Democracy Under Pressure

Democracy Under Pressure

Chapter 16

Foreign Policy and National Security


• September 7, 2004– Vice president Dick Cheney warned that if John Kerry

becomes president, the terrorists will attack the United States.

– The Pentagon announced that American casualties in Iraq had reached 1,000.

– Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced that American forces had pulled back from major Iraqi cities.

– These remarks were an illustration of how foreign policy and national security issues, as well as domestic issues, may influence voters and determine election outcomes.


• Nine days after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, President Bush in a speech to Congress detailed a global war against terrorism.– He stated that any country that harbored terrorists would be

considered an enemy.– In October Americans were fighting in Afghanistan, and by

mid-November the Taliban regime was overthrown.– Osama bin Laden eluded capture.– President Bush's approval rating reached 90 percent.


• There were strong signs that the September 11, 2001 attacks could have been prevented.– On August 6, 2001, President Bush was given a briefing

warning that bin Laden was planning attacks in the United States that could involve airliners.

– The CIA and FBI had evidence regarding pending attacks.

• D. Opponents criticized the way in which Attorney General John Ashcroft and the Justice Department rounded up more than 1,200 persons and detained them on immigration and other charges. Critics maintain that the government was infringing on civil liberties and constitutional rights.


• President Bush announced his strategy of preemptive war in September 2002. He called for a "regime change" in Iraq, citing without evidence that Saddam Hussein was in league with al Qaeda.– The CIA estimated that Iraq possessed weapons of mass

destruction and might have nuclear weapons by decade's end.

– In October 2002, Congress passed a joint resolution authorizing the use of force in Iraq.


– In his 2003 State of the Union address, Bush made it clear that the U.S. would use force in Iraq even without further UN help.

– In March 2003, the U.S. invaded Iraq with about 130,000 troops. Britain, Australia, and 43 nations provided various levels of support for the invasion.

– The weapons of mass destruction were never found. No evidence was found that proved Saddam Hussein had cooperated with al Qaeda or Osama bin laden.

– Intense political debate grew over what the U.S. government had and the failure of the intelligence agencies to provide warning of the 9/11 attacks.


• Foreign policy and national security are closely related to, and interwoven with, domestic politics.– National security is a broad concept that is generally used to

refer to the basic protection of the nation.• Presidents may not admit it, but they are always well aware of

the impact of foreign policy on politics at home.

• American foreign policy plays a role when voters choose their president. Events in other countries often affect public opinion.

– In an era of nuclear proliferation, terrorism, regional conflicts, famine, and genocide, American foreign policy plays a role when voters choose their president.


• The United States and World Affairs

American Foreign Policy

• Foreign policy is the sum of the goals, decisions, and actions that govern a nation's relations with the rest of the world.

• Foreign policy is a changing and elusive concept.• The preservation of national security is fundamental

to the formulation of foreign policy. It is a broad concept as the basic protection and defense of the nation.


• After the Second World War, there were two approaches in the formulation of foreign policy.– One view emphasized threats to American security posed by

the power of Communist or unfriendly nations.– Another regarded the security of the United States as

dependent on some form of world order "compatible with our values and interests."


• Security proved a relative term in the thermonuclear age. The United States sought to maintain a high level of military strength. Some argued that the arms burden was necessary to protect national security.– Critics of this view maintained that the United States used its

power to support military governments in Asia and Latin America, some of which violated human rights.

– Others argued that the United States had enough nuclear weapons and did not need more.


– The creation of a national security state has threatened liberties at home.

• Richard Nixon used wiretapping and the "plumbers" to justify the Watergate activities.

– As the Cold War fades into history, new global issues arise centering on challenges that transcend national boundaries.

– Globalization has focused on another major issue-multinational corporations whose activities cut across national borders. They seem more concerned with profits and ignore the social and environmental effects of their activities.

– Nuclear proliferation, overpopulation, famine, disease, the AIDS epidemic, ethnic and regional conflicts are broader than the old rivalry of competing political systems.

The Historical Setting

• A nation's foreign policy is rooted in its politics and in its past.

• One fundamental historical characteristic of American foreign policy is "isolationism", a policy of avoiding foreign involvement.– In 1823 the Monroe Doctrine warned European powers to

keep out of the Western Hemisphere, and pledged that the United States would do the same for Europe.

