Dependency & Self Criticism

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British Journal of Clinical Psychology (1999), 38, 231 ± 250 Printed in Great Britain

# 1999 The British Psychological Society

231

Dependency, self-criticism, interpersonalbehaviour and aåect: Evolutionary

perspectives

David C. Zuroå*, D. S. Moskowitz and Ste ! phane Co # te ! McGill University, Montreal, Canada

Evolutionary accounts of vulnerability to depression have focussed either on theattachment system (Bowlby, 1980) or the social rank system (Gilbert, 1992; Price,1972). According to a two-factor evolutionary model, depression-prone dependentand self-critical individuals suåer from insecurities regarding both attachment andsocial rank, but they diåer in their strategies for dealing with those insecurities.Event-contingent recording was used to assess agentic (dominant±submissive) andcommunal (agreeable±quarrelsome) interpersonal behaviour as well as aåect in 119employed adults over 20 days. Participants also completed questionnaire measuresof agency and communion. Self-criticism predicted low levels of agency and low

levels of communion. In the sample as a whole, agentic and communal behaviours were associated with pleasant aåect, but highly self-critical participants experiencedrelatively less pleasant aåect when they acted communally or agentically. Individuals with high levels of immature dependency (neediness) were low in agency, whereasthose with high levels of mature dependency (connectedness) were high incommunion. Implications for evolutionary theories of vulnerability to depression were discussed, and interpersonal processes that may contribute to vulnerability were identi®ed.

Depressed individuals think negativistic, self-critical thoughts, endure con¯ict-laden,unsatisfactory relationships, and behave in ways that generate additional stress intheir lives (Gotlib & Hammen, 1992). One would think that vulnerability to such a self-defeating pattern of behaviour would have been strongly selected against during the course of human evolution and that its prevalence would be a conundrum forevolutionary theory. Surprisingly, there are multiple evolutionary theories of depression, all competing to explain vulnerability to this disabling disorder.

The best known of these is Bowlby’s (1969, 1980) attachment theory. Theattachment system is an evolved behavioural system that enhances the ®tness of

young animals by causing them to maintain proximity to their caretakers. Theattachment system is responsible for intense aåects, such as separation anxiety andgrief, that are associated with threats to or loss of attachment bonds. These aåectsmotivate restoring or replacing the threatened or lost bonds. However, the clinical

* Requests for reprints should be sent to David C. Zuroå, Department of Psychology, McGill University, 1205 Dr.Pen®eld Ave., Montre ! al, Que ! bec, Canada H3A 1B1 (e-mail : zuroå !ego.psych.mcgill.ca).



232 David C. Zuroå et al.

syndrome of depression is not viewed as an evolved adaptive mechanism, nor as a direct product of the attachment system. Rather, the vicissitudes of early attachmentexperiences lead to diåerent strategies for maintaining attachment bonds, and thesestrategies in¯uence individuals’ abilities to cope with stressors in adulthood,especially losses of important relationships.

The social competition hypothesis of depression is also based on evolutionary concepts, but emphasizes the social rank system (Gilbert, 1992; Price, 1972; Price,Sloman, Gardner, Gilbert & Rohde, 1994)." Humans (among many other species) arepostulated to have innate mechanisms for assessing, pursuing and contesting socialrank. One `subroutine’ of the rank system is the involuntary subordinate strategy (ISS), which is triggered when humans perceive that they have lost a rank contest.The ISS is postulated to have multiple components, including : (1) inhibition of `up-hierarchy’ aggression directed towards the other contestant or other high-ranking

individuals; (2) the display of submissive behavioural cues that signal to the othercontestant that the individual `gives up’ and is no longer a threat; and (3) inhumans, a subjective sense of `personal failure, inferiority, inability, powerlessnessand hopelessness’ (Sloman, Price, Gilbert & Gardner, 1994).

The ISS is ordinarily short-lived and terminated by acceptance of the outcome of the contest and reconciliation with the other contestant. Clinical depression resultsfrom an intense, prolonged ISS which fails to be terminated because reconciliationand acceptance are not possible. Individuals may be unable to achieve acceptance}reconciliation either because of external circumstances (e.g. ongoing humiliation or

abuse) or because of personality characteristics that make it intolerable for the personto acknowledge the impossibility of attaining highly valued goals.

Physical struggles for domination are relatively rare in humans. Most humanmanoeuvring for rank involves attempting to be attractive to or valued by others, oravoiding being ignored, disrespected or excluded. Many highly valued life goalsprovide symbolic evidence of being valued}attractive to others, i.e. of high socialrank. Conversely, many stressful events (e.g. being rejected for graduate school,having a grant turned down and being jilted by a lover) can be conceptualized aslosses of social rank that can trigger the ISS.

The social competition hypothesis implies that vulnerability to depression isenhanced by personality variables or environmental factors that increase thelikelihood of a prolonged ISS. Individual diåerences in vulnerability have also beenidenti®ed by Blatt (1974, 1990), a psychodynamic theorist, and by Beck (1983), a cognitive theorist. Blatt and Beck adumbrated closely related personality variablesreferred to as dependency and self-criticism (Blatt) and sociotropy and autonomy (Beck). Both theorists have described points of contact between their theories andevolutionary models (Beck & Emery, 1985; Guisinger & Blatt, 1994).

One way to integrate the ideas of Blatt, Beck, and the evolutionary theorists is topostulate that there are two forms of vulnerability to depression, one involving

" Gilbert (1992) postulated multiple interacting evolved systems including mating, rank, alliance formation, careseeking }eliciting (attachment) and child care systems. The social competition hypothesis does not deny the existenceor importance for human behaviour of other behavioural systems; it simply asserts that the human capacity fordepression is a product of the social rank system.



