DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A TURBOFAN …

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DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A TURBOFAN ENGINE FOR

OPTIMAL OPERATION

P. B. Sob

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Vaal University of Technology,

Vanderbijlpark 1900, Private Bag X021, South Africa

ABSTRACT

Engine efficiency and transient performance are vital in a turbofan engine. This affects drivability and fuel consumption

in a turbofan engine. The main problem faced by a turbofan engine constitutes low response in a low-speed operation

and this often creates “turbo lag” which affects turbofan engine performance and efficiencies. A hybrid turbofan engine

design system is a promising technology for improving efficiency and performance during the operation. This research

studies the possibility of implementing a hybrid turbofan engine design for optimal performance. The major parameters

that impact thermal, propulsive and overall efficiency are modelled and characterized for optimal performance. The tool

of SOLIDWORKDS CFD and CAD are used in modelling and simulation of the critical parameters that impacts

performance. Correlation analysis of the critical design parameters for optimal performance is revealed. The following

facts are theoretically revealed and validated. It was shown that the performance of the system is greatly influenced by

thermal properties and the vane angular flow geometry. It was also revealed that there are critical operating variables

that gave optimal performance of the turbofan engine during operation. It was also shown that the thermal, propulsive

and overall efficiency are geometrically characterised by the system mass flow rate of air and ambient pressure of the

system during throttling. It was observed that the system performance and system efficiency significantly increased at low

speed. This was alluded to the fact that at optimal design performance proper mechanical hybrid calibration was done at

varying effective mass flow rate of air in the system.

KEYWORDS: Hybrid turbofan engine, Performance, Efficiency & Vane geometry

Received: Jan 23, 2021; Accepted: Feb 13, 2021; Published: Mar 25, 2021; Paper Id.: IJMPERDAPR202131

NOMENCLATURE

A cross-sectional area

a the system speed of sound

CP the system effective specific heat at constant pressure in the system

D the system-drag force during operation

e the system polytropic efficiency during operation

F the system force uninstalled thrust during operation

f the fuel-air ratio in the system

gc the system Newtonian constant during operation

h the system enthalpy

Orig

ina

l Article

International Journal of Mechanical and Production

Engineering Research and Development (IJMPERD)

ISSN (P): 2249–6890; ISSN (E): 2249–8001

Vol. 11, Issue 2, Apr 2021, 427-444

© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

428 P. B. Sob

Impact Factor (JCC): 9.6246 NAAS Rating: 3.11

hPR the system low heating value of fuel during operation

M the system Mach number

m

the effective mass flow rate during operation

P pressure

Pt total pressure

Q

rate of thermal energy released or absorbed

R the effective universal gas constant during operation

S the system undersigned thrust specific fuel consumption during operation

T the system temperature or designed thrust during operation

TSFC the system designed specific fuel consumption during operation

Tt the system effective temperature during operation

V the system effective velocity during operation

W

the system power

α the bypass ratio of the system during operation

γ the system ratio of specific heats during operation

m the system mechanical efficiency during operation

ηO the system overall efficiency during operation

ηP the system propulsive efficiency during operation

ηT the system thermal efficiency during operation

π the system ratio of effective pressure during operation

πr The system exceptional ratio between the effective pressure and stationary pressure due to the effect of

ram in the system during operation, P

Pt

τ the system ratio of effective temperature during operation

r the system exceptional ratio between effective temperature and stationary temperature due to the

effective ram motion during operation, T

Tt

Design and Performance Analysis of a Turbofan Engine for Optimal Operation 429


τλ the ratio between effective enthalpy in the system and the effective enthalpy at ambient

condition during operation

SUBSCRIPTS

b the major burner or the major properties between the burner outlet and ITB

c the properties between the system upstream and burner or engine core during operation

d the system diffuser during operation

e the system outlet during operation

f the fan of the system

fn the fan-nozzle of the system

HPC the effective high pressure compressor during operation

HPT the system high pressure turbine

ITB the system inter-stage turbine combustors during operation

LPC compressor low pressure

LPT turbine low pressure

O input

n the nozzle

t the ITB exit properties between and the downstream or effective-stagnation properties of temperature,

pressure or enthalpy

INTRODUCTION

The First Turbo fan engine was Rolls-Royce design of RB.80 Conway being manufactured by Rolls-Royce manufacturing

