Department of Sport Science, Tourism & LeisureDepartment of Sport Science, Tourism & Leisure

Sports Spectator Violence Sports Spectator Violence and Disorder.and Disorder.

Mike WeedMike Weed

Issues in Crowd BehaviourIssues in Crowd Behaviour

• What is the difference between ‘violence’‘violence’, ‘disorder’‘disorder’ and ‘carnivalesque behaviour’‘carnivalesque behaviour’?

• How are these terms defined by various interest groups - Fans? Police? Media? Policymakers?

• What are the influencing factors?

– The sport and its history and culture

– National context

– Emotion and Identity

Five Principal ExplanationsFive Principal Explanationsfor Football Hooliganismfor Football Hooliganism

Approach Principal Authors Time Period Data Context Explanation

Marxist Taylor (1971; 1982); Clarke (1978)

Late 1960s / early 1970s

Theoretical Domestic Class Conflict

Ethological / Social Psychological

Marsh, Rosser & Harre (1978); Marsh (1978; 1984)

Mid 1970s Empirical Domestic Dynamics and ‘rules’ of group behaviour

Figurational Dunning (1999); Williams, Dunning & Murphy (1989; 1990)

Early 1980s Empirical Domestic (+ later application to International)

Dynamics of the ‘rough’ working class

Psychological Reversal Theory

Kerr (1994) Mid 1980s – Mid 1990s

Theoretical Generic Individual metamotivations and search for arousal

Anthropological Armstrong (1998); Armstrong & Harris (1991)

1990s Empirical Domestic Dynamics of intra-town rivalry

Football Hooligans as Undesirable Sports TouristsFootball Hooligans as Undesirable Sports TouristsTowards a Typology of ExplanationsTowards a Typology of Explanations

• Routinisation and Purpose of Trip– Leisure Activities / Day-Trips / Short-Breaks / Holidays

• Ritual / Cultural Inversion– “…tourism involves for participants a separation from

normal ‘instrumental’ life and the concerns of making a living, and offers entry into another kind of moral state in which mental, expressive and cultural needs come to the fore”

• Tourism as the Consumption of Experiences– Hooliganism as a commodity

A Speculative Typology ofA Speculative Typology ofExplanations for Football HooliganismExplanations for Football Hooliganism

A Speculative Typology ofA Speculative Typology ofExplanations for Football HooliganismExplanations for Football Hooliganism

Marsh (1984), Marsh et al (1978)Marsh (1984), Marsh et al (1978)

• Examined hooliganism in late 1970s• Identified ‘hooligan careers’• Little violence, much posturing

– aggressive behaviour, taunting and baiting, boasting aggressive behaviour, taunting and baiting, boasting about ‘fights’about ‘fights’

• Fans would withdraw at point of physical violence, or rely on being dragged away by friends

• Attempting to make opposing fans back down first:– a game of bluff rather than actual fightinga game of bluff rather than actual fighting– BUT, this is never acknowledged, even within the BUT, this is never acknowledged, even within the

groupgroup

England Fans @ Euro 2000England Fans @ Euro 2000

• Tournament took place in June 2000 in Holland and Belgium

• England were eliminated after group stages

• Much media coverage of potential for trouble prior to tournament

• Widespread reporting of incidents before, during and after the match with Germany

England v Germany England v Germany (Saturday 17th June)(Saturday 17th June)Initial ResponseInitial Response

“Charleroi’s main square, the Place de Charles II, which

should have been the centre of celebration,

resembled a battleground. More than 200 English yobs attacked German

rivals, hurling chairs and sticks as they went”

(Sunday Express, 18/6/2000)

“I had watched with delight as the Belgian riot police had

waded into some 200 English thugs in Brussels the night

before…. I counted perhaps 300 hardened English

hooligans bringing fear and mayhem to Brussels and

Charleroi”(Times, 19/6/2000)