Dependency, self -criticism and interpersonal behaviour 233

insecurity in the attachment system (dependency }sociotropy) and the other involving insecurity in the social rank system (self-criticism}autonomy). This position was ®rstarticulated by Gilbert (1988). Santor & Zuroå (1997) suggested instead, thatdependent and self-critical individuals are characterized by both insecure attachmentand insecure social rank, but that they employ diåerent strategies in response to theirdual insecurities. In the following sections we enumerate the major attachment andrank strategies and then review linkages between these strategies, and dependency and self-criticism.

Adult attachment strategies

Based on Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters & Wall’s (1978) descriptions of infantattachment patterns, Hazan & Shaver (1987) developed a typology of adult

attachment styles with three categories: secure, anxious}ambivalent and avoidant.Bartholomew & Horowitz (1991) subsequently diåerentiated `dismissive’ avoidantindividuals who deny the importance of intimate relationships, and ` fearful ’avoidant individuals who acknowledge the importance of relationships, but avoidintimacy for fear of being hurt. The extent to which individuals’ attachment stylesare consistent over time, situations and relationships is a vexing theoretical issue. Theanxious, dismissing and fearful-avoidant styles will be treated as three sets of strategies that can be employed to manage insecurity in the attachment system.

Social rank strategies

According to Gilbert (1992), there are two basic strategies that are employed by humans in pursuing social rank. The evolutionarily older strategy is to controland}or dominate others by aggression, threats or coercion. The more recently evolved strategy is to display positive behaviours and characteristics that attractothers’ attention and win their approval and respect. For example, a member of a work group might attempt to attain rank within the group either through the ®rst

strategy, by interrupting others, criticizing their contributions, and ordering them todo things, or through the second strategy, by contributing useful information andpraising others’ contributions.

Dependency, attachment and social rank

Dependent individuals are said to experience `deep longings to be loved, cared for,nurtured and protected,’ but to lack con®dence that these needs will be met ;

consequently, they suåer from `intense and chronic fears of being abandoned and leftunprotected and uncared for’ (Blatt & Zuroå, 1992, p. 528). Highly dependentsubjects are expected to utilize strategies associated with anxious attachment, e.g.proximity-seeking, reassurance-seeking and direct attempts to elicit support in timesof stress (Blatt & Homann, 1992; Blatt & Maroudas, 1992).

Although attachment issues are central for dependent individuals, they are notoblivious to issues of rank. Dependent individuals are intensely concerned with




being esteemed as likeable, yet insecure concerning their standing on that dimension.There are many ways to signal that one is likeable, but perhaps the most importantis to act in a warm, agreeable fashion. Because dominating behaviour can beperceived as `not nice’, dependent people are expected to avoid attempts to dominateor control others. Dominant behaviour is also inconsistent with dependent people’sattachment strategies, because it signals `I am strong and don’t need help’.

The empirical literature is generally consistent with the predictions thatdependency is associated with anxious attachment, interpersonal warmth andsubmissiveness. Dependency in male and female college students correlated with self-reported anxious attachment (Zuroå & Fitzpatrick, 1995). Dependency in collegestudents also predicted higher levels of intimacy motivation (Mongrain & Zuroå,1995) and higher scores on agreeableness (Zuroå, 1994). Dependency was associated with inhibitions about expressing hostility in college students (Zuroå, Moskowitz,

Wielgus, Powers & Franko, 1983), adolescents (Fichman, Koestner & Zuroå, 1994)and psychiatric patients (Riley & McCranie, 1990). Santor & Zuroå (1997) foundthat dependent college women behaved submissively in a laboratory situation withclose friends.

The interpersonal circumplex (Wiggins, 1982, 1991) provides a convenientframework for summarizing research on the interpersonal behaviour of dependentindividuals. The four poles of the circumplex are dominance and submissiveness, which de®ne the axis of agency, and agreeableness and quarrelsomeness, which de®nethe axis of communion. The theory and research reviewed above imply that

dependency is positively associated with communion and negatively associated withagency.

Self -criticism, attachment and social rank

Self-critics are ambivalent about interpersonal relationships because while they desireothers’ respect and approval, they fear disapproval and loss of control and autonomy (Blatt & Shichman, 1983). Emotionally intimate relationships are especially threatening for self-critics, because they fear that revealing their thoughts and

feelings will lead to disapproval and rejection. Consequently, self-criticism isexpected to be associated with fearful-avoidant strategies and with the avoidance of warm behaviours that promote emotional intimacy.

Zuroå & Fitzpatrick (1995) found, as expected, that self-criticism correlated withself-report measures of fearful-avoidant attachment. In addition, self-criticism wasassociated with fewer intimacy strivings in college women and with fewer a¬liativestrivings in college men (Mongrain & Zuroå, 1995). Self-critical college men and women described themselves as low on agreeableness (Zuroå, 1994).

Self-critics’ rank strategies are likely to be sensitive to situational cues. In thepresence of lower-ranking individuals, they may attempt to buttress their rank by engaging in dominant or overtly aggressive behaviour. Dominant, aggressivebehaviour may be inhibited in the presence of higher-ranking individuals. Similarly,self-critics may attempt to demonstrate valued characteristics such as intelligence,attractiveness and conscientiousness only when they expect to be able to outshineothers. Because of this situational speci®city, self-criticism may not be consistently




associated with any one strategy for pursuing rank. Indeed, no clear pattern emergesacross studies examining self-criticism and variables that re¯ect strategies forpursuing rank (Alden & Bieling, 1995; Fichman, Koestner & Zuroå, 1997; Riley & McCranie, 1990; Santor & Zuroå, 1997; Zuroå et al ., 1983).

Research on the interpersonal behaviour of self-critics is again conveniently summarized in terms of the interpersonal circumplex. Self-criticism is consistently negatively associated with variables related to the communal axis, but has not beenconsistently associated with the agentic axis.

Overview of study

Interpersonal behaviour was assessed in terms of the two dimensions underlying theinterpersonal circumplex, agency and communion (Moskowitz, 1994; Wiggins,1991). Agency was de®ned as the diåerence between measures of the dominant andsubmissive poles, and communion was de®ned as the diåerence between measures of the agreeable and quarrelsome poles.

