Deconstructing American English:

The whys & wherefores ofbasic syntax, grammar & writing

by Lynda Case Lambert© 2005, 2010

This text is offered under Common License. Anyone is free to download and use the text without payment and quote the text freely in other works as long as attribution is given. The work, however, may not be adapted, save as acceptable under Fair Use.

A note from the author...

Grammar and writing texts tend to offer absolutes: "A noun is a person, place or thing"; "Grow is a linking verb", "commas indicate a pause". The fact is that none of this is entirely accurate.

Dealing in absolutes takes away the fact that it is the word’s function or punctuation’s purpose in a sentence that determines "what" and "how" it’s used. If you do not understand function and purpose, you understand little about how to write correctly or well.

Deconstructing American English is not meant to cover every problem, issue or question you may have about grammar, syntax and writing. It is designed to tell you what, how and why,because if you know what something is, how it functions and why it’s used in a certain way, you’re more than likely to be able to solve a syntax problem the next time you encounter it. The biggest syntax problem, however, is that, over the last thirty or so years, we have gotten sloppy. Part of this is because public schools went through a period in which they believed it was unnecessary to learn the rules. They also rid their students of the burden of phonics, Latin, writing-intensive courses, and other subjects that allowed students to learn and apply the syntax. Part of this sloppiness is also because of the proliferation of unique writing formats in business, education and industry. What is right in one format is wrong in another, and this makes for constant confusion about standard American English rules.

The language is dynamic and continues to evolve; however, the rules must remain constant and consistent. If the rules change, then we create a completely new language. So, to those of you who never learned the rules, who never understood them, or who are in the process of trying to understand how this American English language works, I offer this resource.

In a time when at least 50% of our conversation and communication is done through the printed word, it’s important to make sure we’re all on the same page when it comes to the basics. My goal is to make us better writers and speakers; and, thus, better communicators.

Good writing!Lynda Case Lambert

Part A: About sentences and the words that are in them.

The Sentence

The sentence is the means by which we communicate a single thought. Each sentence is made up of single words and groups of words (phrases and clauses). In every language, there is some sort of construction that creates this single thought, but each language has its own word order and is unique in the way the words are related to each other.

American English word order: First the subject noun or pronoun and its modifiers; then the verb and its modifiers which is known as the predicate.

Sentence in correct word order: You may ride home with us this afternoon.

This order separates the sentence into distinct halves: the “subject” half and the “predicate” half.

In the sample sentence above, the single word "you" is all there is to the subject half of the sentence. On the predicate half, we have the verb “may ride”, verb objects and verb modifiers that tell us more; specifically, when and with whom. (Note: These days, we normally just refer to the predicate half as the “verb” half; a convention that I will follow from now on.)

Each sentence is said to hold not just a "single thought", as noted above, but a "complete thought". This means that the sentence, itself, in order to communicate a single thought, must be complete. So, first, let’s consider what that really means.

#1 A "Complete" Sentence

To be complete, a sentence must contain (a) a noun or pronoun which performs some action, is acted upon, or exists (which is known as the simple subject); and (b) a verb through which the simple subject acts, is acted upon, or which indicates its existence. Acting together, these words must represent a single and complete thought.

Examples of a sentence: I went.George was hit.Mildred is.

In the first example, I is the subject and went is the verb. Even though there are only two words in the sentence, the words qualify as a sentence because they fulfill the criteria. I is the pronoun which has done an action; the action is went. It represents a single thought and is complete as it has both a noun actor and a verb action. In the second sentence, George is the subject and he is acted upon (was hit). The third example simply clarifies Mildred’s existence.

Most sentences, of course, are more complicated than these. However, when all modifying words and phrases in any sentence have been removed, the simple subject and simple verb are left. In the more complicated sentence below, the simple subject and verb are highlighted.

When I first decided to write this text, I began four unique versions before I settled on this one.

You may notice that there are other subject/verb pairs in the above sentence. For instance, "I" and "decided" and "I" and "settled". Both of these subject/verb combinations could be main subject/verbs in other sentences, but, in this one, they represent the subject/verb of two separate clauses which modify. In other words, they are not the main subject/verb pair.

It is important to be able to identify the main subject/verb pair, as other modifications depend on one’s ability to do so. In the next sections, we’ll take a look at how to easily identify the sentence’s main subject and verb.

#2 Identifying the Main Subject.

In #1, we determined that for a group of words to be qualified as a sentence, the sentence must include a subject. Some people become confused with this concept of "subject"; they think that the subject of a sentence is what it is about. Therefore, in the sentence "He gathered the peas he had dropped," those people would believe that the subject of the sentence is picking up dropped peas. But, although that is, obviously, what the sentence is about, when we are looking for the subject of the sentence, we mean that one, single thing or person which is acting, being acted upon or being shown to exist.

As noted in section #1, the simple subject is the label we give to the DO-ER (main focus) of the action. It is often just one noun (ex. woman) or a pronoun which stands for a noun (She). However, the simple subject is not always one word, necessarily; nor does it have to be a person.

— the simple subject may be one word OR— the simple subject may consist of many words

— the simple subject may be “animate”, i.e., it may live and breath — the simple subject may be “inanimate”, e.g., it may be an idea.

A simple noun that is animate, as subject of the sentence: Mom washed the clothes.“Mom” is the subject.

In the sentence above, it is true that the simple subject is just one noun: Mom. But this is not always the case. From a very young age, students hear that a "noun is a person, place, or thing." It certainly can be, but the noun is what is functioning as a person, place or thing.

The noun subject may be a noun phrase; words acting together to function as a single noun and act as the subject. In other words, the form may be a noun or it may be a verb and or other words performing the noun function. This is an extremely important point. The example below shows such a case.

A possessive pronoun, a verb participle, and an adverb, which are inanimate, functioning together and forming a phrase which acts as the subject: My being here troubled him.