– Isolationism was relative. The United States still fought wars with Mexico and Great Britain, and took island possessions (Guam, Puerto Rico, etc.).

The Historical Setting

• "Interventionism" (military involvement) emerged at the end of the 19th century. The country returned to isolationism after the First World War.

• "Internationalism", the policy of taking an active leadership role, emerged after the Second World War.

The Era of the Cold War

• Containment of the Soviet Union became policy during the Cold War. In Foreign Affairs, George Kennan advocated "firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies," which was evidenced in the Truman Doctrine.

• The Truman Doctrine provided military aid to Greece and Turkey. The doctrine declared that American security and world peace depended on U.S. protection.

• The Marshall Plan in 1947 spent more than $13 billion to rebuild Europe.


• The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed in 1949. Members pledged to defend each other against attack.

• During the Korean War (1950-1953), the United States became involved with war in Asia.

• The Soviet Union acquired atomic weapons in 1949.


• The rising tide of nationalism brought independence to nations in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. It also led to an excessive form of patriotism that political leaders may exploit to whip up one group against another, as seen under Serbian dictator Slobodan Milosevic.

• Transnationalism has also occurred-including such global activities as trade, coalitions, and interactions across state boundaries that are not controlled by the foreign policy organs of governments.

Vietnam and Its Aftermath

• The United States moved into a vacuum created by French withdrawal from Indochina.

• Eisenhower and Kennedy supported the South Vietnamese government, and Kennedy sent troops as "advisers."

• Johnson committed to full-scale war, and its unpopularity made him decide against running for another term.

Vietnam and Its Aftermath

• For almost a decade, the Vietnam War cast a shadow over the quality of American life. More than 47,000 Americans died in combat there in eight years. More than a million Vietnamese were killed.

• One of the legacies of Vietnam is the reluctance of many Americans to undertake another foreign venture that might embroil the United States in a war.

From Détente to the End of the Cold War

• Détente was the relaxation of tensions between the superpowers. It began in 1972, when Nixon signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) agreement and the Antiballistic Missile (ABM) treaty.

• Jimmy Carter brought about the historic signing of a peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, and full diplomatic relations with China in 1979. In 1989, the pro-democracy movement reached Tiananmen Square, where Chinese students demonstrated for democracy.


• Through the CIA, the United States supported Afghan rebels fighting Soviet troops. By 1992, the United States spent more than $2 billion to arm the rebels. In 1998, the Soviet troops withdrew and civil war broke out in Afghanistan.

• In 1979, 52 Americans were held hostage at the American Embassy in Teheran, Iran, for 444 days, and were released when Reagan took the oath of office.


• Reagan and Gorbachev signed the first treaty to reduce the size of their nations' nuclear arsenals in 1987.

• During the 1980s, the United States pursued policies aimed at defeating forces in Nicaragua and El Salvador that were supported, as President Reagan charged, by the Soviet Union and Cuba.


• Reagan was caught in the scandal of selling arms to Iran to free hostages in Lebanon, and used the profits to support the contra rebels in Nicaragua, in spite of a Congressional ban against it. It created a crisis for President George Bush in his 1988 presidential bid.

• Iraq's Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990, but was driven out by United States military forces in 1991.

The Cold War Ends

• In the fall of 1989, democratic forces broke the grip of the Communist dictatorships across Eastern Europe.

• In November, East Germany opened borders to the West. The Berlin Wall came down.

• Mikhail Gorbachev unleashed glasnost and perestroika with unexpected results.

The Cold War Ends

• In 1991, a coup against Gorbachev failed, but he resigned four months later. Several republics declared independence and Boris Yeltsin rose to power.

• In February, 1992, Presidents Bush and Yeltsin declared the Cold War was over.

The Post-cold War World

• The Cold War is over, but ethnic and religious conflict continues.

• South Africa abandoned apartheid for democracy.• The Middle East peace process, which culminated in

a historic agreement between Israel and the Palestinians in 1994, slowed after the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. In 1999, fighting broke out in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip that continued through 2000.


• Yeltsin faced serious obstacles to imposing a free market economy-the war in Chechnya, his health, and the emergence of economic buccaneers all led to the increase in the gap between the rich and poor. He resigned in 1999.