Participants completed a brief form after each social interaction during a 20-day period. They indicated which behaviours they had performed during the interactionand rated their moods during the interaction. The behaviour -based measures of agency and communion were derived from these forms. Participants also completed therevised Interpersonal Adjective Scales (IAS-R ; Wiggins, Trapnell & Phillips, 1988).

The adjectives on the IAS-R refer to cognitive, aåective and motivationalcharacteristics rather than overt behaviours. The IAS-R measures are denoted thetrait -based measures of agency and communion to distinguish them from thebehaviour-based measures.

Predictions

Average levels of negative and positive aåect . Previous studies found that self-criticism was

associated with experiencing social interactions as relatively unpleasant (Zuroå,Stotland, Sweetman, Craig & Koestner, 1995) and with negative aåect measuredover a one-week period (Mongrain & Zuroå, 1995). Self-criticism was alsoassociated with lower levels of positive aåect (Mongrain & Zuroå, 1995). It wastherefore predicted that self-criticism would be associated with greater negative aåectand less positive aåect averaged over the 20-day recording period. Dependency wasrelated to reports of negative aåect, but not to ratings of unpleasantness of speci®cinteractions, nor to reported positive aåect (Mongrain & Zuroå, 1995 ; Zuroå et al .,1995). Because previous results for dependency were inconsistent, no predictions

were made for average aåect.

Interpersonal behaviour . Dependency was predicted to be positively related to trait-based and behaviour-based communion, and negatively related to trait-based andbehaviour-based agency. Self-criticism was expected to be negatively related to self-reported and behaviour-based communion. Because the social interactions were




heterogenous in terms of others’ social rank, no predictions were made concerning self-criticism and agency.

Aåective correlates of interpersonal behaviour . Although highly dependent individualsmay avoid behaving agentically and self-critics may avoid behaving communally,social roles may require them to act against their inclinations. For example, a dependent individual who occupies a supervisory role will ®nd it necessary to directand evaluate subordinates. Self-critics will experience pressures to act warmly towards friends and family. Acting `against the grain’ may trigger anxieties relatedto insecurities in the attachment and rank systems. Thus, acting agentically wasexpected to elicit unpleasant aåect in dependent participants and acting communally was expected to elicit unpleasant aåect in self-critical participants. Acting agentically was also expected to elicit unpleasant aåect in self-critical participants because of their

fear of defeat in contests for rank.These hypotheses were tested using weighted two-stage regression analyses(Kenny, Kashy & Bolger, 1998; Moskowitz & Cote ! , 1995). The ®rst stage involved within-participant regressions. For each participant, the level of pleasant aåectreported for each interaction was regressed on behaviour-based agency for thatinteraction. Similar regression analyses were conducted using behaviour-basedcommunion to predict pleasant aåect. Unstandardized regression coe¬cients (slopes)from these within-participants analyses served as indices of the degree to whichpleasant aåect was experienced when engaging in agentic or communal behaviour.

In the second stage, the regression coe¬cients for each individual were related todependency and self-criticism using weighted multiple regression. These analysesanswered questions of the form, `Do the magnitude and direction of the relationbetween engaging in agentic behaviour and experiencing pleasant aåect depend onthe individual’s level of dependency?’ It was predicted that for participants scoring high on dependency, agentic behaviour would be associated with unpleasant aåect,and that for those scoring high on self-criticism, both communal and agenticbehaviour would be associated with unpleasant aåect.

Discriminating more and less mature forms of dependency

Additional analyses were undertaken to assess the value of recent distinctionsbetween more and less mature forms of dependency. Rude & Burnham (1995) usedfactor analysis to identify `neediness’ and `connectedness’ subfactors within a poolof dependency items drawn from the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ).Using a diåerent statistical technique, Blatt, Zohar, Quinlan, Zuroå & Mongrain(1995) identi®ed subsets of DEQ items that they characterized as assessing

` dependence’ and ` relatedness ’. Both groups of investigators found that dysphoria was more strongly related to the less mature form of dependency (neediness anddependence), and suggested that relations between DEQ-dependency and measuresof maladjustment might be attenuated by its blending of more and less mature formsof dependency. The present authors repeated the analyses described previously,replacing dependency with measures of neediness and connectedness and anticipating that stronger relations would be obtained with neediness than connectedness.




Method Participants

Participants were recruited using newspaper advertisements announcing a study of social interaction.The advertisements oåered $100 to adults who were working at least 30 hours a week. The ®rst 50 male

and the ®rst 50 female callers were recruited. For the purpose of another study, 23 people were addedto increase the number of individuals in stable romantic relationships. A total of 119 people (57 menand 72 women) completed the study. Participants ranged in age from 20 to 69 years and held a variety of occupations (e.g. secretary, counsellor, librarian and data analyst). Of the participants, 42% weremarried or co-habitating, 53% were single and 4% were separated or divorced.

Procedure

Event -contingent recording . Participants attended a meeting at which the procedure was explained. They were told that they would be completing record forms to monitor their social interactions every day for

20 days. Participants were asked to complete a form for each signi®cant interaction (de®ned as aninteraction lasting at least 5 min) up to a maximum of 10 forms per day. Participants were asked tocomplete the form as soon as possible after the social interaction and to mail each day’s forms on thefollowing day.

Participants were also given signalling devices (beepers) and told that they would be signalled threetimes a day during the week and twice a day on the weekend. During the week, the beepers signalledat random times, once during the morning, once in the afternoon and once during the evening; on the weekend, the morning signal was omitted. Participants were asked to record the times of the signal ona separate daily form. Records of signal times were kept to ensure that participants were keeping recordsthroughout the day.

Participants were reminded to record information for all interactions and not to limit themselves torecording one interaction after each signal. These instructions appear to have been successful, becauseparticipants completed an average of six forms per day.