“My being here” is the subject.

This not the same as "Everyone who came to the party went home early." In this example, the complete subject (simple subject w/modifiers) is "Everyone who came to the party...", but the simple subject is "Everyone". In the example above, "My being here" is the simple subject.The test to determine whether a series of words is a simple subject with modifiers or is a series of words acting together as the simple subject is this: If none of the words in the phrase can be removed and still allow the meaning to remain, then they are part of the simple subject.

Some people try to identify the simple subject by placement, since the subject is usually it is to the left of the verb; however, it isn’t always. With an action verb it is always to the left; with a state-of-being or linking verb, it may be to the right.

The subject is to the left: Bob went to the store. (Bob is the entire subject.)The subject is to the right: There were stools to sit on. (Stools is the subject.) A

hint to knowing this is that the verb "were" agrees with "stools", e.g., it’s plural. "There" does not tell number.

Some have learned that the subject is the closest word to the verb, but sometimes it is not, because, sometimes, the subject has modifiers.

Here, it is not: Millions of people went to the fair.

Although "Millions of people" is the complete subject of the sentence, the simple subject is Millions; of people, a modifying phrase. You can see this by simply eliminating the modifier: Millions went to the fair still makes sense. Of people went to the fair doesn’t.

#3 Identifying the main verb.

Verbs are the words that show action or existence (state-of-being/linking). When used as main verbs, they carry the meaning of the sentences they are in.

Action Verbs:— may show things that are happening now, that did happen, that may happen.— may show something being acted upon rather than acting.

Example of a verb that shows action in the present: He throws the ball well.Throws is the verb in present tense.

Example of a verb that shows existence in the past: He threw the ball well.Threw is the verb in past tense.

Example of a verb that shows action in the future: He will throw the ball well.Will throw is the verb in future tense.

Example of a verb showing something acted upon: The ball was thrown well.“The ball”

is being thrown, not doing the throwing.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

There are two types of action verbs: those that can take direct objects, as does "throw" above; those that can not take a direct object, such as "thinks". Thinking is still an action, but it’s not an action that can take a direct object. Verbs that take direct objects are called transitive, because the action "transits" (moves) from the do-er to the object. Verbs that do not take direct objects, do not transit action, so they are called intransitive.

Note: In contemporary American English, some intransitive verbs are used as transitive to make a point. For instance, you may be able to "think him into oblivion"; but, in fact, that is a metaphorical construction. In other words, it abandons correct usage to make a point. In that metaphorical construction, however, "him" would be the direct object of "think".

Direct Objects

Direct objects (DO’s) are words functioning as nouns that receive the action of transitive verbs. When we use an example such as the one above, "throw the ball", the relationship between the verb and its object is fairly clear; however, it becomes less clear in sentences such as those below.

Sam took the program from the hostess. (DO is "the program".)Sam saw me. (DO is "me".)

Now, consider this:Sam walked with me to the theatre.

In the first examples, "saw" and "take" are transitive; they are allowed to take direct objects. There are no additional words between the verb and its DO; this is because they are acted upon directly by the verb.

Sam can hit me, hug me, take me, but he must speak to me, walk with me, or look away from me. Hit, hug and take all may have direct objects; speak, walk and look do not.

Think about it for a minute. No one can "walk" someone else. You might be saying, "Well, I could say ‘Sam walked me to the theatre.’" And that’s true. However, you would simply be leaving the word "with" to be understood in the sentence; it would not change "walked" into a transitive verb, or "me" into a direct object. (And, yes... one of the biggest problems with current sloppy syntax is that there are too many "understood" words, which we will talk about as we go along and get to a fuller discussion of, a bit later on.)

State of Being, or Linking ,Verbs:— show existence— link two concepts, most often a noun with a modifier.

The linking verb is one that simply links two ideas that are equal. The most used linking verb is "is" (the verb "to be"). Other common ones are "seem" and "feel". We use these verbs to link nouns to modifiers (adjectives) or other nouns (predicate nominatives).

Examples of a word linking a noun with its modifier: Molly is pretty.The team feels terrific.My jacket seems too

tight.

Examples of a word linking a noun with another noun: Molly is a model.John is a doctor.My jacket is an Armani.

Note: A particular adjective is constantly misused. It is manifest. Rather than being used as an adjective, it is used as a verb. People will say that something was "manifested" or that it "manifested itself". Although I admit that through this constant error, the word has now been accepted as a verb, the correct use is as an adjective, as in, "Cancer is manifest in a tumor." It is important to know this, because, if one were to use it as a verb, other words would need to change, as in, "Cancer is manifested as a tumor."

Some verbs that are both action and linking: Often, grammar texts will offer a list of words that are linking verbs, and, too often, students will assume that they are always linking verbs. However, the truth is that they function only as linking verbs in certain situations. For instance:

Grow as a linking verb: He grows taller every time I see him.- In this sentence, grows

links the pronoun "he" with a modifier: "taller".

Forty years ago, grow would not have been considered a linking verb in any sentence, including the example given above. The actual sentence is "He grows [so that he is] taller every time I see him." However, these understood words have been totally dispensed with in modern American English, leaving grow to be considered a linking verb.

Grow as an action verb: He grows beans in his garden.-In this sentence, "beans"

is not a modifier, but the direct object of the action verb "grow". It is what is grown.

Therefore, though "grow" can be considered a linking verb, it can also be used in its original form as an action verb. And, once again, we see that the designation we assign to a word is based solely on its function in the sentence.

As noted above, the most common linking verb is is, but is can also have another purpose, which we will look at next.

Participles:

Each verb has two participles: one past and one present. Participles are verb forms that end in "ing" or "ed", or may have a unique form. The verbs with standard participle endings ("ing" and "ed"), we call regular; the ones with unique forms we call irregular. For instance, in the verb to swim. The present participle is swimming, the past participle is swum. Because the past participle is not "swimmed", which would follow regular form, to swim is considered an irregular verb. There are hundreds of irregular verbs in American English.

