definitions of rhetoric

Aristotle

…let rhetoric be defined as the faculty of discovering in the particular case what are the available means of persuasion

(On Rhetoric, 1355b; qtd in Jolliffe 5)

definitions of rhetoric

Aristotle

. . . the art of rhetoric has its value. It is valuable, first, because truth and justice are by nature more powerful than their opposites . . . . Secondly, [rhetoric is valuable as a means of instruction]. . . . Thirdly, in rhetoric, as in dialectic, we should be able to argue on either side of a question, not with a view to putting both sides into practice—we must not advocate evil—but in order that no aspect of the case may escape us. . . . Lastly, if it is a disgrace to a person when he cannot defend himself in a bodily way, it would be odd not to think him disgraced when he cannot defend himself with reason. . . .

(On Rhetoric, 1355a; qtd in Jolliffe 5)

Peterson’s Modified Rhetorical

Triangle

ContextsAll language use—spoken or written—unfolds within both specific and broad contexts.

All communicators pay attention to these contexts and seek to make effective language effective language choices choices to fit contexts.to fit contexts.

As a reader, it is your job to notice the context.As a reader, it is your job to notice the context.

Includes the immediate context intermediate context structural context

Leave space for a definition

Immediate ContextImmediate context: “at the site and in the moment.”

This includes a speaker, a listener, a specific location (space/place and the things within it), a specific time, and some topical focus

ordering a pizza at a pizza restaurant giving a high school commencement speech talking with a doctor

Intermediate Contexts

Structural ContextsStructural contexts include ideological systems that inform, give meaning to human behaviors, actions, and beliefs, often in unconscious, subtle ways, including

economic structures political structures sociocultural structures

What does this mean? It means, an author will chose different rhetorical strategies

depending on the context.

Let’s hypothetically say that Winston is complaining about the Ministry of Truth. If his immediate context was speaking to Julia, this would be very different that if he were speaking to Parsons (the guy who was ratted out by his own kids).

The conversation would also be different if he knew whether or not he was in earshot of a telescreen (intermediate context).

However, both conversations would be influenced by the structural context of living in a totalitarian society.

Thus, it is important to understand (or try to understand) the context in which an author is writing.

Classical Rhetoric: Ethos,

Pathos, Logos

Aristotle’s methods of persuasion

These are the basics.

Ethos

Ethical appeals establish credibility--convey to your audience that you are:• informed• intelligent• compassionate• honest

ethos

Ethical Appeals (Appropriate Ethical Behavior)• Demonstrate knowledge of one’s subject• Demonstrate fairness to one’s audience’s

opinions, beliefs, values (particularly opposition’s)

• Establish common ground with one’s audience (particularly with opposition)

 

ethos--fallacies

Fallacies (Inappropriate Ethical Behavior)• ad hominem—attacking opposition’s character:

“She’s untrustworthy and liar” • guilt by association—implying opposition is

guilty of a belief/view/action because they associate with someone who holds those beliefs/views or engage in such actions. “Guiliani was at a party where there were drugs present. He must support drug use.” 

• tu quoque [to kwo-kwe] (you, too)—accusing opposition of hypocrisy: “you don’t follow your own advice” doesn’t invalidate the worth of the advice. “Clinton had an affair, so why should we listen to his advice on the importance of marriage?”

LogosLogical Appeals—Using Logic

Rhetoricians agree: logic is the heart of any argument. Discuss subject/make argument logically.

logos--appeals

Appeals (Appropriate Logical Behavior)

Deductive Reasoning —Applying general principles to specific instances and drawing conclusions; deduction deals with what is true/false, what is valid/invalid

deductive reasoning

Categorizing—valid/invalidPremise 1 (All, no, some) x are y•All elephants have cells •Some boys are athletes

Premise 2 (All, no, some) z are xAll cells have DNA Some scholars are boys

Concl.: (All, no, some) z are yAll elephants have DNASome scholars are athletes

deductive reasoning

Affirming (modus ponens)—true/falsePremise 1 If A, then BPremise 2 AConcl.: BIf Dennis misses work and at work there is a party, then Dennis will miss the party.

logos--appeals

Inductive Reasoning—Using specific examples to derive general principles; induction deals with what is probably true, relies primarily on…

Examples/Precedents/Data Real examples Historic examples Hypothetical examples Analogical examples Statistical examples

Authority/Testimony – Written Interviews Personal Experience

Definition— by example by synonym by essence by sufficient and necessary condition (“if and

only if”)

Division (parts/whole) Comparison (similarity/difference) Relationship (cause/effect; contrast; contradiction)

logos—fallacies(a short list)

Fallacies (Inappropriate, Illogical Behavior)

Errors of Deduction

False Analogy—comparing what cannot be comparedPeople who have to have a cup of coffee every morning before they can function have no less a problem than alcoholics who have to have their alcohol each day to sustain them.

Self-Contradiction—conclusion contradicts premises The only thing that is certain is uncertainty.

Non-Sequitor—conclusion unconnected to premisesBuddy Burger has the greatest food in town.  Buddy Burger was voted #1 by the local paper.  Therefore, Phil, the owner of Buddy Burger, should run for President of the United States.

Circular reasoning—“The Bible is true because the Bible says it is true”

PathosEmotional appeals—enabling audience to emotionally identify/connect with argument about topic.

Rhetoricians use various means of invoking particular emotions in audience (anger, patriotism, pity, etc.), to essentially emotionally manipulate them.

pathos--appeals

Good writers thus enable audience to make emotional connections through careful use of language:

Descriptive Language

Figurative Language metaphor simile analogy, etc.

pathos—fallacies(a short list)

Fallacies (Inappropriate Evocations of Emotion)--manipulating to invoke a specific emotional response, usually to over-ride logical thinking

Bandwagon—join the majority group or be left out!

Flattery—you are special, unique

In-Crowd—you can be part of a select group

Veiled Threat—imply something bad/negative might happen