Record forms. The record form provided a list of behaviours and aåects that could occur during a socialinteraction and requested information about the situation in which the social interaction occurred. A complete list of the 46 behaviour items is available (Moskowitz, 1994).# Examples of items representing agreeableness were: Ì smiled and laughed with others’ and Ì expressed aåection with words orgestures ’. Quarrelsomeness was represented by items such as, Ì made a sarcastic comment’ and Ìconfronted the others about something I did not like’. Dominance corresponded to items such as, Ìasked the other to do something’ and ` I made a suggestion’. Examples of items representing

submissiveness were: Ì gave in’ and Ì avoided taking the lead or being responsible’.Participants were asked to indicate which of the behaviours they had engaged in during the social

interaction. Previous work had indicated that when participants were given the same form to completeevery day, they quickly adopted a response set of checking the same behaviours for every interaction.So, four forms were used. Participants were given: form 1 on day 1 to complete for all interactions onthat day, form 2 on day 2, form 3 on day 3, form 4 on day 4, and then the rotation was begun againand repeated for the 20 days of the study. The behaviours representing dominance, agreeableness,submissiveness and quarrelsomeness were divided equally among the four forms. Six or seven ®lleritems were embedded among these items on each form.

Aåects. Nine aåect items were listed which corresponded to the items used to assess aåect valence by Diener & Emmons (1984). The positive aåect items were : happy, pleased, enjoyment}fun and joyful.

# There were 12 items for each dimension of behaviour. One behaviour was used for both the dominance and thequarrelsome scales (Ì criticized the other’), and one behaviour was used for both the submissiveness and theagreeableness scales (` I went along with the other’). The overlap in scale items was acceptable, because items on oneaxis of the circumplex are expected to have varying values on the other axis. It is theoretically plausible that onebehaviour re¯ects both dominance and quarrelsomeness and that another behaviour re¯ects both submissiveness andagreeableness.




The negative aåect items were: worried}anxious, frustrated, angry }hostile, unhappy and depressed}blue. These represent each half of the pleasant}unpleasant dimension of circumplex models of emotion(Larsen & Diener, 1992 ; Russell, 1980). Participants were asked to rate how they felt on each aåect itemusing a 0 (`did not occur’) to 6 (`extremely’) scale. An aåect was considered to have occurred during an interaction when it was rated with a scale value of at least 1.

Construction of behaviour scores . Scores for the four poles of the circumplex (dominance, submissiveness,agreeableness and quarrelsomeness) were constructed both at the level of individual social interactionsand aggregated over all the interactions during the 20 days. There were several steps in the constructionof the aggregated scores. First, frequencies were tallied for the number of times each behaviour waschecked over the 20 days. Second, a score for each pole was calculated by computing the meanfrequency of the behaviours corresponding to the pole. Third, ipsatized scores were constructed by subtracting the mean frequency for all behaviours from the score for each pole. Fourth, scores wereadjusted for diåering numbers of forms completed by participants by dividing by the number of forms.Participants varied in the number of forms they completed. The mean number of forms completed was125.29 (SD5 37.07; range: 43±200). The behaviour-based scores re¯ected the frequency with which

behaviours corresponding to a circumplex pole were checked, adjusted for a participant’s general rateof behaviour (c.f. Horowitz, Rosenberg, Baer, Ureno & Villasenor, 1988) and the number of formscompleted.

Behaviour-based measures of dominance and submissiveness were negatively correlated, r (117)52. 64, p !.001, as were behaviour-based measures of agreeableness and quarrelsomeness, r (117)52. 84, p !.001. Measures of agency and communion were obtained by subtracting scores for theappropriate poles. Agency and communion were slightly correlated, r (117)5 .23, p !.05.

A similar procedure was used for the construction of scores for individual social interactions, exceptthat the fourth stepÐadjusting for number of forms completedÐwas not applicable.

Construction of aåect scores . Measures of positive and negative aåect were constructed both for individual

social interactions and aggregated over the 20 days. First, frequencies were tallied for the number of times each of the nine aåects was rated as occurring throughout the 20 days. Second, scores werecalculated for the two aåect scales by computing the mean frequency of the positive aåect items and thenegative aåect items. Third, scores were divided by the number of forms completed by the participant.

A similar procedure was used for the construction of negative and positive aåect scores for each socialinteraction. A pleasant aåect score was then calculated by subtracting the negative aåect score from thepositive aåect score for the interaction.

Validity of the event -contingent recording method . There is considerable evidence for the convergent anddiscriminant validity of the event-contingent recording method. The pattern of correlations for

interpersonal behaviours generally corresponded to structural predictions based on the interpersonalcircumplex (Moskowitz, 1994; Moskowitz & Cote ! , 1995). Moskowitz (1994) found signi®cantcorrelations between trait-based and behaviour-based measures of the four circumplex poles, ranging from .25 for the dominance pole to .47 for the submissiveness pole. The behaviour-based scores alsoresponded predictably to variations in situations (Moskowitz, Suh & Desaulniers, 1994).

Diener & Emmons (1984) provided support for the reliability and validity of the aåect adjectives forassessing positive and negative aåect. Consistent with their theorizing and research, it was found that within brief time intervals, positive and negative aåect were strongly inversely related (Moskowitz &Cote ! , 1995). This ®nding justi®es the creation of the pleasant aåect scores for each interaction. Positiveand negative aåect aggregated over 20 days have been found to be independent (Diener & Emmons,1984; Moskowitz & Cote ! , 1995). Consequently, an overall aåect valence score was not created.

Interpersonal Trait Measure

The IAS±R consists of adjectives for which an individual assesses self-applicability. Individualscompleted the IAS±R at the end of the training session before the 20-day monitoring period. Scores were calculated for the variables lying at the four poles of the circumplex. Scores for the agency polescorrelated 2. 62, p !.001; scores for the two communion poles correlated 2. 59, p !.001. The poles




were then combined to produce trait measures of the two underlying dimensions. Trait-based agency and trait-based communion were unrelated, r (117)52. 10, p !.25. Correlations between trait-basedand behaviour-based measures were small but statistically signi®cant for both agency, r (117)5 .27,

p !.001, and communion, r (117)5 .26, p !.001.