Participles are used to clarify meaning, often having to do with time. Participles can not be used alone. In order to use a participle, the writer must add a helping verb in front of it..

The most common helping verbs are forms of the verb to be ( is, was, were). In particular, is is used for the present participle of a verb. The present participle is used when one wants to say that something is happening in the immediate or current present.

For instance: John is playing with the band.

In this example, we know that John "is playing" with the band right now, but we don’t know if he did play yesterday or whether he will play tomorrow.

Now, I know what some of you are thinking. You’re thinking that we could write "John is playing with the band tomorrow." And you would be right. However, that would mean that in tomorrow’s present, John is playing. It does not indicate if he is playing with them today or if he will play with them the day after tomorrow.

So, when we use the helping verb is with a verb’s present participle, we are telling our reader that this is a one-time event. We don’t know its past; we don’t know its future.

On the other hand, the regular present tense of a verb, not the participle, is used to tell us that something is happening in the present, but it is also a continuing present.

For example: John plays with the band.

This means that he always plays with the band– he did yesterday, he does today, and we expect that he will tomorrow.

Oddly, we can also show such continuation using is as a helping verb with the past participle– not the present one. When we do this, we mean "always". However, a big issue here is that this configuration, i.e., the present helping verb "is" and the past participle, can only be used when the subject of the sentence is being "acted upon", not "acting".

For instance, we could not write "John is played with the band." We could write, "The music is played whenever we enter the elevator." Notice how the music is being acted upon; it’s not doing the playing, but being played. And, there is a modifier which qualifies the "always" factor, i.e., "whenever we enter the elevator".

Other helping verbs include have, has, had, do and did. If we use any of these, we change the meaning again. For instance:

John has played with the band. This shows that he’s played with them in the past, but we don’t know if he is now playing with them. Probably not.

John had played with the band. The use of "had" really requires additional information. For instance, when had John played with the band? However, it does tell us that this action is over; he no longer plays with the band.

John did play with the band. Notice that we are no longer using either the standard present participle (playing) or the standard past participle (played); instead, did is used with the present tense of a verb to show affirmation. The same applies to "John does play with the band."

When we say John "did play", we mean that he doesn’t any longer; when we say John "does play", we may require a qualifier, such as "on Saturdays".

Hint: Verbs can be confusing. To make them less so, you must commit to memory– eventually– all the participle forms and tenses. There is a hint on how to do this in part #4. Until you have them in memory, however, keep a reference nearby. For instance, you might want to print out the list of irregular verb forms at the end of this text.

#4 Subject/verb agreement

For any sentence you write, if you want it to make sense, the subject and the verb must "agree". For them to agree, they must be the same person and number. This means that if the subject is 3rd person plural, then the verb must also be in 3rd person plural form; and, reasonably, a 3rd person singular subject would require a verb in 3rd person singular form. This is the main reason why you MUST be able to identify the subject of every sentence you write.

Example of a subject and verb that are 3rd person singular. He goes on Fridays.Example of a subject and verb that are 3rd person plural. They go on Fridays.Example of a s/v pair that is COMPLETELY INCORRECT. He go on Fridays.

In order for you to know that the subject and verb agree, you must know what the singular and plural verb forms are, and what "person" is being used in the subject.

Suggestion: An easy way to study verb forms and learn to recognize person is to create and memorize conjugations. To conjugate a verb, use the form below.

Singular forms: Plural forms:1st Person I __________ we __________

2nd Person you ________ you _________3rd Person he/she/it ____ they _________

EXAMPLE: Begin with the infinitive. The infinitive form of the verb is its basic form. It is written beginning with the pronoun “to”, as in the verb “to be”. (See appendix B for irregular verb forms, including infinitives.) In our sample conjugations below, just four tenses are shown; there are more. (See appendix A.) Sample Conjugations: Infinitive: to be

Present tense: I am we areyou are you arehe/she/it is they are

Past Progressive: I was being we were beingyou were being you were beinghe/she/it was being they were being

Infinitive: to go Notice that this one is pretty easy. All you have to know the past participle of the word in question. In this case, it is “gone”.

Past Perfect tense: I had gone we had goneyou had gone you had gonehe had gone they had gone

Past tense: I went we wentThis one is even easier. You only need one form: went.

you wentyou wenthe/she/it went they went

Some issues with infinitives: Even though the infinitive form of the verb is the basic form of the verb, it is rarely used as a verb in a sentence– which may account for some people’s confusion with it. The infinitive usually functions as a noun or a modifier. (Example: I want to go. To go answers the question "what"; it is functioning as the noun object of the verb want. Replace it with another noun and you’ll see. Example: I want a cookie.)

Splitting infinitives: A split infinitive is one that has an adverb in the middle. (Ex: He wanted to always go to the store.) In the past, splitting infinitives had been totally forbidden; however, as language has progressed, we’ve seen that sometimes splitting the infinitive can clarify meaning. For instance, without the split infinitive, the example sentence has a slightly different meaning. "He wanted always to go to the store ."

When "always" splits the infinitive, the meaning seems to be, when I go to the store, he always wants to go. In the second, which is actually what we would have previously called correct placement, the sentence seems to mean that he wants to do nothing else but go

to the store. The second sentence also lacks the tempo of the prior sentence; sounds more formal. So, splitting is ok, BUT understand that meaning may change if you do it.

One Problem: Nouns inculcated into American English are often not “anglicized”, meaning that they retain the endings from their original language. This becomes particularly confusing when the same ending does not indicate the same person. For instances: data is a Latin plural; alumna is Latin singular feminine. When you see a non-standard ending on a word, in order to make sure you’re using the correct verb form, you must know what person these endings indicate. Solution: Look them up in the good ol’ dictionary.

