Defining Arab World

8/2/2019 Defining Arab World

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Faculty of Philosophy and CivilizationParamadina University, Indonesia

Defining Arab World Polemics as

the Challengesfor a Redirection of

American Foreign Policy

A Case Study of Genealogical Theme in International

Relations

Islamic Modernity Indonesian

Author:

DIKY KURNIAWAN SAPUTRA

210000026


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Defining Arab World Polemics as the Challenges

for a Redirection of American Foreign Policy

- A Case Study of Genealogical Theme in International Relations -By: Diky Kurniawan Saputra*

Introduction

American administrative is in case of facing challenges to strengthen its relation with the Middle

East. The challenges came from the regions internal that also would be defined a

neotransformation of regionalism in the Middle East. Development of people perception on the

need to democratization and people polemics, seen as the reason why American must constantly

redirect its foreign policy strategy in engaging the Middle East control. Looking at in depth

capacities of America is not meaning an absolute opportunity to shift the Middle East control

through diplomatic approach and its the soft side by both only. Therefore, that should define a

must of the relevancy and adapting strategy for America to formulize its foreign policy

instruments. Before application of the adaptation that mentioned before, we have to see the

importance of understanding region context. After contextualizing value of American foreign

policy with the Middle East transformation, instruments those agreed would be the best way for

America to step forward for the Middle East.

Connecting with contextualization, at the point of the Middle East, we must recognize what

happened around 1990 with the end of the Cold War. Because we have to see changes underway,

but real turning point that the Middle East begun to transform significantly. Revolutions around

the Middle East and the Gulf started cutting away of many aspects of human kind on the ground.

The most influential was in term of ideological progressivity that had been seen freezing

periodically. Unfortunately, in the past, the decline of ideology in the Middle East has added

with the losing advance. Therefore, when the situation was going negatively, Islamic intellectual

*A 2nd year student of Paramadina University, Jakarta, Indonesia, majoring International Relations


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party did not come with positive movements. Outside of freezing ideological discourse,

pragmatism-based relation between states of the Middle East led to high performance.

Resolution of the Iranian nuclear issue, Syrians and Israelis doing indirect negotiations on

weaponry and power distribution, movements on Arab-Israelis dispute and even we have seen

Israel sign cease fires with Hezbollah and Hamas, all of facts above, explained to us how

extreme the Middle East and the Gulf buried ideological movement which was a regional

issue[1].

Papers Questions

But, did mentioned transitions above freezing ideology in the Middle East really happen? Or that

ideological term decreased as the civil value being never influenced. Although transformation

comes with neo form in the Middle East, must American administrative deny the possibility of

ideological challenges inside of the region? In regard to neo form of Middle Eastern

transformation, what inevitably happen on the ground? At last, what all of matters in the Middle

East might challenge to American administrative to maintain its rule of hegemonic power?

Upcoming answers are hoped being an objective result, considering the complex of ideology,

value, need and pragmatism in the Middle East. So, with this paper, the Middle East will be

understood clearly as the challenge for American administrative.

Defining Moments and How to Understand the Middle Eastern Origins:

A Quest to Theoretical Guide

As a need to clarify substance of moments, prior of doing, we have to classify in detail divisions

of each moment we found from historical reality of the Middle East bridging to high

understanding of historical sense and implications. In constructing exclamations of several

moments in the Middle East, acknowledges of politics, social movements, human histories and

ideological dynamics should be first to be a analytical knife for the Middle East introductions[2].


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When a primary understanding project is being done, a motive to imagine indications or

phenomena righteously should be owned by a researcher. This point pressures development of

views in dealing with understanding relation senses between states over the world, particularly

the Middle East. Therefore, if we are going on to address future challenges and opportunities in a

coherent and rational way, and if we are going on to find out how to make the Middle East a

more stable, rational and prosperous region that engages more intelligently and peacefully with

the rest of the world, it is very important to start by acknowledging and understanding what is

actually happening on the ground of the Middle East[3].

Defining moments have been passed for recent years, all of which were negatively missed

because of political incompetence by the Arab world, by Israel, by United States, by Europe and

by Iran. Abundantly, that incompetence goes around for the missed opportunities. These were

opportunities like the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, the Oslo Israeli-Palestinian Process, the

Camp David Process, the Syria-US-Israel talks in 2000, the post 9/11 response to the 9/11 terror

attacks and the Arab Peace Plan in the year 2002. In case there was no good leadership in the

Middle East to capitalize those opportunities, the accumulation of failures finally talks about a

defining moment, a moment that defines the beginning of destroy. Of no discourses on inevitable

moments for more being learned, I attempt at enlightening this paper with being guided by

postmodernism direction, primarily, I turned back to how historical arrangements structuralized

in region which are often affect to latter matters. This look is called by genealogy. History, in

regard to genealogists, is less often to refer to a phase in of meaning disclosure in future[4].