Limited in the early 1950s (1-10). It contained an axial Flow compressor with a stage of 7 compressors at low pressure and

a stage of 9 high-pressure compressors (1-12). Maximum thrust was 76.3kN and a bypass ratio of 0.25 but in 1959,

improvements were made by Rolls Royce and the Rolls-Royce Pegasus came to life (1-13). This engine is able to direct

thrust and manoeuvre vertically for take-off and landing (11-20). It had a 2 spool Turbofan compressor, a stage 3 lower

pressure, and a stage 8 axial flow high pressure compressor (20-30). The maximum thrust went up to 106Kn and in the

1960s, Pratt & Whitney and Volvo Flag motor came out with a Volvo RM8 (1-12). It had an axial flow compressor, a

stage-3 fan, stage 3 lower pressure and stage-7 higher pressure (17-22). The system had 9 combustion chambers design in

can-annular arrangement with an injector of 4 in each combustion chambers and a thrust which is maximum at 72.2Kn

during operation. In the early 1960s, research such as Gareth Air & Honeywell Aerospace designed a Garrett ATF3 system

and a turbine of 3 spool engine (1-12). The design system compressor is having a low pressure single stage fan and a stage

5 axial pressure intermediate pressure compressor and a high pressure single centrifugal compressor (10-15). The design

system turbine is a high pressure single and a 3 stage intermediate pressure and a stage-2 low pressure system having a

maximum thrust of approximately 24.20kN and take off at 4.69kN during operation.

430 P. B. Sob


Rolls-Royce came out with another one in 1960, a Rolls-Royce RB211 capable of generating 166 to 270kN of

thrust (11-30). This includes a stage-6 compressor of high pressure, a stage-7 compressor of low pressure (10-30), a high

pressure single stage turbine and a low pressure single stage turbine. In the 1970s, Pratt & Whitney manufactures the Pratt

& Whitney F100 (1-16). This was an after burning turbofan. The Maximum thrust is 64.9kN and 105.7kN with an

afterburner and later in the 1980s, Pratt & Whitney designed a high turbo fan bypass engine of PW4000 having a thrust

ranging from 230-441Kn (11-30). Later in 1990, Rolls Royce designed a Rolls-Royce Trent range having a 3 spool high

bypass turbofan engine aircraft having a thrust between 240kN-420Kn (1-12). The turbofan engine has gone through

several modifications for decades and the turbofan engine has an application in several aviation and energy production

fields (22-30). Several modern design of turbofan system uses knowledge from different engineering fields which includes

heat transfer, fluid mechanics and thermodynamics (1-23). Several jet engines have under gone several design

modifications and improvements for several decades and this has led to performance and improvements in reliability and

efficiency (1-23). However, the most commonly used turbojet engines are the turboprop engine design, the turbofan engine

design, the turbo shaft design and the ramjet engine design being used (1-13). All these designed turbofan engine work on

the same fundamental principles on the operating theory of internal combustion theory of suck, squeeze, bang and blow.

Figure 1: Four types of Gas Engine

In this research study, the main focus is the design of turbofan engine which will offer better fuel economy and

that will lead to the design of an advanced or modified jet engine with better overall efficiency. This was achieved by

looking at the main working principle of a turbofan engine as shown in Figure 2 (a)

Figure 2 (A) Working Principale of a Turbofan Engine (B) A Gas Generator Propulsion System (C) A Turbo Jet

Engine

From design engineering, the first important component is the inlet section of air into the system (1-15). During

operation, air is being sucked and compressed to a higher pressure line and the compressed air in the system is mixed with

fuel-air ratio and gets ignited during the power stroke (1-11). The ignited air-fuel-mixture discharges at a high velocity



during the exhaust stokes during operation. These concepts have been applicable in designing most jet engines with

different design modification to enhance performance, efficiency, reliability and fuel economy (1-11). In most engine

design, turbofan system and turbine are connected to the compressor and a fan is used to propel air through a duct. The

system is designed to propel incoming air at a relative speed to the system and then the air is being compressed by the inlet

at a high pressure to sustain combustion (1-10). It is this force of the air that propels the aircraft at optimal speed during

operation. During the engine operation, there are different cycles in the turbine that impact performance, efficiency and

reliability of the system.