• Yugoslavia posed another challenge to Clinton's foreign policy. Peace accords were signed in 1995, and peacekeeping troops were dispatched.


• In 1999, Serbia invaded Kosovo, forcing ethnic Albanians to flee. U.S. airplanes bombed Yugoslavia and forced President Milosevic to sign a peace agreement.

• By 2005, Americans were more aware that the U.S. was one nation in an interdependent, multipolar world, with many competing centers of power.

• The threat of nuclear war remains. India and Pakistan, often in conflict, conducted underground nuclear weapons tests.


• How Foreign Policy is Made

The President and Foreign Policy

• Kennedy said "the President bears the burden of the responsibility."

• The roles of chief diplomat and commander in chief overlap.

• A large defense budget means less money for priorities at home. As one Senate subcommittee noted: "The boundary between foreign and domestic policy has almost been erased."


• The president has the responsibility of deciding whether to use nuclear weapons. The president's finger remains on the nuclear "button."

• The president must choose among conflicting advice when making decisions. Background, experience, and beliefs strongly influence his attitude toward foreign affairs.

• President Nixon emphasized foreign policy and negotiations until Watergate clouded his initiatives.


• President Reagan's anti-communist philosophy colored his rhetoric against the Soviet Union. He took a strong stance against terrorists, yet sold arms to Iran to persuade terrorists to release American hostages.

• Presidents have different leadership styles in dealing with foreign policy. Bill Clinton was slow to exercise leadership in foreign affairs. George W. Bush moved aggressively.

Congress and Foreign Policy

• In the Constitution, the power to conduct foreign and military affairs is divided between Congress and the president.– The president can appoint ambassadors and command the

armed forces.– Congress can declare war, raise and support armies, and

appropriate money for defense. The Senate can approve or disapprove treaties and ambassadorial nominations.

• The boundaries between the two are not clearly defined, leading to conflict.


• The War Powers Resolution was passed in 1973. It limited the president's ability to commit American troops to combat without congressional authorization to 60 or 90 days.

• Congress also made efforts to gain greater control over secret intelligence operations beginning in 1974. However, President Reagan ignored the provision when he ordered the CIA director to conceal the arms sales to Iran.

• Between 1950 and 2000, nine American presidents committed U.S. troops to foreign soil without a declaration of war by Congress.


• The president has substantial control over the flow of military and intelligence information and can use this to shape congressional response. Example: the Tonkin Gulf Resolution.– However, the reports of the attack in the Tonkin Gulf were

considerably exaggerated.– The episode illustrates how diplomatic, military, and

intelligence information flows directly to the president.– Congress and the public assume the president is acting on

expert advice.– Foreign policy decisions are often made in crisis situations.

The Machinery

• The National Security Council (NSC) was created in 1947 to advise the president on "domestic, foreign, and military policies relating to the national security." It has been used differently by a succession of presidents.– Kennedy expanded the NSC to deal with the Soviet nuclear

missiles in Cuba.– Under Reagan, the NSC coordinated the secret operations

of the Iran-contra scandal. The scandal led to several indictments for conspiracy to defraud the government.

The Machinery

• The State Department has increased greatly in size and has been accused of being extremely slow to respond.– It employs 33,000 and has a budget of $4.4 billion. It has 177

embassies abroad.

– The role of the secretary of state varies from president to president.

– The Foreign Service in 2004 numbered more than 9,608 men and women of whom 3,038 are professional diplomats.

– Overseas, the ambassador serves as the president's personal representative.

– The State Department faces competition from other agencies of government.

The Machinery

• Intelligence and foreign policy: the CIA, the National Security Agency, and the National Reconnaissance Office.– The Aldrich Ames scandal shook public and congressional

confidence in the CIA.– The CIA sometimes engages in covert operations that can

cause the United States embarrassment. (Examples: the Iran-contra scandal, plots to assassinate Fidel Castro and other world leaders.)

– In the 1992 presidential campaign, President Bush was questioned about his knowledge of the Iran-contra scandal.

The Machinery

– President Reagan, concerned over what he saw as Communist expansion in Central America, pursued a secret war in Nicaragua.