Thus, the Middle East with its complex is expected to be understood as well by referring to what

has been closed from its real history. As Roland Bleiker (2000) explains, genealogies are always

focus on the process by which people have constructed origins and given meaning to particular

representations of the past, representation that continuously guide human daily lives and set clear

limits to political and social options[5].

Then we continue to how urgent that America must be consolidated with the topic of this paper.

In regard to regional change of the Middle East which forge international stability, America

known well as the positioned above on its relevance in being called by Great Power of the

century-past Cold War. When a state obtains top-dog status, hegemon promote regime that

benefit not only for itself but also others. Here, I never mean to seek a truth trough paranoia to


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what seldom accused by groups who are in favor of conspiracy theory, however, I objectively

remain, based on academic principals, a previous clause must be a scene advanced to predictions

about consequences that will result a decline of hegemon, if it, failed to define how a region

changes and affects to world stability. Therefore, when this kind of structural transformation

occurs and the system is left without an unchallenged leader, instability follows, I must be

guided by hegemonic stability theory[6] in order to explain in depth approach to understand how

America is importance to included for this discourse of the Middle Eastern changes.

Then, in similar with the urgent term of other guidance, equally I stress an ideological, even

more, a valuable norms and ideas addressing the Middle Eastern approach to how each foreign

policy of state influence non-Arab countries. This stand brought from what Fred Halliday (2005)

has stated in his book, The Middle East in International Relations: Power, Politics and Ideology,

stressing a common idea of the Middle East was anti-hegemonic, instead of in regard to trade

or oil. But with a more discourse, how I make sure that ideological decrease must be in after

Cold War passed? Moreover, historically I found it somewhat difficult to identify the

authoritarian and sometimes murderous projects served by ideas. But however, I should never

deny every possibility of identification of ideas in the Middle East which built responds to many

interventions from outside. Thus, here I would not be much to discuss how ideas decline since

post Cold War. But I will more ensure how ideology in the Middle East was played by political

shoot of American administrative driven by hidden agency.

State Formation, Social Change, Impact of Colonialism:

A Genealogical Guide part I

Such as I have mentioned above, genealogy must guide here to arrange the Middle East from its

history of the state formation, social change and impact of colonialism with the relevance toideological dynamics within the region. Thus, it would be defined that the Middle East is so

wretched for American supply of its strategy to take overbearingly a super control, with no the

exception for other countries.


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In retrospect, however, potentially significantly equally inter-state relations of the Middle East

region caused domain of the formation of states and societies that the post-1918 period was to

prove so important for latter events occurs eventually[7]. It was emphasized that period must be

in large measure; the political, social and international formation of the region took place.

Moreover, internal processes of the Middle East itself promoted a change of ideological and

hence political dimension of the modern region were so decisively shaped. Immediately, the

Middle East after 1918 was provided to further become articulated with much of particular

attentions. Related to that, I took several analysis of Fred Halliday (2005), to essentially describe

how the Middle East shaped and dynamicizationed in ideological movements to latter influences.

Classifiably, here Fred arranges four merit attentions on the Middle East formation as the region

which has cohesion within. One of these was the creation of modern state institutions. A word of

state itself was penetrated as well as the region differentiated into several states independently.

Or even dynasty coercions should be recognized that is still on, but legally state occurred for a

modern attribute that must be in. The creation of modern states since after 1918 that resulted a

number of bureaucratical administrations representing a modern western system in the Middle

East. Firstly, this matter was run by colonial and the national powers. They provided

employment of for growing numbers of people, and came to social, economic development and

education. Through this new door of open creation, people run to no little importance for latter

politics of their countries. Then, people in the Middle East were directed either directly or

indirectly to modern values, increasingly became aspirants to political powers and the status of

defenders of the nations. The statement above is supported also by Charles Tripp (2001), which

his book of A History of Iraq deployed an explanation of how state formations were prone of

creation of the inter-war. It was started by Turkish invention, remembering to its existence

powerfully defeated several regions over the Middle East. Somehow, inter-war was not only

becoming a status of creation after 1918, but since older, the Middle East had been confronted by

great event of wars and instabilities. However, I must mention the following attentions probablyaffected to the ideological and behavioral movements in the Middle East; 1) the cradle of

civilization, 3500 BC (the Sumerians and the Akkadians); 2) the Assyrian Empires, 1365-1076

B; 3) the Iranian Empires, 6th

BC; 4) the Roman Empire, 1st

BC; 5) the Islamic Caliphate, 7th

AD; 6) Turks, Crusaders and Mongol, mid-11th

AD; and 7) the Ottoman Empire, 15th

AD[8].