The ideal cycles of a turbofan engine are simplified as a thermodynamic closed cycles and it is used to analyse

critical process of combustion, expansion and compression, combustion during the engine operation with more focus on

the extraction of work during combustion process of air-fuel mixture (1-22). A complete process of parametric cycle and

system analysis of the ideal turbofan air-breathing propulsion system is being produced with a common system of air-

breathing propulsion of the engines during the operation (1-14). The system consists of three main components in design

concept and they are the compressor, the combustor, and the turbine being shown schematically in Figure 2(b). The main

idea behind a gas turbine generator is mainly to convert the intake air mixture and fuel ratio into the system high

temperature and system high gas pressure (12-22). Based on the design application and design concept of the gas turbine

system, the energy in the system is being extracted and used in different design system and applications such as turbojet,

turbofan, turbo-shaft, turboprop, and ramjet in different mechanical system (10-24).

A unique designed turbojet engine is being designed mainly by adding an input and a nozzle system as shown in

Figure 2 (c). The designed nozzle in the system converts the internal energy from the system of the hot gas into thrust of

kinetic energy being used by the system (10-23). The main work being extracted by designed turbine is mainly to drive the

compressor of the system. For a turbofan, turboprop and turbo-shaft engine, the main work from the turbine system is

needed to drive a shaft for the turbo-shaft, a fan for the turbofan, and a propeller in the turboprop; in addition, it is used to

driving the compressor (1-16). The system ramjet in the engine mainly consists of an inlet, a combustor, and a nozzle at the

discharge. The system does not need the compressor due to the fact that the inlet already uses a ram air-compressing

mechanism of the system such that of air intake has enough kinetic energy to increase the system pressure during operation

(22-30). The primary objective of this research is to determine the unique relationship between the performance of the

engine system such as the specific thrust, thrust-specific fuel consumption and determine major design parameters of

compressor pressure ratio, fan pressure ratio, bypass ratio to design and constraints the burner exit temperature, compressor

exit pressure, and to flight environment (Mach number, ambient temperature, ambient pressure).

METHODOLOGY

To design a turbofan engine that is efficient in performance, the operating parameters of the turbofan engine must be model

for optimal performance. To model the operating parameters, it is vital to model the thrust force of the system during

operation. Thrust force needed to sustain the flight must be proportional to the drag force (thrust = drag). During

accelerated flight, the system thrust force during operation must be greater than the system drag force (thrust > drag).

During the deceleration process, the thrust force of the system must be less than the drag force (thrust < drag). From the

control volume of the turbo fan engine as shown in Figure 2 (a-c), it is possible to apply momentum mass flow balance to

the control volume of the system. By assuming a thrust force that is uninstalled during operation in a jet engine (single inlet

and single exhaust), the system expression can be given as

432 P. B. Sob


APP

g

VmVmmeoe

c

oe ofueloF

[1]

Where mm fuelo

..

, represent the mass flow rates of air and fuel during operation, VV eo ,

represents the system

velocities at the system inlet and exit during operation, and PP eo , represents the pressures of the system at inlet and

exit during operation and the ideal case in the system, the hot gas in the system is being expanded to the system ambient

pressure during operation and this gives Pe = Po. The system of equation derived by equation (1) can be modified to have.

g

VmVmm

c

oe ofueloF

[2]

The thrust for T in the system is given by

DDFTnozzleinlet

[3]

Where; Dinlet and Dnozzle are the drag force in the system during operation from the inlet and the nozzle of the

system. The system specific fuel consumed in the system is the rate of fuel being propelled by the system per unit of thrust

produced by the system during operation. The specific fuel consumed by the system and the TSFC fuel consumed, S, is

given as

T

mTSFC fuel

[4]

F

mS fuel

[5]

The system efficiency during operation is a ratio of the useful work performed in the system or total energy being

expended or heat taken into the system during operation. The major parameters in the system that affect the system

efficiency during operation are the thermal efficiency, propulsive efficiency, and overall efficiency during operation. The

system thermal efficiency being characterized by the total energy output from the system (shaft work) being divided by the

available thermal energy produced by the engine.