#5 The Subjective and Objective Cases

In the first four sections, we have discussed the subject and the verb. In this section, we want to make the distinction between all those things (modifiers) that belong with the subject or act in a phrase or clause , which are considered "subjective", and all those things that belong with the verb or are acted upon, which are considered "objective".

Subjective & Objective Pronouns

The pronouns we want to talk about first are those that directly STAND FOR/TAKE THE PLACE OF a noun in a sentence.

We focus on these, initially, because the confusion over how to use subjective and objective pronouns is what I consider to be the most prolific error in American English. I have heard even actors, announcers and journalists makes these mistakes– people who make their livings, supposedly, by being able to speak well. I once heard Academy Award winning actor, Lawrence Fishburne (Rachel Ray Show, 11/25/09), say, in speaking about possibly performing for the President of the United States that he wanted to perform "... for he and his wife." What he meant was "for him and his wife." He, of course, is not alone. This error is made hundreds of times a day– and that’s just by people on radio and TV!

You may ask, "Why does this matter?" Well... I am kind of a stickler on this particular issue. It matters because when it comes to the use of objective and subjective pronouns, there is RIGHT and there is WRONG. There is no quarter given here; there is no opinion that can be offered that can support saying it wrong. There are no shades of gray.

So... how do you get it right?

Subjective pronouns are those which take the place of a noun in the subject of the sentence or clause; they do the action or are acted upon.

Subjective pronouns: I, we, he, she, it, they, you. You will notice right away that these are the pronouns we used in our verb conjugations.

Objective pronouns are those which receive action; are the object of a verb or a preposition.

Objective pronouns: me, us, him, her, it, them, you. All objective pronouns receive action or follow a preposition.

I hit him with the ball. You and I should go with her to the station.Don't run to them with that idea. That was supposed to be between me and

him.

Hint: For compounds subjects, always say yourself second, as in: "She and I went." In compound objects or following a preposition, always say yourself first, as in "to me and him." As a test, just take yourself out of the pair and see how it sounds. "Her went" or "to he" sounds ridiculous to everyone.

In addition to being subjects of sentences and clauses, the subjective pronoun is used on either side of a linking/state-of-being verb.

Linking subjectives: I am she.

This is because "she" and "I" are the same thing and exactly equal; therefore, they are interchangeable, and; therefore, the same case is used.

The subjective case is also used in phases and clauses.

Example: She was afraid that he would hurt her.

We do not say "that him would hurt her", because in that clause he is the do-er of the action. The pronoun retains its subjective case as long as it is used in front of a verb, even when it is not the main verb of the sentence. The main verb in the example sentence is "was".

Another example is when we use the comparison words "like" or "as".

Example: She worked as hard as I.

You may be saying, "Whoa! I know that’s not right. Where is the verb after I? And it’s in the verb half of the sentence." Actually... there is a verb after it. The verb is "worked". It is assumed that you will understand its being there and, therefore, we do not have to repeat it. The complete sentence is:

She worked as hard as I worked.

You can see, therefore, that "me" is totally wrong. "She worked as hard as me worked" sounds idiotic.

After like, however, the objective case is used, as in: She worked like me.

This simply means that she worked in a similar way. Like and as are problems, these days, because too many confuse what they mean. But there are ways to know when to use which word.

Hint: One way to tell when to use like or as for comparison, as you may have figured out by the previous examples, is that when it is preceded by an adjective, such as "hard", use "as". When not using a adjective qualifier, use "like".

Years ago, when cigarettes were advertised on television– and everyone had been well-schooled in correct grammar– there was a big national flap about an ad slogan. It read "Winston tastes good, like a cigarette should." Because of the adjective "good", it should have read, "Winston tastes good, as a cigarette should." And, as noted above, the noun that follows as is also followed by a verb, i.e., "Winston tastes good, as a cigarette should taste".

Like, on the other hand, is always followed by a noun with no verb afterward. "Cigarettes taste like a cat box." Though never used as a slogan– nor would it ever be– this example shows the correct use of like.

WHO AND WHOM: More often than not, these days, these two words get confused. They shouldn’t be confused, because "who" is subjective and "whom" is objective, as defined by our previous discussion. The reason they do get confused, however, because whom is commonly separated from its accompanying preposition or verb. We used to have a solid rule: never end a sentence with a preposition. It would be nice if that were still a solid rule, but it isn’t. Even so, the correct subjective/objective form must still be used. Below are some examples concerning the object of a preposition.

Correct: (sounds odd) You want me to give that to whom?Correct (though stilted): To whom do you want me to give that?Incorrect (common): Who do you want me to give that to?BEST CHOICE: Whom do you want me to give that to?

Hint: If you have problems remembering that the first word you’re saying technically is the object of the preposition at the end of the sentence, follow the old rule about never ending a sentence with a preposition. For instance, if I say "Who do you want to speak to?", the sentence sounds right, even though it is wrong. It should be "Whom do you want to speak to?" Instead, say, "To whom do you want to speak?" or, if that sounds too stilted, change the preposition and say, "With whom do you want to speak?"

Being in the objective case, whom also is used as a direct object of a verb. Consider the question, "Whom did you see?" Currently, it would, most likely, be written, "Who did you see?" But that would be wrong.

In a statement, "I saw her," it would be obvious that the objective case should be used. However, in the question form, the objective must also be used. "You saw whom?" This last, of course, sounds extremely awkward, as we rarely use such a construction, anymore; however, it makes the point. Whom must be used when it is the direct object of a verb.

#6 Other Pronouns

We’ve spoken about subjective and objective pronouns, but pronouns, which are the next most used words after nouns, have other uses as well.

Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns are sometimes used to show possession (ownership). These possessive pronouns are: my, our, your, their, his, her and its. We use these to substitute for nouns, so that we don't have to keep repeating the noun. Without the use of the possessive pronoun, things can get confusing.

Awkward and confusing: John looked up and saw John's book was lying on John's bed.

Simple and not confusing: John looked up and saw his book was lying on his bed.

HOWEVER... never use the pronoun when the noun it represents does not come before it. The reader of your writing must always be able to understand just what the pronoun is connected to.

Not connected: He looked up and saw his book was lying on his bed. Then, John picked it up.

If these were the only two sentences the reader had to go by, he would assume that "he" is someone other than John. Or, we might think John picked up the bed, as “bed” is the noun that precedes "it". Either way, the meaning is not clear.

The noun that is closest to the pronoun and matches it in person is the one it is taken to represent.

Incorrect: John pulled the blankets askew looking for his book. After he found it, he left it that way. (This second it represents the book, but it is not meant to. It is meant to represent "the blankets", but, because blankets is plural and the singular "it" is used, it does not.)

Correct: John pulled the blankets askew looking for his book. After he found it, he left them that way.

Choosing the correct pronoun is very important, because when it is not used correctly, the message is confused. Just as subjects and verbs must agree, so must all pronouns agree with the nouns they represent (their antecedents) in person, gender and number.

#7 Pronoun Agreement

Whether possessive, objective or subjective, the pronoun must always be the same person, number and gender as its antecedent. When they are as they should be, they are said to be in agreement.

Incorrect: Everyone should know their neighbors.Correct: Everyone should know his neighbors.

In the case of an abstract such as everyone, since the 1980's– when some nimnitz decided that it offended feminism to use the universal "he/his"– their has become the possessive of choice. However, it is a plural, and therefore can not– should not, must not!– be used with the singular subject everyone. Therefore, please stop using it. His is correct. (I, a tie-dyed, life-long feminist, am much more offended by a lack of accuracy than I am by a male standard.)

For Compound Subjects, the antecedent of the pronoun is the noun that is closest to it, so if you have a subject that includes two or more nouns then you may have to adjust the sentence, sometimes even making it into two sentences, to achieve the correct meaning.

Incorrect: The boy and his friend ran into his house. (Whose house?)Correct: The boy ran into his house. His friend went in with him.

When another noun comes between the antecedent and the pronoun that stands for it, it can even be more confusing than the incorrect sentence just above.

Incorrect: John worked the night shift for Mr. Jones on Saturday, but he was still able to make it to church on Sunday.

Who made it to church? As far as this sentence tells us, it was Mr. Jones, but that doesn’t make sense. What was keeping Mr. Jones from church? Was he working, too?

Correct: John was still able to make it to church on Sunday, even though he worked the night shift for Mr. Jones on Saturday.

THAT AND WHICH: These two words are multi-taskers. Each of them can function as a pronoun, modifier, or connector. We’ll look at some of the common usages, particularly for "that".

When that and which are used as connectors, usually the entire phrase they begin is modifying the noun they are attached to. That is used when you want to signify a specific thing; which is used when meaning is more on-going, yet the which phrase is not needed to specifically understand the sentence.

That: The eggs that I had for breakfast were good.Which: The eggs, which I don’t usually enjoy, were good.

THAT AND WHO: Use who for people and that for things when it is a modifying phrase that is restrictive. There are exceptions, but it’s simply easier to remember this way. (For clarification as to why there are not commas in both this example and “that and which” above, see Commas, rule #6, restrictive and unrestrictive modifiers.)

That: The eggs that I had for breakfast were good.Who: The girl who came for breakfast was nice.

THAT, THIS, THESE AND THOSE: These words are often considered pronouns in the sense of the stand-in type of pronoun we first discussed, but another school of thought labels them

adjectives or a special kind of identifier known as an article. (Note: adjectives are words that modify nouns, i.e., change their meaning.)

I am of the second school, which sees them as adjectives. The reason is because, even when these words are used as pronouns, the words they modify are implied.

Consider the sentence, “I'll take these.” If I'm buying socks, then socks is implied, as in “I'll take these [socks].” The word these specifically modifies the meaning of socks; it does not actually take its place. “I'll take socks.” means any socks at all; whereas “these socks” isolates specific socks. And so it is with all the others: "This [explanation] is a simple one." "Those [people] were here first." "That [table] is the one I want."

In every case, a noun is implied; therefore, when used in this way, that, this, these and those are adjectives/articles.

#8 Adjectives, Adverbs & Articles

Adjectives are words that modify– change/restrict/mutate– the meaning of a noun. Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. There are thousands and thousands of them, because they are not just single words. We can construct phrases and clauses that function as adjectives and adverbs.

Examples: She wore a blue dress.She wore a long, blue dress.She wore a long, blue, slinky dress with fringe around the bottom.

She wore a long, blue, slinky dress with fringe around the bottom and a ruffle around the neck.

You get the idea.

In the sentences above, long is an adjective, blue is an adjective; both modify dress (the noun). With fringe... and a ruffle is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adjective (adjective phrase), also modifying dress.

Around the bottom and around the neck are prepositional phrases functioning as adverbs, modifying the adjective phrase. We know this because they answer the question "where". This is one way to distinguish an adverb from other parts of speech. An adverb answers the questions where, when, how. (Adjectives tell what.)

Adverbs: He went to the party. (to the party tells us where)He came at four o’clock. (at four o’clock tells us when)She laughed so that everyone could hear her. ( how)

Notice that in my examples above, the adverbial phrases are all modifying verbs. More often than not, an adverb or adverbial phrase does modify a verb; however, single-word adverbs are more easily identified than adverbial phrases, because they usually end in "ly". In the sentence, "She laughed loudly", the word loudly is the adverb telling us how she laughed. Or consider: "He came quickly." or "He went slowly."