Moreover, I feel obliged to underline about how Palestine seem continuously pressured by


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confrontations from either obvious or unobvious outside, because on one time due to recently we

live up to today, it was proven that one indication. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated by

British Empire forces after the Shinai and Palestine campaign in 1918, the Arab population was

met with what it perceived as betrayal by the British. The British and French governments

concluded a secret treaty (the Sykes-Picot Agreement) to partition the Middle East between them

and, additionally, the British promised via the Balfour Declaration the international Zionist

movement their support in creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine[9]. In searching of many

causes to why Western invoke Palestine to be an object apart, the secret treaty above explained

us how great in past that the Middle East was.

Still in line with the discourse of

creation of states in the Middle East, in

the past, powers had become a full

consideration over the region within.

During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s,

Syria and Egypt made moves towards

independence. In 1919, Saad Zaghloul

orchestrated mass demonstrations in

Egypt known famously as the First

Revolution[10]. Therefore, as the

consequence, the betrayal against the

British was forwarded by the Great

Power of the Middle East in the time,

so continuing to the Suez Canal. Then,

with this contextualization, I introduce

you how polemics the Middle East

really was.

In regard to a presence of America in the Middle East, it was developed when the departure of

the European Powers from direct control of the region and continued by the establishment of

Israel which increased importance of the oil industry. Thus, the Middle East was marked as the

modern realm which led to a growing presence of America in the region affairs. When radical

Figure 1 the Balfour Declaration, a letter from the UK's ForeignSecretary, Arthur James Balfour to Baron Rostchild


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revolutions brought radical anti-Western regimes to power in Egypt in 1954, in Syria in 1963, in

Iraq in 1968 and in Libya in 1969, the Soviet Union, seeking to open a new arena of the Cold

War in the Middle East. It normally is called by the confusion of idea against Western.

Secondly, it is all about national identity after these states embarked as the modern revolution.

Part of this involved the controlled of claims regarding to other states, based on views were

constructed as historic rights. Those claims maintained the sustainable view of how ideology

being shared to each other. I argue that ideological confusion was from historical confusion too,

in regard to what a complex of empires period.

Fred stated that:

Based on, or on denunciation of the partitions and divisions imposed by colonialism.

Egypt claimed Sudan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia the rest of the Peninsula.

Yemenis citing al-Hamdani, the medieval geographer, said that Yemen ran from Mecca (or

Taif) to Muscat. Education was a central means for the promotion of these identities, and

rested upon the creation of a national history, drawing where available on both Islamic and

pre-Islamic elements; while each state sought to assert its own individual identity and

historic validity, each also made a claim to be a part or wider communities-Pharanoic

(Egypt), Sabaean and Himyaritic (Yemen), Sumerian and Mesopotamian (Iraq), Phoenician

(Lebanon, Libya, Tunisia), but also Islamic, Arab in some cases, Iranian and Aryan in the

case of Iran, ancient Hittite, Anatolian and modern Europe in the case of Turkey. Zionism

engaged in a similar promotion of a modern nationalism, while drawing on both selected

and invented elements of the biblical past[11].

In order to explain that the Middle East has passed a phase when every communal of the region

widened a more boarder of individual identity, after of all I must conclude that with the

expansion of unstructuralised identity implicates to latter recognitions. The confusion of those

clauses must be indicated as the internal polemic might be a cause of an undirected change of the

Middle East today.

Thirdly, after these states embarked, I must recognize as well as Fred do so that the European

heritage has modified the Middle East to uphold what as exemplified in Europe. The heritage

that I mean is a process of cultural and ideological change, closely linked to a certain form of


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secularization. Commonly, a term of secularization is not often well defined. Indirectly, this

term has been installed since the embarkation of states over the region. The significant influence

of the term above was spread over the social and political realities which all of these identified to

a request to democratization, even more Sharia, to be upheld as the principal of the state

continuity. But, for many years, the absence of secularization has brought the dynamics to an

abuse of leaders who claim their authorities must absolutely under Islamic Law. Here, I never

mean that Islamic Law is closer to an abuse, but it remain the Middle Eastern Leadership is

closely to do whatever that they claim from Islamic Law but it never constitute.