England v Germany England v Germany (Saturday 17th June)(Saturday 17th June)Minority VoicesMinority Voices

“…there was no riot in Charleroi. There was no ‘pitched battle’. There were no

‘rival mobs baying for blood’. The fighting between English and German

fans in the main square lasted for about 60 seconds. The clumsy but

effective intervention of Belgian armoured water cannon and mounted

police lasted about five minutes”(Independent, 19/6/2000)

“Compared to Marseilles in the

World Cup and even Copenhagen last

month and despite some vivid television pictures, it was little more than handbags

at 20 paces”(Times, 19/6/2000)

England v Germany England v Germany (Saturday 17th June)(Saturday 17th June)Contribution to violent imagesContribution to violent images

“It is clear that over the weekend the Belgians decided that a

heavy show of force with water cannon, tear gas, dogs and truncheons was the most

effective deterrent pour encourager les auters. At a

loss to know how to deal with the rioting they seemed to

have rounded up everybody in sight”

(Daily Telegraph, 19/6/2000)

“When the police eventually moved in yesterday their

behaviour was unbelievable, they tipped-off journalists and

TV crews that they were about to lift some Germans in

a bar and in the melee thousands surged towards the incident. That’s when it

‘went-off’ as they say. But of course it did!”

(Observer, 18/6/2000)

Dynamics of Euro 2000 IncidentsDynamics of Euro 2000 Incidents“…10 per cent are outright trouble makers

(‘the thugs’); 10 per cent respectable supporters (‘the fans’); and a depressing

80 per cent are good-humoured, aggressive, drunken, racist, foul-

mouthed boors (‘the slobs’). To tell the thugs and the slobs apart is almost

impossible. All were dressed in shorts and baseball caps and bandanas, sports

shoes and expensive watches. Most were in their late thirties or early forties.

The slobs try vaguely to keep out of trouble but are all too happy to pitch in

once the aggro begins…. [The answer] is to appeal to the better nature of the slobs and isolate the thugs who are

beyond reason”(Independent, 19/6/2000)

“…while only 10% want to start trouble, another

30% hang on to their coat tails and perhaps more behave in a way that is

unacceptable to any civilised community…. There was one in the crowd in Charleroi on Saturday. Shirt off,

swaying, on each chorus of No Surrender he thrust

out his arm in a Nazi salute. I didn’t see him hurt anybody, but is it

acceptable?”(Daily Express, 19/6/2000)

Explanations for Euro 2000 IncidentsExplanations for Euro 2000 IncidentsEnglish Social CultureEnglish Social Culture

“Of the 800 fans arrested by Belgian police, some were innocent, and

many were guilty of being no more loud and obnoxious than the average

pub on a Saturday”(Guardian, 20/6/2000)

“[the hooligan]…is likely to be a professional in his 20s, the sort of bloke you see down the boozer,

getting loud and giving it large; the kind of man who belts out ‘God Save

the Queen’ whenever he’s drunk”(Observer, 18/6/2000)

“…English popular culture encourages and even

glorifies such conduct…much of what passes for social life in England is

actually a low intensity riot”(Sunday Telegraph, 18/6/2000)

“The fundamental problem is that English social culture is

drunken and aggressive”(Guardian letters, 20/6/2000)

Explanations for Euro 2000 IncidentsExplanations for Euro 2000 IncidentsCultural InversionCultural Inversion

“There has been a hard core among England’s travelling

support for a long time which has a racist core. But probably more significant in numbers is a

body of people from various different clubs around the

country who wouldn’t dare, or wouldn’t even dream, of voicing such sort of sentiments in the

context of their home club support”

(Kevin Miles, FSA , 20/6/2000)

“In contrast to Germany, where a very clear division exists between

‘normal’ supporters and ‘hooligans’ which facilitates the

work of police officers, England’s supporters are a mix. An

apparently peaceful supporter can join the ranks of the

troublemakers. It all depends on circumstances, resistance to alcohol, or solidarity against a

common adversary”