– In the 1970s congressional committees uncovered abuses by the CIA and other intelligence agencies, including assassinations, break-ins, wiretapping, use of mind-altering drugs, and mail violations.

– The law establishing the CIA makes no reference to covert activities, but a loophole allows the CIA to perform "other functions and duties" which presidents have used to authorize covert activities. Over 900 activities occurred between 1961 and 1975.

The Machinery

– The CIA was the direct descendent of the wartime OSS. In 2004, the 9/11 Commission recommended that a National Intelligence Director be placed over the CIA chief and others to bring about better coordination among the intelligence agencies.

– The CIA director wears many hats, coordinating the NSA, NRO, and the DIA.

– The CIA and its related organizations spend $40 billion a year.

– The CIA is divided into two principal divisions: the Intelligence Directorate and the Operations Directorate. The second division has received the most criticism, and is active in political assassinations and government overthrows.

The Machinery

– In 1972 the CIA became enmeshed in the Watergate break-in.

– The CIA's budget is secret, but estimated at $4.5 billion; the agency employs about 17,000 people.

– The National Security Agency, with a budget of $3.7 billion and 38,000 employees, intercepts all forms of communication. It is criticized for its Echelon program that gathers intelligence in foreign countries.

– Until the 1960s, few knew of the activities. But the loss of a U-2 over the Soviet Union in 1961 and the disaster at the Bay of Pigs in 1961 thrust the CIA into the limelight.

The Machinery

– Proponents argue the agency is an essential arm of the government. Allen Dulles wrote "an intelligence service is the best insurance we can take out against surprise."

– The Senate and the House each created a permanent Select Committee on Intelligence with authority over the CIA and other intelligence agencies.

– CIA director William J. Casey proved controversial for stock market transactions and had gone outside normal CIA channels to undertake covert operations.

– Under the leadership of George Tenet, the CIA failed to penetrate and stop the al Qaeda terrorists who carried out the 9/11 attacks. The CIA estimated that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, but none were found.

The Machinery

• Other instruments: AID, the Peace Corps, and the Voice of America.– The Agency for International Development (AID) is

responsible for carrying out programs of financial and technical assistance to less economically developed nations.

– Between 1946 and 2004, the United States spent $1.6 trillion be spent on economic assistance. AID is unpopular for its lack of visible benefits, but most aid is not in the form of cash.

– In 2004, 7,533 Peace Corps volunteers were in training or serving abroad as teachers, agricultural aides, and doctors.

The Machinery

– Peace Corps volunteers must be 18 and serve for two years. By 2004, 170,000 had served.

– The Voice of America is the official radio and features programs in 53 languages with 90 million listeners.

– In 1999, the United States Information Agency and the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency were merged into the State Department. Their goal: to present information about America to people overseas in the best possible light.

The United Nations

• The UN was established in 1945 to keep the peace and to better humanity.

• The UN Security Council cannot act over the veto of any of the five permanent members, which in 2000 included the United States, Russia, Great Britain, France, and China.

• In November 1950, the UN General Assembly decided to act to meet threats to peace when the Security Council failed to do so.

The United Nations

• The UN has acted with varying success in several world crises, including the Arab-Israeli War of 1973. UN peacekeeping forces are periodically sent to crisis areas around the world.

• The UN played a role in bringing about the Soviet withdrawal in Afghanistan and brought relief supplies by air and land to Sarajevo.

• The UN primarily plays a role as peacekeepers, with more than 47,794 peacekeepers deployed around the world.

The United Nations

• The United States provides one-quarter of the UN's $1.3 billion budget, plus a share of the peacekeeping costs. However, the United States has lost influence when the UN shifted away from its pro-Western stance.

• In 2004, the UN had 191 members and a staff of 61,000 around the world.

• The UN provides a forum for discussion, defuses world crises, and has made contributions toward improving lives.

The Politics of Foreign Policymaking

• Over a period of time, widespread or intense domestic reaction to foreign policy may have an impact on government. Example: Vietnam.

• The role of the public.– Some political scientists argue that Americans are

uninterested and uninformed on foreign policy issues.– Gabriel Almond suggested that small leadership groups play

the major role in the making of decisions and the public's role is confined to the expression of mass attitudes.

– James Rosenau says that when a foreign policy question becomes so big that it involves "a society's resources and relationships," it quickly turns into a domestic political issue.