Fourthly, the most importance attention that must be asserted to be in depth consideration of how

the Middle East gone to what we see today via widespread free-information of televisions, online

news, journals, YouTube, Facebook, newspapers, radios, magazines and others, is about

radicalization. In sum, the rise of nationalism, the disruption of World War I, the very formation

of the new state system and resistance to secularization had produced a context in which more

widespread social and political movements could, and did, emerge[12]. Therefore, the stage of

radicalization in the side of the Middle East region was set by the combination powers of internal

and external actors. That much of the drama has been settled by outside rules; the detailed

explanation of radicalization in the Middle East will be expanded in next chapter on a

genealogical guide part II which concerned specifically on its scheme and influence to the

insufficient development of Islamic understanding in the Middle East.

Continuing to the last guidance part I of genealogical investigation of how we ought to

understand correctly about the Middle Easts polemics, the impact of colonialism to a

configuration of regional formation must be coercive for our looking at the objective clarification

of the Middle East situation that might challenges American administrative. We have known and

seen very well that the European hegemony in its historical review, provided the form of

language, development and political mobilization[13]. Then, the former started to propose

changes and modernities, the latter some return to tradition. The existence of European

intervention in the land of desert had activated much of direct form of military and colonial rule

over bureaucratic administrations. It was not only that European colonial drew its significant

influence on military establishment, but rather to commercial, financial and cultural. The

essential view from a look at the military side is its vulnerability to the positive matter-for that


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time-when external powers conditioned some Arabs must be in World War I. Later nationalism

and religious movements combining Islamic with nationalist themes drew on the experience of

domination which was eventually contested the cultural aggression. But the domination was not

able to go on as well. Because it was found that striking interactions brought the region to a more

heated situation which was often linked with World War II; but some arguments are weak to be

explained.

In line with clauses above, before I conclude a short explanation of the impact of colonialism to

the configuration of the Middle East region, I feel opened to state that beyond its impact on

states, economies and societies, colonialism had one further consequence; its important impact

on the ideology and sentiment of peoples in the region[14]. In regard to World War II, since

Soviet support for autonomous regions in Azerbaijan and Kurdistan was unsuccessful, in contrast

to World War I, dispute between Arab and Jewish on Palestine claim forces in the immediate

aftermath of World War II. Thus, the political map of the region remained as it had been

before[15]. This is a short conclusion I promised previously that many changes would be found

within the Middle East during and after World War II and Post Cold War. The most frontiers of

them were a shift in the balance of the external powers in the region. As Britain and France

which both had been the dominant external powers for the Middle East around the 1960s and

1970s, the place today has been taken not by Soviet but America. There were several particular

trends helped America to hold the region; a rising US interest in what was now the major of oil

trade, a special close relationship between America and Israel and lastly, America has potentials

to concern forward Soviet in order to be a hegemonic state after its victory in Cold War. From

here, I am sure that you understand very well how the Middle East has grown up and how

America must be considered as the influential state might be strongly influenced by the changes

or transformations happened in the Middle East. But this part I (one) is never enough to elaborate

whole complications of the Middle East transformations since it was a regional baby. Thus, the

other hidden possibilities of the current crucial within the region of the Middle East, especiallyrelated to this paper on the ideological dynamics, that must be identified as well as the genealogy

guide me to keep searching for the closest to an absolute truth, or even I recognize that there is

the only truth of the world; the God.


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A Conditioned Radicalization, Ideological Obstacles and Current Internal Polemics:

A Genealogical Guide part II

I would like to facilitate a new outlook in transformations moved systematically in the Middle

East, somehow particularly, but however, by this second section of genealogy, I expected the

Middle East is further viewed as a region with controlled ideological regime and must be freed

and democratized as well. This is very urgent to open what really hidden from the face. Realities

of radical sects had never been since a long time of past period engaged as the nurturing theme in

the region. But sometime, whether it must radical or not, I believe that in the Middle East and

other Muslim populations were gradually reduced its authentic value of Islamic Law. Then, is it

must be a natural? Of course not. There was a great fact to prove that the Middle East

ideologically has ever conditioned by other outside. In line with genealogical approach, I

emphasize a point that enlightened a past dark seeing. The point that I mean is a process of

radicalization itself which further openly affects to latter confusion matters in the Middle East.