A word about "there"

There is sometimes considered a pronoun; sometimes an adverb. In the sentence "There is a sandwich for each of you." it might be considered a pronoun. However, I would suggest that you think of there, always, as an adverb. If I correct the word order in my sample sentence, it becomes, "A sandwich is there for each of you." Now, you can more easily see why it is an adverb (it tells where), and, also, why "a sandwich" is the subject of the sentence. (Note: There is, and will be, disagreement with my interpretation, which may be seen as overly simplistic. However, I believe that, particularly for those who have difficulty with these concepts, this is the easy way to view "there". Yes, there are other views; yes, there has other uses. If you’re interested, look into those later.)

Articles are the simplest modifiers of nouns. There are only three: a, an and the. The English language requires at least one article to identify a noun if there is no other modifier.

A is used in front of singular nouns. For plurals, adjectives often take the place of the article.

Using an article: “I need a drink.” Using an adjective: “I need three drinks before my thirst will be quenched.”

An is used exactly the same way, but it is used in front of singular nouns that begin with vowels or silent consonants. "I need an extension." "He brought me an historical novel."

Note: History, historical and most words beginning with "H" are often written in printed text using "a" instead of the "an". The reason is, according to a mentor of mine, that typesetting guilds were tired of being admonished for doing it incorrectly, so it decided to just use "a" all the time for "h" words in printed text. However...

In strict English syntax, whether writing or speaking, we should differentiate, using "an" not just for all words that begin with vowels, but for soft consonants, such as the "h" in historical (pronounced "istorical"). The kicker is that you must know how to pronounce the word in order to choose whether you will use "a" or "an. For, although historical takes the "an" because of its soft "h", history has a hard h, so it takes an "a".

The is used to mean a particular one or a particular set of more than one; it is the most specific of the articles. Often, it is followed by a qualifier (phrase acting as an adjective)...

Examples: The book that I bought yesterday has a page missing.The students who are registering must go downstairs.

... but not always.I bought the book on line.Jim was introduced to the girls on Tuesday.

Still, in these last two examples, a specific book and a specific group of girls are implied.

#9 THE PREPOSITION

We’ve talked a lot in the prior sections about prepositional phrases. And, in fact, prepositions never stand alone; they always begin phrases. They also offer us lots of information. The preposition you choose will convey true meaning. Consider the difference in meaning of the sentences below.

I took it from him. I looked for it with him.I took it to him. I looked into it for him.

The main words in all the above sentences are the same. In the first pair: "I... took... it... him"; and in the second pair: "I... looked... it... him." The only things that change are the prepositions and you can see how clearly different the meanings of these sentences are.

The most common prepositions are: in from for betweenon to of intoat by with about

Prepositions begin most of our modifying phrases. Whether acting as adjectives or adverbs, the prepositional phrase is probably the most used phrase in English. It is, what I would call, the essential building block of description.

Look how we build a sentence: He went.He went to the store.He went to the store at the mall.He went to the store at the mall about an hour ago.

...and so on.

We could keep building, adding prepositional phrase after prepositional phrase. Notice how each phrase we add gives us more information, modifying the original information to be a more specific description of what happened.

#10 Common Errors to Avoid

Fewer and Less

I have a simple rule for this. "If it has an ‘s’, don’t use less." What I mean is that less is a measure of volume; fewer is a measure of numbers of things. Only words that illustrate numbers of things will have ‘s’s" on them; therefore, if it has an ‘s’, don’t use less.

You may say, "What about examples I see every day, like ‘less calories’?" My answer is, "They are wrong." It should be "fewer calories".

This is such a common error, it almost seems as if I shouldn’t bother with it, but it irks me. It is a simple thing to correct, yet so few correct it. The Giant grocery store chain did, however. Their original signs said "10 items or less". It has been corrected to read, "10 items or fewer." (Thank you, Giant!!!)

Until and till

The word "till" means to dig in the earth before planting. It is not an abbreviation for until, although it is often used as such. The abbreviation for until is ‘til. To avoid the confusion, however, just make it rule to never abbreviate: use until.

Affect and effect

Effect is the noun; affect is the verb. It’s that simple. “I was affected by the effects of the sound.”

Got and gotten

There are plenty of verbs in which the past participle is not known and, therefore, not properly used, but “gotten” is one that I hear often enough that I thought I would mention it. “Got” is the past tense of “get”. “I got a great present for my birthday.”

“Gotten” is the past participle. “I had gotten a great present for my birthday, but my Christmas present was even better!” NOT “I had got a great present...”

Part B: Sentence Punctuation

Commas

The comma is the most used punctuation mark in the English language. Interestingly, it came into being with the advent of printing. (So, printers have always had an influence on the language, not just in modern times.) The mark is attributed to William Tyndale (1535), and may the gods bless him for it. It is one of the best punctuation marks there is; it helps us keep things straight.

The problem with commas and their placement is that too many people remember incorrectly the "rule" they learned in grammar school. What they remember is, "wherever there’s a pause, there’s a comma." So, when they pause intellectually, they put a comma there.

The rule actually is that "a comma indicates a pause". This means that if I have placed a comma for any one of many reasons– which we will get to in a minute– then, when I am reading the writing, I should intellectually, or actually (if speaking), pause. In other words, pauses don’t cause commas; commas cause pauses.

Commas have specific reasons for their placement. Commas should only be placed according to these reasons and NOT because someone pauses at a certain spot in the text. If incorrectly placed, commas, or the lack of one, can create a difference in meaning. Look at the following examples.

At the same time these theories were being put into effect.

The above sentence appears to be incomplete, just a fragment of a sentence. Yet, put in the comma after the introductory phrase, and voila! a whole sentence appears; its meaning clear.

At the same time, these theories were being put into effect.