Dependency and self -criticism . Participants completed the DEQ (Blatt, D’A°itti & Quinlan, 1976) in thelaboratory shortly after the 20-day recording period. The DEQ includes 66 items that tap a broad rangeof feelings about the self and others, but that do not systematically assess the symptoms of clinicaldepression (Blatt et al ., 1976). The items with the highest factor loadings for dependency are: ` I oftenthink about the danger of losing someone who is close to me’ and Àfter an argument I feel very lonely’. The corresponding items for self-criticism are : `There is a considerable diåerence between how I am now and how I would like to be’ and Ì often feel guilty’.

The psychometric properties of the dependency and self-criticism scales of the DEQ are satisfactory, with high internal consistencies and high test-retest reliabilities (Blatt et al ., 1976; Zuroå et al ., 1983;Zuroå et al ., 1990). Theoretically consistent results were obtained in studies relating the DEQ to the®ve-factor model of personality (Zuroå, 1994) and adult attachment styles (Zuroå & Fitzpatrick, 1995).

In the present sample, dependency and self-criticism were not signi®cantly related, r (117)5.

11.

Neediness and connectedness. Rude & Burnham (1995) selected 29 DEQ items which were heavily weightedin the factor scoring system for dependency. They then conducted a principal factors analysis in a combined sample of males and females using squared multiple correlations to estimate communalities.Two factors were retained and subjected to varimax rotation. To test the generalizability of Rude &Burnham’s results, we applied the same data analytic strategy to the large sample of undergraduatesdescribed in Zuroå et al . (1990). The resulting factors were very similar to Rude & Burnham’s. Items with high loadings on the neediness factor referred to fears of being alone or abandoned (e.g. Ì becomefrightened when I feel alone ’) and feelings of being unable or unwilling to function independently (e.g.

` Without support from others who are close to me, I would be helpless’). Items with high loadings onthe connectedness factor referred to valuing relationships (e.g. Ì would feel like I was losing animportant part of myself if I lost a very close friend ’) and anxiety about hurting or oåending others (e.g.Ì worry a lot about oåending or hurting someone who is close to me’). The connectedness items arecharacterized as more mature because they evidence an appreciation of other people’s feelings and needsand a concern with relationships rather than with need grati®cation.

Encouragedby the similarity of the factor structure to that reported by Rude & Burnham, we appliedthe same factor scoring coe¬cients to calculate neediness and connectedness scores in the presentsample$ . Neediness and connectedness were signi®cantly but not highly correlated, r (117)5 .36, p !

.001. Neediness and connectedness correlated .74 and .78 with dependency and .47 ( p !.001) and .27( p !.01), respectively, with self-criticism.

Results

We begin by reporting zero-order correlations between the personality variables andthe dependent variables. Subsequent multiple regression analyses are presented infour sections. First, we report the relations between dependency and self-criticismand levels of negative and positive aåect over the 20-day recording period. Second, we report the relations between dependency and self-criticism and the circumplex

dimensions. Third, we report how the regression coe¬cients (slopes) indexing theassociations between agentic and communal behaviour and pleasant aåect werelinked to dependency and self-criticism. Finally, we report the results of analysesusing neediness and connectedness in place of dependency.

$ The factor scoring procedure requires complete data for each participant. Six of our participants were missing data for a single DEQ item. Rather than discard these six participants, we assigned the mid-point of the DEQ’s responsescale (4) to replace the missing data points.




Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations for the personality variables,negative and positive aåect, the circumplex variables and the regression coe¬cientsfrom the within-participants analyses. One sex diåerence was found: women scoredsigni®cantly higher on trait-based communion, F(1,115)5 10.6, p !.01.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for independent and dependent variables

Men Women

Variable M SD M SD

Personality Dependency 2. 92 .87 2. 71 1.00Self-criticism 2. 07 1.01 2. 28 1.10Neediness 2

.

51.

91 2.

47.

88Connectedness 2. 28 .87 2. 17 .93

AåectNegative aåect .29 .20 .29 .22Positive aåect .80 .21 .81 .14

Circumplex axes: trait-based Agency (IAS±R) 2.28 1.71 1.44 2.01Communion (IAS±R) 4.11 2.47 3.31 2.34

Circumplex axes: behaviour-based

Agency 4.

11 2.

47 3.

31 2.

34Communion 8.12 3.07 7.39 2.70

Regression coe¬cients Agency±Pleasant aåect .55 .44 .57 .52Communion±Pleasant aåect .89 .40 1.03 .42

Note. There were 57 men and 62 women for all measures except the IAS±R, for which there were 56men and 61 women.

Correlational analysesTable 2 presents zero-order correlations between the personality variables and thedependent variables, for men and women combined. As predicted, dependency wassigni®cantly negatively related to both trait-based and behaviour-based agency andpositively related to trait-based communion. Self-criticism was signi®cantly related toall of the trait, behaviour and aåect variables. High scores on self-criticism wereassociated with more negative aåect, less positive aåect, less trait-based andbehaviour-based communion, and less trait-based agency and behaviour-based

agency. Self-criticism was also negatively related to the regression coe¬cientsindexing the communion-pleasant aåect and agency-pleasant aåect relations. That is,highly self-critical participants were less likely to experience pleasant aåect inconjunction with agentic and communal behaviour than were those low in self-criticism. Neediness and connectedness were related to completely diåerent variables,suggesting that the distinction in types of dependency is important. Needinesspredicted more negative aåect, less agency and a weaker association between




communal behaviour and pleasant aåect. Connectedness predicted greater com-munion and a weaker association between agentic behaviour and pleasant aåect.