Q

W

in

out

T

[6]

Where



hmreleasedenergythermalofrateQ

engineofoutpowernetW

efficiencythermal

PR

out

T

fin

The system propulsive efficiency is being defined by the ratio between the engine output, power output and the

power generated to run the aircraft during operation. The system propulsive efficiency during operation is given as

W

VT

out

P 0

[7]

where,

engineofoutpowernet

aircraftofvelocity

systempropulsionofthrustT

engineofefficiencypropulsive

W

V

out

P

0

The performance of the overall propulsion efficiency of the system is given by the different combination between

the thermal and propulsive efficiencies of the system during operation given as,

TPO

[8]

where,

efficiencyoverallO

The Quantity notations for compressible flow; temperature of stagnation, the pressure of stagnation, and the

system Mach number during operation. The temperature of stagnation or the effective temperature of the system Tt is

defined as the obtained temperature of the system when a steadily fluids flowing through the system is brought to rest by a

steady adiabatic process without any extraction of work in the system during operation. By implementing the first law of

thermodynamic to a calorically perfect gas during operation the system expression becomes:

2

2Vhht

[9]

where,

h = static enthalpy

ht = enthalpy at stagnation condition

434 P. B. Sob


V = velocity

By assuming that the specific heat coefficient is constant and the expression is given as:

C

VTT

P

t

2

2

MTT t

2

2

11

[10]

where,

heatsspecificofratio

numberMachM

etemperaturstaticT

etemperaturstagnationT t

The pressure of stagnation or the total pressure in the system Pt is given as the pressure being achieved when a

steady fluid flowing fluid in the system brought to rest by the system in an adiabatic and reversible process during

operation. The effective pressure in the system during operation which affect the system performance during operation is

given by obtaining the system isentropic relation during operation given by the total pressure in the system given as

MPPt2

2

11

1

[11]

From the obtained equation (11) being derived as affected by several operating factors such as the ratio of

effective temperature in the system during operation τ and the total pressure ratio π across the system being given by d for

diffuser, LPC for the low pressure compressor during operation, HPC for compressor high pressure, b for main burner, ITB

for inter-stage turbine burner, LPT for low pressure of the turbine, HPT for high pressure of the turbine, n for nozzle, and f

for fan.

For example:

diffuserenteringpressuretotal

diffuserleavingpressuretotald

diffuserenteringetemperaturtotal

diffuserleavingetemperaturtotald

For exception the free stream, the ram, define asτr as a ratio of the total temperature and static temperature of the

system and πr as a ratio of the effective pressure and static pressure.

MT

T t

r 02

0

0

2

11

[12]



MP

Pt

r 02

2

11

1

0

0

[13]

From expression (12) and (13), the performance of the system can be investigated during operation for an

effective design and analysis of a turbofan engine that can operate better even at low speed.

1.1 Performance Component of the System

The system analysis is more acceptable during operation when assumed that the fluid in the working system of the

engine can be rationalised as a perfect gas of the system during operation. The properties of ideal gas in the system during

operation greatly depend on the temperature of the system. The system cycle of operation allows fluid of varying

properties across the engine during operation to stay at a constant fluid properties during operation from the system main

burner entrance upstream during operation (Cpc, γc), from ITB entrance in the system to the main burner exit (Cpb, γb) of

the system, and from ITB exit downstream of the system (Cpt, γt). The Inlet of the system and pressure of diffuser losses

usually occur due to the friction that takes place in the inlet wall. The effective pressure ratio in the system πd is always

less than 1 during operation. In supersonic flight system, the pressure losses may cause shock waves in the system during

the operation which produces a greater pressure loss in the system during operation. The inlet total pressure of the system

is defined as the product of the ram pressure ratio during operation and the diffuser pressure ratio of the system during

operation. The portion of the system pressure loss due to the shock waves during operation and wall friction of the system

during operation is defined by:

rdd max [14]