Or how about this one, which was sent to me in a humorous email: "Let’s eat grandma." This sentence, without the proper comma, appears to be suggesting that grandma should be sliced and diced and served for dinner!Properly punctuated: "Let’s eat, Grandma," it’s meaning is clear.

A very popular example, which has even served as the title of a text on punctuation (Truss, L, "Eats, Shoots & Leaves", Gotham Books, London, 2003) is, if written correctly, "A panda eats shoots and leaves." With incorrect punctuation, "A panda eats, shoots, and leaves," one wonders where a panda learned to shoot a gun and whom did he shoot before he left?

Below are the rules concerning commas. Follow them and your meanings will be clear.

Comma Rule #1: Commas are placed after introductory phrases.

The introductory phrase may be short: At last, we've arrived.Finally, I'm finished.

Or it may be long: Glancing at her watch to see if the train was on time, she stepped onto the platform.

Note: Some teachers and grammar books will tell you to only place a comma after an introductory phrase of five words or more, but this is, in fact, a style convention from the Associated Press (AP) style book. The AP style book is specifically designed for journalists who want to save all the space they can for words, so punctuation is kept to a minimum.

The reason that commas are placed after ALL introductory phrases is to show the reader that a word or series of words have been moved from normal placement.

Let’s use as example the original example of a sentence in correct word order that I offered you in part #1: "You may ride home with us this afternoon." I can change this word order.

Changed sentence: This afternoon, you may ride home with us.

The adverbial phrase “this afternoon” has been taken from its standard placement and converted into an introductory phrase. Hence, the need for the comma.

When the words are re-placed in the center of the sentence, they are surrounded by commas.

Changed sentence: You may ride home, this afternoon, with us.

#2 Commas are inserted to show that words are missing.

Missing words: Sometimes, we don't wish to repeat words that we have just used and so we use a comma to show that they are missing. In the second independent clause in the sentence below, for instance, a comma has been used to replace the words “was as”. This construction is also much more dramatic when commas are used than when the words are repeated.

All words in place: The structure was as part of the land; the land was as part of the lake.

With missing words: The structure was as part of the land; the land, part of the lake.

Commas should also be placed when we decide just to omit words, but they usually aren’t. This causes particular problems for non-English language speakers, but even native speakers don’t always realize the words are missing. These missing words are among the "understood words" I’ve mentioned as we’ve gone along. We must understand that the words are there but simply unstated, or it skews the way we understand a sentence.

All words in place: Sue told Jim that she was going to the party.

With missing word: Sue told Jim she was going to the party.

These are the same sentence. The "that" is still, technically, there in sentence #2, and it must be accepted as being there. Forty years ago, the second sentence would have been written, "Sue told Jim, she was going to the party." However, rarely is the comma now used to show the missing "that". We leave it out when other words are left out, as well.

A common example...

All words in place: The girl whom I spoke of yesterday is coming.

With missing whom: The girl I spoke of yesterday is coming.

Whom IS STILL THERE! If you can not recognize the existence of the missing word, then you will not be able to recognize the modifying phrase "whom I spoke of yesterday".

Admittedly, I could admonish us again and say that these missing words are missing simply because Americans have gotten sloppy in their speaking, and this sloppy speaking has translated into sloppy writing. Yet, there is really more to it. The second sentence is simply easier to say; the language is being streamlined, as it were. But, be that as it may, we must know what is intended in order to understand the meaning and to make everything agree.

#3: Commas separate words that are not integral to the sentence’s meaning.

Commas separate any words that begin or are injected into a sentence to help its understanding but are not essential to meaning. They are called transitional expressions.

He was, nevertheless, late for school. (Nevertheless, he was late for school./ He was late for school, nevertheless.)

Bob was satisfied, after all, with the verdict. (After all, Bob was satisfied with the

verdict./ Bob was satisfied with the verdict, after all.)

Notice that, no matter where these expressions are placed, they are either followed by, introduced by or surrounded by commas.

#4: Commas surround appositives

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that is interjected to clarify meaning. It is the same as the noun it clarifies and, just as is the transitional expression when it appears in the middle of a sentence, the appositive is surrounded by commas.

Example: My father, the General, will be home soon.My sister, Susan, is coming with us.Barrack Obama, the President of the United States, will speak to us.

You can see that the appositive can be one or more words; it is not limited as to size. However, a sentence can get very cumbersome if you try to put too many words into an appositive. If you do, your reader– or listener, if you are speaking– begins to lose the thread of what you are saying. For instance:

My friend, who is the girl whom you met yesterday when we were on that school field trip, is coming.

An appositive this long should actually be considered a separate thought and, therefore, a separate sentence, as in:

My friend is coming. She is the girl whom you met yesterday when we were on that school field trip.

Another way is to change the subject.

The girl whom you met yesterday, who is my friend, is coming. OR, simply,The girl who is coming is the girl whom you met yesterday.

#5: A comma should separate dependent and independent clauses.

FIRST: A clause is simply a complete thought within a sentence. It’s easier to understand if we just create some from some sentences.

Sentence 1: I am going to the store.Sentence 2: I was wondering if you would like to come.Sentence 1 & 2 being turned into clauses: I am going to the store, and I was wondering if you would like to come.

The word “and” in this usage is a coordinating conjunction. All this means is that it joins two formerly independent and complete thoughts, which, because they are now joined, have become known as clauses.

(A word about “and”. And is a coordinating conjunction in this instance, but may also act as a simple conjunction (joining word) for a compound subject or verb. For instance: John and Bill were students. Do NOT write: John, and Bill were students, because John and Bill is a compound subject. Now, back to the coordinating conjunctive use...)

The coordinating conjunction can not stand alone. It can not just sit between the two clauses separate from them; it must be part of one clause or the other. When the conjunction becomes part of a clause, that clause is then said to be dependent because it can no longer stand alone. For instance, if we wanted to separate the two sentences above again, we could remove the first complete thought (I am going to the store.) and it could stand alone as a complete sentence. However, "and I was wondering if you would like to come" is not a stand alone thought anymore.