– Nevertheless, a president has wide latitude in conducting foreign policy.

– Congress, individual legislators, opinion leaders, the press, and others may have some impact on policy outcomes.

• Presidential credibility.– A president's conduct depends in large measure in whether

he can carry the public along on big decisions.– Several presidents have encountered credibility problems,

particularly when they or their administrations have told "official lies." Examples: Reagan and Lebanese terrorists, Eisenhower and the U-2 spy plane, and Johnson and the Tonkin Gulf.


• Political parties, campaigns, and foreign policy.– The two-party system tends to push both major parties

toward the center on foreign policy issues.– Nevertheless, foreign policy questions often become

campaign issues. In 2000, Vice President Gore emphasized his experience in foreign affairs in contrast to his Republican opponent's lack of experience.

– Advocates of bipartisanship in foreign policy contend that both major political parties should broadly support the president, and that foreign policy issues should not be sharply debated in political campaigns.


• The economics of foreign policymaking.– As the nation moved into the last half of the twentieth

century, foreign policy increasingly involved major economic questions.

The Defense Establishment

• In September 2004, the U.S. deployed an anti-missile system designed to protect American from a nuclear attack. It was an outgrowth of Ronald Reagan's "Star Wars" system.– In theory, a "kill vehicle" launched would intercept an

incoming ballistic missile. – It was not designed to counter an all-out attack, nor ward off

a small number of missiles launched by "rogue" nations.– Critics noted that when tested, the team knew the exact

time, place and trajectory of the target missile-conditions unlikely to prevail in a real attack.

The Defense Establishment

– George W. Bush praised the system in his reelection campaign.

– Since WWII, the U.S. has spent more than $3 trillion on national defense.

– In fiscal 2005, the Defense Department budget request was $401.7 billion.

– In Iraq in 2003 and 2004, insurgents used roadside bombs, grenades, and suicide car bombs. Yet, the U.S. military found it difficult to use its vast firepower against guerrilla forces in an urban environment.

– Foreign policy and defense policy are linked. The modern president must contend with controlling a powerful military establishment with friends in Congress and its private industry clients.

The Department of Defense

• The principle of civilian control of the military is deeply rooted, but its effectiveness is open to question.– The secretary of defense is the Western world's biggest

employer, and was in charge of 667,715 civilians and 1,398,000 armed forces members in 2002.

– Defense Department contracts were running at $208 billion.

The Department of Defense

– The National Security Act of 1947, as amended in 1949, unified the armed forces under the control of a single secretary of defense.

– Prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Pentagon established the Policy and Counterintelligence Evaluation Group to collect intelligence that would show a link between Saddam Hussein and al Qaeda. Their efforts were later discredited.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff

• The members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are the chairman, the chiefs of staff of the three armed services, and when necessary, the commandant of the Marines. The chairman advises the president and secretary of defense.

• Together, the Joint Chiefs are responsible for day-to-day conduct of military operations as well as long-range strategic planning.

• Recent generals, including Omar Bradley, viewed foreign policy in its broadest context, not merely in narrow, military terms.

Selective Service

• The government has registered or drafted men for military service during times of international tension or war.– Carter asked Congress to resume draft registration of both

men and women in 1980.– Congress refused to approve draft registration for women,

and in 1981, the Supreme Court ruled that a draft of men only was constitutional.

Strategic Arms: The Balance of Terror

• Nations who have nuclear weapons include the United States, Russia, and China. Smaller nations-India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea-possess them. Iran is pursuing a nuclear weapons program.

• The New York Times reported that the U.S. military still spends $28 billion a year to keep 7,500 nuclear warheads ready for use.

• The American nuclear monopoly was broken when the Soviet Union exploded an atomic bomb in 1949. In 1957, the Soviets launched the first Sputnik, or earth satellite.


• In October 1964, China exploded its first nuclear bomb.

• Britain, France, and India also belong to the "nuclear club."

• After the Second World War, the United States adopted a policy of strategic deterrence.

• Kennedy believed it was necessary for the United States to supplement its nuclear power by expanding its capacity to fight conventional wars.


• The deterrence strategy had a language and acronyms all its own: first-strike capability, MAD, and ABM.