1.2 Turbine and Compressor During

The efficiency of the compressor during operation is measured through two main different efficiencies of the

system during operation given as isentropic efficiency and poly-tropic efficiency of the system and the system isentropic

efficiency is given as

1

11

c

c

c

c

c

c

givenforncompressioofworkactual

givenforncompressioofworkideal

[15]

The poly-tropic efficiency is defined as

changepressurealdifferentiaforncompressioofworkactual

changepressurealdifferentiaforncompressioofworkidealec

[16]

With design assumption constant taken as ec, the relationship between τc and πc for the system during operation

given as

436 P. B. Sob


c

ecccc

1

[17]

The isentropic efficiency of turbine isentropic, poly-tropic efficiency of turbine and the relationship between τt

and πt can be given as:

t

t

t

t

t

tgivenforworkturbineactual

givenforworktubineideal

11

1

[18]

ttet1

The different efficiencies are impacted by the bypass ratio between the mass flow rate of the stream flowing in the

bypass and the mass flow rate entering the core. The Turbofan conceptualized is a high bypass ratio because of its function

but can be categorized in terms of being a high bypass ratio turbofan and a low bypass ratio. Turbofan entails the use of a

fan with a large diameter that directs much air around the Turbine. High Bypass ratio Turbo fans consist of a large fan in

front of the core inlet. The air passes through the fan first and compressed partially. The Mach number is from 0.75 to 0.9.

Most of the air bypasses the core and goes directly to the exhaust nozzle. The fan in a high bypass turbofan is large and

forces a large volume of air in its ducts. This generates more thrust and is fuel efficient and less noisy. High bypass ratios

are able to obtain the highest propulsion efficiencies. The disadvantage of high bypass ratio is the use of fans with large

diameters. This translates to heavier components increasing the difficulty to install the engine and maintaining sufficient

ground clearance on Aircrafts. The general appearance is the same as the High Bypass ratio turbofan. The Mach number is

a low supersonic range from 1 up until 2. The lower the total flow in the fan the higher the fan pressure ratio. These

engines are designed to operate at a low supersonic range and the thrust is not as sufficient as the High bypass ratio. The

advantage is that they are accommodating in terms of having small fan diameters and air undergoes efficient air

compression. They can take off at high-altitude points and under high temperature conditions. Their weight accommodates

combat manoeuvres at high supersonic flight speeds. The disadvantage is the insufficient thrust which means they operate

in short durations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section deals with simulation results and discussion of the turbofan engine. The simulation was done using

SOLIDWORKS (CFD SIMULATION). It was also important to include three and two –dimensional CAD drawing.

Design Modeling of Turbofan

438 P. B. Sob


Figure 3: Solid works (CFD Simulation of Design System



The Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to perform the calculations required to simulate the free-

stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquids and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions.

With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions were achieved and are often required to solve the largest and most

complex problems in such design system. The flow trajectory for the designed system was shown in Figure 4 (a-b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 4: (a-b) Brayton cycle with Cycle pad During Operation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_value_problem#Boundary_value_conditions

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer

440 P. B. Sob


The designed Brayton cycle from the system depicts the air-standard model of a gas turbine power cycle

generated during operation. However, a simple gas turbine engine during the operation consists of three main components

which are compressor, combustor, and turbine. Based on the principle of Brayton cycle during the operation, air in the

system is compressed in the compressor turbine. The air is being mixed with fuel in the system, and the mixture burned

under a given constant pressure ratio and conditions in the combustor during operation. The resulting hot gas in the system

is then allowed to expand to the turbine to perform work in the system during operation. The work produced in the turbine

system is then used to operate the compressor and the rest is used to produce power and operate other auxiliary equipment.

The system gas turbine is being used in a wider range of system applications. Common uses include stationary power

generation plants (electric utilities) and mobile power generation engines (ships and aircraft). In most power plant

applications system, the output power of the turbine is being used to power the shaft, generator and helicopter rotor. A jet

engine being powered by an aircraft is normally propelled by a reaction thrust of a gas stream. The turbine system provides

enough power in the system used to drive the compressor of the system and that is used to produce an auxiliary power used

by the system. The gas stream from the system acquires more energy in the cycle than the energy needed to drive the

system compressor. The remaining energy in the system is used to propel the system aircraft forward.