Basically, here we must recognize that Wahabism is one of the most outstanding sects that

usually known as an Arabic religious mainstream redefining Islamic Law to traditional

interpretation and refuse to any modernization of its exclamation and contextualization. Some

saw this as one of revolutionary movement to uphold the Islamic Law in the World. But some

other saw this as a breaking down which is likely timely undermines the truth of Islamic

meanings. Then, politically an interpretation-based mainstream was prone to be claimed as an

identity legalizing every deed amid its greediness to occupy. It must be called as an abuse.

However, this is only one sample must not be used to generalize all behavior of the Middle East.

But, actually, the extreme mainstream had existed for a very long time. Supported by her

statement, Sami Zubaida (2012), with a full honor, I must say that part of religious participation

in politics is the power and recourses of institutions and personnel, the authority and interest of

churches, prelates and preachers[16]. Crucially a term of nationalism or proto-nationalism wasintroduced really happened engaged with the religious underpinning. Thus, frequently the

Middle East installed the undefined character to whoever realize, but deceived common Muslim

in the World, simply in Indonesia to practice reduced interpretation of Islamic teaching. More

deeper inside, this radicalization had used by hegemonic states to impose the power.


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Before then I explore how a controlled radicalization influenced promotion of advance

development decline in the Middle East, firstly I must state that there were hidden personal and

outside driver found engaging with the activation of radicalization in the Middle East. The drive

was consolidated by funding several movements concerning with the radicalization of Islamic

society within the region. Beside of Wahabism, for example, attempted at establishing itself in

Afghanistan in the 1970s and early 20th

century but had little success. Dealing with it, Saudi

Arabia boomed flowing fund to encore the play of Wahabism in some targeted regions of the

Middle East and particularly in South Asia.

Going on what above, especially it is about funding, I participate to boom an exploration of

information is rarely known by people. Historically, when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in

1979, Saudi money joined with CIA money to fund the Wahhabi-inspired mujahideen in the

fight against the Soviet. To complete that flow, Pakistan was a conduit floating distributions of

money to diverse extreme groups. A group that is able to be accused as the recipient of fund is

Taliban. Thus, Taliban openly acknowledged as the axis of money distribution despitefully

acting a central role of extreme Islamist militia[17]. Pakistan itself, a place where Taliban was

born, played with its prime minister at the time, Zia ul Haq,

who decided who got money and doled it out through

Pakistans Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI). With this rotation,

Taliban was facilitated to engage with other Islamist extremists.

Focus on Pakistans reason in this camouflage, I identify that

were two reasons dominated. Both were to use radicals to fight

India in Kashmir, and to use it to impose Pakistani influence in

Afghanistan. Therefore, it has concluded that politic of identity

essentially was dominant here. Moreover, Hizb el-Islami, an

extremist group which was led by Gulbudin Hikmetyar, a friend

of Zia, was alliance with Taliban too.

Beside of political donations, the influence that came from a booming radicalization had spread

to intellectual Diasporas in the Middle East. Negatively, this impact influenced and caused the

decline of modern Islamic intellectuals. The Islamic reforms of Muhammad Abduh in Egypt, al-

Kawakibi in Syria, and the cosmopolitan and mercurial reformer Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, served

Figure 2 Zia ul Haq, Pakistani PrimeMinister of 1976


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as just such a bridge between new construction of Islam and science, rationality and a

constitutional order (Sami Zubaida, 2005). Hence, Islam population among the Middle East

genuinely own capacity to create a wonderful Islamic civilization. Moreover, added by the

existence of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, which appealed in 1928. But here, radicalization had

never seen the intellectual movement as the friendship rule; on the contrary, extremist groups

were willing to erase those who committed to the development of rationality in enlightening

Islamic Law. And this purpose was also directed and expected by the sponsors of money whom

were we discussed above. Thus, the dynamics of ideological realm in the Middle East had much

been became a main vehicle to be radicalized; and it spread to several regions in Asia, including

Indonesia. But, in real CIA (American administrative) is seen failed to install its believe in

applying ideological hampers in the Middle East as the great strategy. Hence, it will never be

defined as helping moment for America, whereas it will pressure America to step down from its

hegemonic position.