Table 2. Correlations of personality variables with dependent variables

Variable Dependency Self-criticism Neediness Connectedness

AåectNegative aåect .07 .36*** .27** .03Positive aåect .00 2. 23* 2. 09 2. 06

Circumplex axes: trait-based Agency (IAS±R) 2. 33*** 2. 20* 2. 50*** 2. 13Communion (IAS±R) .26** 2. 21* 2. 01 .26**

Circumplex axes: behaviour-based Agency 2.19* 2.

18* 2.29** 2.

11Communion .00 2. 26** 2. 15 .03

Regression coe¬cientsa

Agency±Pleasant aåect 2. 12 2. 24** 2. 11 2. 25**Communion±pleasant aåect 2. 02 2. 46*** 2. 19* 2. 13

a These correlations were calculated using the precisions of the estimated slopes to weight eachparticipant’s data.

Note. There were 57 men and 62 women for all measures except the IAS±R, for which there were 56

men and 61 women.* p !.05; ** p !

.01; *** p !

.001.

Initial regression analyses

Each dependent variable was subjected to hierarchical multiple regression (Cohen &Cohen, 1983) including main eåects for sex, dependency, self-criticism and the three,2-way interactions. Of the 24 tested interactions, only one was signi®cant at the .05level. Given the likelihood that this eåect was attributable to chance, we decided to

report results for simultaneous regression models including main eåects only. Theseregression analyses are summarized in Table 3.

Negative and positive aåect

As predicted, participants scoring high on self-criticism reported higher negativeaåect and lower positive aåect. Dependency and sex were unrelated to aåect.

Agency and communion

Dependency was expected to be associated with higher levels of communion andlower levels of agency. Higher levels of communion were demonstrated using thetrait-based measure (IAS±R), but not the behaviour-based measure of communion.Lower levels of agency were demonstrated using the trait-based measure andmarginal support ( p !.10) was obtained with the behaviour-based measure.




T a b l e 3 .

S u m m a

r y o f r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s e

s u s i n g s e x ,

d e p e n d e n c

y a n d s e l f - c r i t i c i s m

a s p

r e d i c t o r s

P r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s

S e x

D e p e n d e n c

y

S e l f - c r i t i c i s m

D e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e

R #

b

s r #

t

b

s r #

t

b

s r #

t

A å e c t

N e g a t i v e a å e c t

.

1 3 * * *

.

0 2

.

0 0

. 2

0

.

0 2

.

0 0

.

2 2

.

3 6

.

1 3

4 .

0 9 * * *

P o s i t i v e a å e c t

.

0 6

.

0 3

.

0 0

. 3

0

.

0 2

.

0 0

.

2 7

2 .

2 4

.

0 5

2

2 .

5 5 *

C i r c u m p l e x a x e s : t

r a i t - b a s e d

A g e n c y

.

1 6 * * *

.

1 5

.

0 2

1 . 7

0

2 .

3 3

.

1 1

2

3 .

7 6 * * *

2 .

1 4

.

0 2

2

1 .

5 7

C o m m u n i o n

.

1 9 * * *

.

2 5

.

0 6

2 . 8

7 * *

.

2 7

.

0 7

3 .

1 1 * *

2 .

2 3

.

0 5

2

2 .

6 6 * *

C i r c u m p l e x a x e s : b

e h a v i o u r - b a s e d

A g e n c y

.

0 9 *

2 .

1 6

.

0 2

2

1 . 7

3

2 .

1 4

.

0 2

2

1 .

5 0

2 .

1 9

.

0 3

2

2 .

0 5 *

C o m m u n i o n

.

0 9 *

2 .

1 5

.

0 2

2

1 .

6

5

.

0 6

.

0 0

.

6 4

2 .

2 8

.

0 8

2

3 .

1 1 * *

R e g r e s s i o n c o e ¬ c i e n t s a

A g e n c y ± P l e a s a n t a å e c t

.

0 7 *

.

0 7

.

0 0

. 7

2

2 .

0 9

.

0 1

2 .

9 9

2 .

2 1

.

0 4

2

2 .

3 3 *

C o m m u n i o n ± P l e a s a n t a å e c t

.

2 6 * * *

.

2 3

.

0 5

2 . 7

8 * *

.

0 0

.

0 0

.

0 1

2 .

4 5

.

2 0

2

5 .

5 5 * * *

a

T h e s e a n a l y s e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d u s i n g t h e p r e c i

s i o n o f t h e e s t i m a t e d s l o p e t

o w e i g h t e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t ’ s d a t a .

N o t e . P r e d i c t o r s w e r

e e n t e r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

* p !

.

0 5 ; * * p !

. 0 1 ; * * * p !

.

0 0 1 .




Self-criticism was expected to be associated with lower levels of communion; thisprediction was supported using both trait-based and behaviour-based measures. Although no prediction was made for agency, self-criticism was negatively related toboth trait-based ( p !.05) and behaviour-based agency ( p !.06).

In summary, clear support was obtained for predictions for self-criticism. Self-critical participants were less communal according to both the questionnaire and theevent-contingent recording data. Partial support was found for predictions fordependency. Dependent participants described themselves as high on communaltraits and low on agentic traits, but the behaviour-based measures documented only a trend towards lower agency.

Aåective consequences of agentic and communal interpersonal behaviour

Within-participants regression analyses were conducted regressing each participant’spleasant aåect scores on his or her agency scores and, in separate analyses, his or hercommunion scores. The regression coe¬cients for the agency±pleasant aåect relationranged from 2. 17 to 2.59. For 114 of the 119 participants, the slope was positive,indicating that for the large majority of participants, behaving agentically wasassociated with pleasant aåect. The regression coe¬cients for the communion±pleasant aåect relation ranged from 2. 02 to 1.98. For 118 of the 119 participants,behaving communally was associated with pleasant aåect.

In the second stage of analysis, the regression coe¬cients were regressed on sex,dependence and self-criticism, entered simultaneously. Each participant’s data was weighted by the precision of the ®rst stage estimates, the reciprocal of the estimatedslope sampling variance. The predicted eåects of dependency were not obtained.However, the predicted eåect of self-criticism on the agency±pleasant aåect relation was obtained, F(1,115)5 5.42, p !.05. The link between behaving agentically andfeeling pleasant aåect was weaker among participants scoring high on self-criticismthan those scoring low on self-criticism. The predicted eåect of self-criticism on thecommunion±pleasant aåect relation was also obtained, F(1,115)5 30.85, p !.001.