(Le Monde, France, 19/6/2000)

Euro 2000 SummaryEuro 2000 Summary

• Context of English culture of patriotism and nationalism which manifested itself as:

• racial hatred• anti-IRA sentiments• range of insults harking back to war

• Little violence, but much unpleasant, unacceptable aggressive posturing:

• game of bluff rather than actual fighting• boasts of facing down other country’s fans, making them

surrender as had done in the war

• The above, alongside violent response of Belgian police contributed to images of riots:

““one sees aggression, but violence itself is surprisinglyone sees aggression, but violence itself is surprisinglyrare - one has, instead, an illusion of violence”rare - one has, instead, an illusion of violence”

(Marsh, 1984; 278)

Policy ResponsePolicy ResponseThe Football (Disorder) Act – December 2000The Football (Disorder) Act – December 2000

• Amended the Football Spectators Act (1989)

• Allowed Banning Orders to be made ‘on a ‘on a complaint’complaint’– ‘‘if it appears to the officer [that] the respondant has if it appears to the officer [that] the respondant has

at any time caused or contributed to any violence at any time caused or contributed to any violence or disorder in the UK or elsewhere’or disorder in the UK or elsewhere’

– Also states that ‘violence’ and ‘disorder’ are not limited to violence and disorder in connection with football.

Policy ResponsePolicy ResponseThe Football (Disorder) Act – December 2000The Football (Disorder) Act – December 2000

• Definition of ‘disorder’…

1. Stirring up hatred against a group of persons defined by reference to colour, race, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origins, or against an individual as a member of such a group

2. Using threatening, abusive or insulting words or behaviour or disorderly behaviour

3. Displaying any writing or other thing which is threatening, abusive or insulting

Further Policy ResponseFurther Policy ResponseHome Office Working Group on Football Disorder (March 2001)Home Office Working Group on Football Disorder (March 2001)

• First government report to recognise link between football hooliganism and wider social forces.

• Remit:– ‘…to reduce, by means other than new legislation,

the level of football disorder (Home Office, 2001)

• Recommended the replacement of the England Members England Members ClubClub (1300 members of which were identified by The Guardian as ‘the committed racist hardcore’‘the committed racist hardcore’ of England’s support) with a Club EnglandClub England that would focus on initiatives that would:– ‘‘encourage a fan base more reflective of a encourage a fan base more reflective of a

modern multi-cultural society’modern multi-cultural society’ (Home Office, 2001)

Further Policy ResponseFurther Policy ResponseHome Office Working Group on Football Disorder (March 2001)Home Office Working Group on Football Disorder (March 2001)

Racism or Xenophobia?Racism or Xenophobia?

‘‘The problem is xenophobia rather than racism. The problem is xenophobia rather than racism. There are people who follow England and refuse There are people who follow England and refuse

to accept anything foreign!’to accept anything foreign!’Perryman (2000)Perryman (2000)

‘‘This is perhaps THE central problem in tackling This is perhaps THE central problem in tackling “disorder” among fans following England, a xenophobic “disorder” among fans following England, a xenophobic

attitude that sees England and anything English as attitude that sees England and anything English as superior to any other nationality or culture’superior to any other nationality or culture’

Weed (2001)Weed (2001)

Department of Sport Science, Tourism & LeisureDepartment of Sport Science, Tourism & Leisure

Sports Spectator Violence Sports Spectator Violence and Disorder.and Disorder.

READING:READING:Weed, M. (2001). Ing-ger-land at Euro 2000: How Handbags at 20 Weed, M. (2001). Ing-ger-land at Euro 2000: How Handbags at 20 Paces was Portrayed as a Full Scale Riot. Paces was Portrayed as a Full Scale Riot. International Review International Review for the Sociology of Sportfor the Sociology of Sport, 36(4), 407-424., 36(4), 407-424.