Here, we are in the last of guidance that driven by genealogy to seek hidden truth in the Middle

East polemics. As I arranged the historical hurling on the Middle Eastern confusion of

ideological realm and its influence to latter matters, here I am with humility going to explain the

current polemics of the Middle East. On the one hand, I feel sponsored overwhelmingly for

intellectual matters to explain the following current polemics of the Middle East by Rami Khouri

(2008), a scholar from Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Qatar, represented

by her paper of America, the Middle East, and the Gulf: An Arab View of Challenges Facing the

Next U.S. Administration. The crises currently happen on the ground of the Middle East, there

are at least five main points. The first of these five crises, almost every Arab country has a border

problem and most Arab countries had major internal rebellions and insurrections. Its second is a

crisis in state relationships as it is not clear where the power of state ends and the power of the

individual assert itself. The third is a crisis in basic human needs and sustainable socioeconomic

development. The fourth is the crisis of identity at the personal, the individual, the communityand the collective national level. The fifth is the crisis of non-clear definition in the Middle East

relationship with the non-Arab world. Some want to make peace with Israel and some want to

make a war dealing with the Zionist racism[18]. This is a five result of a long history which

might be understood as the current situation which must be cleared in the Middle East.


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Ten Issues of Contemporary Forces that America must Challenged to Frustrate:

A Conclusion of Genealogical Guidance

There are ten issues transformed gradually and currently exist on the ground of the Middle East

region and successfully ensure American administrative to frustrate as well as the awareness of

its abuse ejaculation imposed to the field and people started to realize and deal with it. The first

issue is about demographical development among Arab people. Where the Arab people from

1930 were predominantly by middle-aged or old, uneducated or rural, today we see all

mentioned are coming with the situation that predominantly by young, urban and educated

population. The second issue became a very clear trend with the rise of the current Islamist wave,

the economic trends related to oil, we have seen a contraction in the control, credibility, impact

and legitimacy of the central nation-state and central government in the Arab world. The third

issue is in major view that everybody in Arab world has to deal with, particularly important for

Israelis, the end of docility and the end of acquiescence. The fourth major trend is the emergence

of Islam moderate with the traditional value introducing the truth of Islamic Law and introducing

many hidden abuses of American and western aggression in the Middle East region which

attempted at changing values of education and social system within. The fifth issue is around the

western action itself which emphasized on the point of when they misdiagnosed the terrorism

issue in the Middle East region. The sixth issue is the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict may led to

the suspicions of world people towards American administrative, and it is very equal for that.

The seventh issue is today the Middle East is a region that is defined by multiple conflicts and

several active wars, but slowly this makes America frustrated to uphold its responsibility to

protect. The eight issue is when people realize that America intervenes in insulting situations in

the Middle East and actively sides with one group against the other with providing needs, but

overall that makes the image comes worse. The ninth issue is when Iran and Turkey followed by

Bahrain and Lebanon to exterminate all intervenes with the better security architecture. The last

issue is a clear polarization of societies being pulled into opposite directions but coexisting, more

or less, peacefully with each other.


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Citations

[1]Ruthven, Malise, A Fury for God; the

Islamist Attack on America, London, Granta,

2002

[2]Cleveland, William,A History of the Modern

Middle East, 2nd Edition, Boulder, CO,

Westview Press, 2000

[3]Khouri, Rami,America, the Middle East and

the Gulf; an Arab View of Challenges Facing

the Next U.S. Administration, CIRS (Qatar), no.1, 2008

[4]Burchill, Scott & Andrew Linklater, Teori-

teori Hubungan Internasional (Bahasa Indonesia

translation), Bandung, Nusa media, 2009, ch.

Posmodernisme

[5]Devetak, Richard, Theories of International

Relations, New York, Palgrave McMillan, 2005,p. 163

[6]W. Kegley, Jr., Charles & Eugene R.

Wittkopf, World Politics; Trend &

Transformation, 5th

Edition, New York, St.

Martins, 1995, p. 36

[7] opcit. P. 86

[8]Tripp, Charless, A History of Iraq,

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001

[9]Lewis, Bernard, The Middle East; a Brief

History of the Last 2,000 Years, New York,

Scribnerr, 1995

[10]ibid, p. 172

[11] Op cit, p. 87

[12] Op cit, p. 91

[13] Op cit, p. 95

[14] Op cit, p. 92

[15] Op cit, p. 91

[16]www.opendemocracy.net/sami-

zubaida/arab-spring-in-historical-perspective,

accessed on Sunday, April 28, 2012, 02.24 am

[17]Wall Street Journal, Monday, August 10,

2009, vol. CCLIV no. 84

[18] ibid,

[19] Op cit, p. 4

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