The link between behaving communally and experiencing pleasant aåect was weakeramong participants scoring higher on self-criticism.

Eåects of neediness and connectedness

Each dependent variable was reanalyzed using hierarchical regression with sex, self-criticism, neediness, connectedness, sex 3 neediness and sex 3 connectedness aspredictors. None of the interactions was signi®cant, so main eåects models were

calculated with sex, self-criticism, neediness and connectedness entered simul-taneously.Immature dependency (neediness) was associated with low levels of agency

according to both the trait-based (b 52. 55, sr #5 .21, p !.001) and behaviour-based measures (b 52. 24, sr # 5 .04, p !.05). In contrast, mature dependency (connectedness) was not associated with low agency. Connectedness was signi®cantly positively related to trait-based communion (b 5 .33, sr #5 .09, p !.001). In




addition, connectedness was negatively related to the agency±pleasant aåect relation(b 52. 21, sr # 5 .03, p !.05). The link between behaving agentically and feeling pleasant aåect was weaker among participants who were concerned aboutmaintaining their connectedness with others.

In summary, participants characterized by neediness were low in agency, but whenthey did behave agentically, they were no less likely than other participants toexperience pleasant aåect. Participants characterized by connectedness were not low in agency, but when they acted agentically they were less likely than otherparticipants to experience pleasant aåect.

Discussion

According to the two-factor evolutionary model, dependent and self-critical

individuals suåer from insecurities regarding both attachment and social rank, butthey diåer in their strategies for dealing with those insecurities. Strategic diåerencescan be summarized using the conceptual framework of the interpersonal circumplex.Dependency was predicted to be positively associated with the communal axis(agreeable±quarrelsome) and negatively associated with the agentic axis (dominant±submissive). Self-criticism was predicted to be negatively associated with thecommunal axis. No prediction was made concerning self-criticism and agency because of anticipated situational speci®city in self-critics’ dominance strategies. Bothdependent and self-critical individuals were expected to experience unpleasant aåect

when they acted against their behavioural tendencies. In addition, self-critics wereexpected to experience unpleasant aåect when they engaged in agentic behaviour.The predictions for self-criticism received considerable support. The resultsfor dependency were less consistent, but intriguing patterns emerged for thesubcomponents of dependency, neediness and connectedness.

Self -criticism

As predicted, self-criticism was associated with lower levels of both trait-based and

behaviour-based communion. This ®nding is consistent with self-critics’ postulateduse of fearful-avoidant strategies. Self-critics may avoid displaying warmth because warmth fosters interpersonal intimacy and intimacy increases the risk of being hurtby others.

The association between self-criticism and lower levels of agency is not inconsistent with the situational speci®city that we expected. The participants were all employed,and many of the rated interactions took place at work. It may be that the self-criticsfrequently found themselves confronted with peers or high-ranking individuals with

whom agentic behaviour was risky and so was avoided. We cannot know with certainty whether self-critics tended to act non-agentically and non-communally within the same social interactions. However, it is interesting to consider the possibility that self-critics frequently acted in a quarrelsome,submissive fashion and infrequently acted in an agreeable, dominant fashion.Quarrelsome submissive behaviour might result from an inability to acceptsubordinate status. Such behaviour might also antagonize others, interrupting




a¬liative processes that promote reconciliation and the termination of theinvoluntary subordinate strategy, and increasing vulnerability to episodes of depression. Low levels of agreeable dominance might result either from inhibitionattributable to fear of the possible consequences of such behaviour or from socialskill de®cits. Agreeable dominance is a highly eåective way to achieve social rank anda low level of agreeable dominance, whatever its origin, would be likely to havenegative implications for an individual’s social rank that would increase vulnerability to depression.

Communal and agentic behaviours were associated with pleasant aåect forvirtually all participants. This is not surprising from an evolutionary perspective.Communal behaviour enhances social bonds, agentic behaviour enhances socialrank and these outcomes are highly desirable for most people (Gilbert, 1992). Moreinteresting is the ®nding that self-criticism was negatively related to the strength of

both relations. Highly self-critical individuals were less likely to experience pleasantaåect in conjunction with behaving communally or agentically. It may be that theinterpersonal closeness stimulated by communal behaviour arouses self-critics’ fearsof being hurt in relationships, and that self-critics’ attempts at agency activate theirfears of retaliatory attempts to dominate, humiliate, or control them. Consequently,these behaviours are experienced as less pleasant. It is also possible that self-critics areless skilled at behaving communally or agentically and therefore are less successfulin eliciting positive, rewarding responses from others.

Self-criticism was associated with high levels of average negative aåect and low

levels of average positive aåect, as it was in prior studies. The present resultscontribute to our understanding of why self-critics lead such bleak lives. Self-criticsengage less frequently in the communal and agentic behaviours that generate pleasantaåect in non-self-critics, and even when they do act communally or agentically, they derive relatively less pleasure from doing so.

Dependency

Highly dependent participants described themselves as high in communion and low

in agency, as had been predicted. However, the behaviour-based measures revealedonly a trend for lower agency, and the predicted eåects of dependency on thecommunion±pleasant aåect and agency±pleasant aåect relations were not obtained.The analyses using neediness and connectedness suggested that theorizing about` dependency’ may obscure important diåerences between more and less matureforms of dependency.

These analyses revealed that the relations between dependency and communionand between dependency and agency re¯ected diåerent aspects of dependency. It was

neediness that predicted low levels of trait-based and behaviour-based agency, andconnectedness that predicted trait-based communion. Thus, our prediction thatdependency would be negatively associated with agency was supported for the lessmature form of dependency and our prediction that dependency would be associated with communion was partially supported for the more mature form of dependency.

