ 1000 V
Quantum efficiency
Gain
≈ 25% of incident photons produce a photoelectron
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PMT: a ubiquitous detector
Super-Kamiokande Neutrino physics
42
m
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PMT: a sensitive detector
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Single Electron Response SER
Pulse charge measurement with ADC
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A noble liquid detector
PMTs
Photon detection
Lxe, LAr
di
ffus
erdiffuser
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Xenon-100
3 photoelectrons/keV
PTFE light diffuser
60 kg of Liquid Xenon as a target for WIMP Cryogenic temperatures
Gran Sasso LaboratoryDual-phase detector (see later)
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DAMA/ LIBRA
NaI scintillator
PMT
PMT
• 25 NaI(Tl) ultra-pure scintillator crystals (each ≈ 10 Kg)
• Two PMTs, one at each end of the NaI crystal, detect scintillation photons produced by nuclear recoil (induced by a DM particle or a neutron) or e.m. backgrounds
Dark matter signal from Annual Modulation (see Collar lecture)
Gran Sasso Laboratory
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NaI(Tl) scintillation
Conductor
Insulator
Conduction band
Valence band
≈ 10
eV
NaI (Tl)
Scintillationphoton
hole
thallium replacing sodium (1 / 1000 atoms)
Thallium impurities generate orbitals within the gap, allowing electrons moved by ionization to the conduction band to go back into the valence band, with an emission of a scintillation photon
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DAMA/LIBRA
noise event
Scintillation event close to 2 keV threshold
single p.e.signals
NaI decay time ≈ 250 ns
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PMTs
ionization detection
Lxe, LAr
diff
user
diffuser
What about ionization?
Low electric field
• Take the ionization electrons out of the target volume
• Noble gas/liquid: orbitals filled with electrons, so drifting electrons from ionization are not ‘attached’ (purity is fundamental.
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PMTs
ionization detection
LXe, LAr
diff
user
diffuser
Dual phase Noble Liquid TPC
Low electric field
High
electric field
Xe, Ar gas
Electrons multiplication in the strong electric field, emission of many scintillation photons
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Dual phase Noble Liquid TPC Time Projection Chamber
Today lab, small gas chamber
Ar, Xe
Xenon 100 event
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DarkSide-50
Water veto(for cosmogenic)
Liquid scintillator veto(boron loaded for neutron detection)
PMTs
Dual phase LAr TPC
Gran Sasso Laboratory
10 m
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Semiconductor detectorsInsulator
Conduction band
Valence band
≈ 10
eV
Semiconductor, Si,Ge
1) Energy to produce a ionization (electron-hole pair) ≈ 3 eV
Compare with ionization in gas 30 eV
2) To measure an electric signal, electrons must go into the conduction band. Easier for semiconductors due to the small energy gap. But must be cooled otherwise large leakage current.
≈ 1
eV
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Doped semiconductor
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Semiconductor diode detector
n-type p-type
+ -
1) At the contact, diffusion of holes from p to n , and of electrons from n to p.
2) A positive space charge builds up in the n-type side, a negative space charge in the p-type side.
3) Around the contact, a depletion region is formed, depleted of holes and electrons.
4) By reverse bias (apply +V on the n-type side, -V on the p-type side), the depletion region is increased.
+V -V
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Semiconductor diode detector
n-type p-type
+V
Depletionregion ≈ intrinsic
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High Purity Germanium detector
Big Ge crystals – 100s g - can be grown
p-type point contact HPGe
CoGeNT experiment
Standard coaxial detector
Much smallercapacitance,noiseimprovement
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High Purity Germanium detector
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Dark Energy Survey camera use thick CCDs to enhance the efficiency in the infrared (normal CCD only tens of microns)
CCDs for Dark Matter
15 micron pixel size
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Several hours exposure of a CCD, DAMIC experiment soon at SNOLAB
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1 electron-hole / 3 eV
+ -+ -
+ -
+ -
Also charge detection
100 phonons / eV
Phonons…..
CDMS experiment
Phonons from vibrations of the crystal lattice induced by scattering with nucleus. Reach surface and give energy in the Al breaking Cooper pairs. These electrons diffuse to the tungsten strip, where they release energy.
TES sensor
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250 g detector
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COUPPChicagoland Observatory for Underground Particle Physics
Bubble chamber
J. Collar
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DMTPC
Low pressure(70 torr) CF4
CCD
12 mm
CCD image of scintillation light
Scintillation light
electrons drift
A directional DM detector
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Detectors (for Dark Matter)
• Dark matter detectors challenges: mass, energy threshold and resolution
• Many different detectors: dark matter is elusive, detection will be convincing only if several independent experiments (with different systematics) will agree.
• Techniques developed across fields (e.g. liquid Argon for neutrino detection, TES for CMB)
• Dark matter special: background rejection….
• Could detectors be integrated in your programs/ exhibitions?
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Dark Matter - Cosmic Rays
38
A particle detector: the Spark Chamber(courtesy University of Birmingham)
Rate of cosmic rays at ground ≈ 1 / cm2 / minute
Show that we are bombarded by cosmic particles – Dark Matter may be a very rare kind of cosmic particle
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Other cosmic rays exhibits
39
Fermilab Take a Cosmic Ray Shower
Wonderlab Museum, Bloomington IN
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40
New York Times, Oct. 2, 1935Opening of the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History
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Cloud chamber
41Several commercial options
Supersaturated vapor condensation along the ionization trail left by the particle
Explain different types of interactions (and bkg to DM searches)
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CCD
42
Explain different types of interactions (and bkg to DM searches)
With some tuning, possible with digital camera
Take a picture, explore it, count the n. of muons, etc.