• In 1969, the Johnson administration embarked on a round of strategic spending for the Safeguard ABM system, located in North Dakota. It was fully operational on October 1, 1975 at a cost of $5.7 billion.


• The 1972 SALT agreement limited ABM deployment by the United States and Soviet Union and included a five-year freeze on production of offensive nuclear weapons.

• Reagan's "Star Wars" strategy was one of defense, designed to track and shoot down Soviet nuclear missiles in space. It was never built.


• During the 1990s, a scaled-down version was pursued by the Pentagon. It was designed to ward off missiles that might be launched by so-called rogue nations. In 2004, Bush began deploying a version of the system.

• In 2001, the Bush administration pulled out of the 1972 ABM treaty. Bush claimed it was necessary for the U.S. to build an ABM system to defend itself.

Arms Control and Disarmament

• Leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union realized that deterrence could lead to disaster.

• The march toward disarmament began in 1963 when the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain reached agreement on a limited nuclear test ban.

• Despite this, the spread of atomic weapons to more countries continued.

• The United States, the Soviet Union, and 60 other nations signed a nonproliferation treaty in the 1960s, but several other nations did not.


• In 1972 the United States and the Soviet Union signed the SALT treaty to limit strategic arms, and in 1979, a second agreement, SALT II, was reached but never ratified by the Senate.

• In 1982 the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces treaty marked the first time that the Soviet Union and the United States had agreed to reduce their nuclear arsenals.


• In 1993 Bush and Yeltsin signed START II, a treaty to destroy three-quarters of their nuclear warheads over 10 years.

• In the same year, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) banned all underground nuclear weapons tests and explosions.

• In 1974 the Senate ratified the Geneva Protocol outlawing chemical and biological warfare among nations. An international agreement was signed in 1972.


• The United States formally pledged not to use chemical or biological weapons, but the treaties did not prohibit the production or stockpiling of such weapons.

• By 1995, the United States and 158 other nations had signed a treaty banning the production, sale, and use of nerve gas and other chemical weapons.

The Military-Industrial Complex

• In 1961 President Eisenhower warned against "unwarranted influence" by the "military-industrial complex."

• That complex has been expanded to encompass universities conducting defense research, scientists, laboratories, aerospace industry contractors, and research firms.

• Entire communities became dependent on defense industries. In 1999, Lockheed Martin Corporation received $12.67 billion in defense contracts from the government.


• Defense spending fattens the congressional "pork barrel." Retired military officers are hired by aerospace industry contractors.

• America still faces the problem of how to balance its military needs against social needs at home. Questions remain as to whether and to what extent the defense and aerospace industries would retool for peace or other social programs.


• Huge expenditures are often the result of intense political battles. For example, the B-1 and B-2 bombers.– President Carter killed the B-1 production.– President Reagan announced plans to produce 100 B-1

bombers, at a cost of billions.– The B-2, or Stealth bomber, was designed to evade enemy

radar.– Questions were raised about accidents and serious flaws of

the B-1.


– According to author Nick Kotz, "Decisions about the American defense arsenal are influenced as much by psychological, political, and economic factors as by military analysis."

– The B-2 also experienced a series of technical problems, despite its $44.7 billion dollar cost. It was first used in combat in Yugoslavia and mistakenly bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade.

• The United States has become arms merchant to the world, selling $14.5 billion in sales in 2003.


• The military-industrial complex has been responsible for population increases in California, Texas, and Florida, and the resulting increase of political power of those states. Conversely, defense cutbacks also lead to increased unemployment.

• The huge amounts of money flowing into defense contracts can lead to corruption.

America's World Role in the 21st Century

• In the year 2004, foreign policy issues have taken many new forms.

• In the environmental area alone, nations face daunting challenges of acid rain, oil spills, rain forest destruction, depletion of the ozone, and ensuring biodiversity.

• These global problems suggest a new definition of "national security."

America's World Role in the 21st Century

• The United States emerged as a major power, and it faces the challenge of redefining its foreign policy goals.

• Many changes had taken place in the relations among nations since the 1970s.

• The conviction has grown among Americans that the nation should exercise great caution in intervening in armed conflicts beyond its borders.

• Pressure has increased on policymakers to weigh the concerns of national security against needs at home.

Democracy Under Pressure

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