Individuals with high levels of connectedness are only mildly insecure in theirattachments. Diåerences in degree of insecurity may explain the results of the present




study. Because the participants with high scores on connectedness valuedrelationships and were only mildly anxious about being hurt in relationships, they had the capacity and the willingness to act communally towards others. They did notespecially enjoy agency, because they were sensitive to its possible negative impacton others’ feelings. In contrast, participants with high levels of neediness fearedlosing emotional support from others and felt unable to function competently andindependently. Needy participants may have avoided attempts to behave agentically because they felt unable to do so successfully and because they feared triggering anger, rejection and abandonment by others.

Evolutionary models of vulnerability to depression

We wish to be cautious in the claims made for evolutionary approaches, because the

hypotheses we tested are not uniquely deducible from evolutionary principles.However, the evolutionary perspective was of considerable heuristic value and thesocial rank theory provides a useful corrective to the ®eld’s almost exclusive focuson attachment issues.

If evolutionary models are pursued, the available evidence is encouraging of attempts to consider interactions among multiple evolved behavioural systems. Theinterpersonal correlates of self-criticism and dependency are too diverse to explainsolely in terms of the attachment system or the rank system. For example, self-criticism has been related not only to lower agency, but also to fearful avoidant

attachment (Zuroå & Fitzpatrick, 1995). Dependency has been related not only toanxious attachment (Zuroå & Fitzpatrick, 1995), but also to laboratory observationsof submissiveness (Santor & Zuroå, 1997), and the neediness component of dependency has been related to lower levels of behaviour-based agency.

Psychologists have applied the concepts of attachment theory to many aspects of adult relationships, but it is possible that attachment should be more narrowly construed as referring to care-seeking }eliciting behaviours. Much of adult socialbehaviour would then be viewed as mediated by a distinct system for forming andmaintaining alliances within a social group (Gilbert, 1992). Successfully forming

social alliances can contribute to social rank, and impaired capacity for forming alliances could well contribute to vulnerability to depression. From this point of view, self-critics’ low levels of communal behaviour and lack of pleasure in behaving communally could be interpreted as evidence of impairments in the allianceformation system rather than, or in addition to, the attachment system.

Methodological issues

The present study was the ®rst to collect naturalistic, non-retrospective data concerning the interpersonal behaviour of vulnerable individuals, and so is animportant advance over previous studies, which relied exclusively on retrospectiveself-report measures. This study also demonstrated the applicability of the techniqueof analyzing slopes derived from within-participants regressions to vulnerability research, a procedure which previously had been used primarily by personality psychologists (e.g. Moskowitz & Cote ! , 1995).




Despite methodological advances, numerous challenges remain. The ®rst pertainsto the measurement of interpersonal behaviour. We focused on the axes of thecircumplex (agency and communion) to achieve conceptual economy and to reducethe number of statistical tests to be performed; the substantial negative correlationsbetween opposite poles justi®ed this strategy. Nevertheless, it would be desirableeventually to examine the social behaviour of vulnerable individuals at a more ®ne-grained level, including the variables lying at the four poles and between the poles.Furthermore, our measures of submissiveness did not attempt to distinguishvoluntary submissiveness from involuntary submissiveness,but it is the latter that ispostulated to be the antecedent of the ISS. Distinguishing the two forms of submissiveness is an important challenge for future research.

Second, we would like to see event-contingent recording methods applied tovulnerable individuals as they enter episodes of depression, during the episodes, and

during remission or recovery. In part this is necessary to address questions of generalizability, but equally important is the opportunity to study changes in theinterpersonal correlates of dependency and self-criticism as individuals move in andout of episodes.

Third, we would like to see ®ne-grained analyses directed at uncovering situationalspeci®city in the interpersonalbehaviour of vulnerable individuals. Speci®city shouldbe sought at the level of broad classes of situations (e.g. with supervisors,supervisees, friends and lovers), and also at the level of speci®c interactional partnersvarying in characteristics such as gender and dominance.

Finally, experimental studies are needed to examine the causal mechanisms wehave proposed. Our theorizing focused on the aåective consequences of acting inconsistently with one’s preferred attachment or rank strategies. It is possible,however, that aåective states determine the interpersonal strategies that people select.The present data cannot resolve this issue, because the behavioural and aåective data were collected concurrently. It would be useful to induce vulnerable individuals toact communally or agentically and to examine their subsequent aåective andcognitive reactions. Conversely, it would be useful to manipulate aåective state andobserve its eåect on agentic and communal behaviour.

Implications for vulnerability research

Interpersonal behaviour is likely to be implicated in the vulnerability process in a number of ways (Zuroå, 1992). Long-term trends in interpersonal behaviourin¯uence individuals’ vocational, social, and family environments. For example, self-critics’ low levels of agency and communion may be contributing factors to theirlower occupational and educational success and marital dissatisfaction (Zuroå,

Koestner & Powers, 1994). Interpersonal behaviour also contributes to stressgeneration processes (Gotlib & Hammen, 1992), resulting in vulnerable individuals’experiencing more stressful events (Mongrain & Zuroå, 1994). Interpersonalbehaviour also in¯uences potential stress-buåering processes; self-critics’ low levelsof communion may contribute to their perceived lack of social support (Moskowitz& Zuroå, 1991). Lastly, vulnerable individuals’ interpersonal behaviour can elicitcold or dominating responses from others that maintain their insecurities (Horowitz




et al ., 1991; Powers & Zuroå, 1988). A high priority for future research should bethe investigation of how the social behaviour of vulnerable individuals contributesto maladjustment and, in some cases, to clinically signi®cant depression.

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Fonds Pour La Formation De Chercheurs Et L’Aide A La Recherche (FCAR-Que ! bec).

The authors have greatly enjoyed and greatly bene®tted from discussions with Paul Gilbert about theevolutionary approach to depression. They are also grateful for his very detailed and thoughtfulcomments on this study.

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