Low-pressure of air is drawn into the system compressor during operation (state 1) where the air is compressed at

a higher pressure (state 2). The fuel is being added to the compressed air in the system during operation and the mixture is

burnt in the combustion chamber for power to be produced. The resulting hot gases generated by the system enter the

turbine in the system (state 3) and then expand to state 4 during operation. The Brayton cycle produced consists of four

main basic processes during operation. The first law and Thermodynamics Law determine the overall energy transfer in the

system during operation. To analyse the system cycle during operation, we need to evaluate all the relevant states as

completely as possible during operation. The air standard models are vital for this purpose and provide the relevant

quantitative of gas in the turbine cycles during operation. In these models process, the following assumptions are made

during operation. (1) The working fluid in the system is air and is being treated as the ideal gas throughout the cycle of

operation; (2) The combustion process in the system is modelled at a constant-pressure heat addition during operation (3)

The exhaust gas is modelled as a constant-pressure heat rejection process.

In cold air standard (CAS) models, the specific heat of air is assumed constant (perfect gas model) at the lowest

temperature in the cycle. The effect of temperature on the specific heat can be included in the analysis at a modest increase

in effort. However, closed form solutions would no longer be possible.

Initial values

Inlet compressor temperature T: 300K

Inlet turbine temperature T: 1300

M = 12 kg/s

Turbine efficiency: 85%

Compressor efficiency: 80 %



(a)

(b)

Figure 5 (a-b) Turbofan Engine Design System Analysis for Optimal Performance

Since the project is based on conceptualizing a model and simulating a Turbofan Engine for optimal and efficient

performance at low and high speed, a 3D Models design was proposed and simulated taken into consideration the design of

the Turbo fan engine. The design was focused on the parameters of the Turbo fan high bypass unmixed flow during

442 P. B. Sob


operation. Since a Turbofan engine is the most modern variation of a basic Gas Turbine Engine, the major advantage is the

ability to produce a high thrust while maintaining good fuel efficiency. The design is built around the Gas Turbine core

which includes a Compressor, burner and a Turbine.

The concept of the turbo fan is to achieve more thrust with the same amount of fuel. That means Turbo fans are

likely to be fuel efficient during the operation. The thrust is derived from Newton’s second law F = ma and therefore,

thrust = Airflow x changes in velocity. This is achieved in such a way that air is captured at the inlet and is distributed into

two portions with regards to the bypass ratio. A portion of the air goes through the fan and travels through the bypass (Area

outside the engine) as shown in Figure 4 (a-b). The other portion of air passes through the fan and is transferred to the

compressor as shown in Figure 4(a-b). The compressor increases the pressure and temperature of the air as shown in Figure

5 (a) with a linear change in Entropy and Temperature during operation. As this takes place, more energy is added in the

combustion to have a more efficient process. The compressed air moves into the diffuser to slow down because it is

moving at a speed that it won’t be able to ignite. The diffuser slows the air down while maintaining the optimum pressure

and temperature as shown in Figure 5 (a). The air then moves to the combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel for

the combustion process to occur. The hot air then moves to the turbines to reduce the pressure of the hot air and then out of

the exhaust nozzle. The process is being repeated throughout the cycles at optimal design performance as shown in Figure

5 (b). The design turbofan engine is reported to perform better at low speed and optimal engine performance. The flow

trajectory in the system was flowing more efficiently in the system as shown in Figure 4(a-b).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study was aimed at modelling and designing of a turbofan engine that will operate more efficiently even at low speed.

To achieve this objective, relevant parameters that impact the design performance of a turbofan engine was modelled for

optimal performance. The tool of solid work CFD simulation was used in simulation and the design performance was

revealed. It was shown that varying flow trajectory impacts the performance of the turbofan engine during operation. It was

also revealed that the combustion process plays a significant role in the engine performance which makes it difficult to

have optimal performance at low engine speed. It was also shown that varying ratio of air inflow in the system impacts

performance and the compressor have varying pressure and temperature which impacts the performance of the turbofan

engine. There is area of further research that will possibly help in increasing efficiency into their design such as further

investigation into flange design in order to create a flange that can integrate gasket material and ensure a proper, reliable

seal.

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