Other coordinating conjunctions that can be used with a comma are: but, or, nor, for, so, and yet. (Note: for more information about other conjunctions, see "conjunctive adverbs".)

You will read, occasionally, that a comma and “and” separate two independent clauses, but I believe that by labeling a clause that begins with a conjunction as “independent”, the issue of what can stand alone as a sentence becomes confused. The only time a clause beginning with a coordinating conjunction can stand by itself is when the beginning of the sentence, the independent clause to which it is attached, is not stated but understood.

For instance: I didn't look, because it was too gruesome. And John didn't either.

In the second sentence, a repetition of the words “I didn't look” are understood. If we included everything, it would read: I didn't look, because it was too gruesome. I didn't look, and John didn't either.

Repeating the first clause in this way sounds awkward, because it is unnecessary. Consequently, we simply don't repeat it, and allow the dependent clause to stand, essentially, alone. This does not, however, suddenly make "And John didn’t either" an independent clause.

#6 Commas indicate whether a modifier is restrictive or non-restrictive.

This is probably one of the more important rules for comma use. I feel confident saying this because, when I was once serving as an editor, I saved a company $100,000 simply by placing a comma before what was meant to be a non-restrictive modifier.

When commas are used to surround an adjective or adverb modifier, it is indicating that that modifier is not essential to the meaning of the sentence and it is called “non-restrictive”. For instance, in the example below, the meaning we take from the sentence is that there is only one sister and she just happens to live on Elm Street.

Example of a non-restrictive clause: The victim's sister, who lives on Elm Street, was home that night.

When no commas are used, the modifier becomes “restrictive”, meaning that it always applies and must be part of the sentence. The restrictive modifier identifies specifically. In the restrictive use, with no commas, the sentence implies that the suspect has more than one sister, and the one we're talking about is the one who lives on Elm Street.

Example of a restrictive clause: The victim's sister who lives on Elm Street was home that night.

Hint: When these sentences are spoken, it is easy to tell them apart. When we say the first, we drop our voice down to a deeper tone and pause at the first comma. When we say the second, there is no pause and we maintain the same tone of voice as we did when saying “The victim's sister....” So, if you’re having trouble determining whether you should have commas or not, say the sentence out loud. You will, no doubt, say it correctly and the tone of your voice will tell you which one you want.

#7: Commas separate words in a series.

This is the most well-known comma rule. Oddly, it is also one of the least followed, anymore. It is followed when we have a sentence such as, "I bought apples, peaches and pears." It is often not followed when we are writing description, as in, "A widespread viral attack has occurred." If we were being strict, it would read, "A widespread, viral attack...". We aren’t.

Sometimes, and particularly in the case of multiple adjectives, it’s been found that commas can confuse. So, in this case, I would suggest that you use your own judgment. If using commas for things in a series makes the thought more clear, use them; if it doesn’t, don’t.

#8: Commas always surround the names of states when they are used in conjunction with cities, and separate the day and year when the month, day and year are written. Commas also separate abbreviated titles.

Too often we see something such as “John Jones, Esq. was at the trial.” The abbreviated title, “Esquire”, even though the abbreviation is followed by a period, should also have a comma after it. Such things are treated as are appositives. States and company endings such as incorporated should be shown the same way. The following sentences are correct.

John Jones, Esq., was at the trial on April 3, 1999.Washington, D.C., is where he has his office.Ben & Jerry, Inc., was just sold to a large food chain.

Notice that in the first of our examples, we have the prepositional phrase “on April 3, 1999.” This phrase shows the comma between the day and the year. Many people in government or military structure write dates differently. They may write “3 April 1999”, but in a report or letter or any other kind of standard writing, this would be incorrect. Unless one is writing for the government (or in Europe), the date should always be shown month, then day, then a comma, then year.

Important Note: Commas never separate a subject from its verb.

Lots of the examples that you've read— such as the ones just above— appear to separate the subjects from their verbs, but that is not so and it is not allowed. For instance, we would write John Jones was at the trial. Not: John Jones, was at the trial. The commas are included above, not to separate the subject from its verb, but to isolate the words or letters in question.The semi-colon and the colon

Just as are any other marks of punctuation, the semi-colon and the colon are used in specific instances. But the first thing the writer needs to understand is that punctuation is a hierarchy. In other words, the comma is the lowliest form of punctuation, and, therefore, the most used. It indicates a pause, as we’ve noted, but only a brief one.

Next up the scale is the semi-colon; then the colon. Finally, there is the period, the question mark and the exclamation point. Each of these indicates a progressively longer pause or an ending.

Think of it this way...

The Punctuation Hierarchy

!???

. . . . . .: : : : : : : :

; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;, , , , , , , , , , , , ,

Of course, my hierarchy does not contain all punctuation used in American English. In addition, we use the hyphen, dash, ellipsis, parentheses, brackets, quotation marks, and apostrophe; however, the hierarchy contains all basic sentence punctuation. (For discussion of some of those not noted in the hierarchy, see the next few sections.)Looking at the punctuation as a hierarchy, you can almost see how it evolved. The semi-colon is created by using the comma and half of a colon; it, also, falls between them. The colon is half of the top half of a semi-colon with a period underneath. The period stands alone just as the thought that it signifies the end of; and both the question mark and the exclamation point have periods as part of their constructions, indicating that they, too, end a complete thought.

If we can keep this in mind, it becomes easier to use the hierarchy to remember under what circumstances we use these marks.

Example: No punctuation, except a period. The officer left the station at three o'clock.A comma is used. At three o'clock, the officer left the station.Comma & semi-colon used. At three o'clock, the officer left the station;

he was ill.Colon & semi-colon used. The officer left the station for two reasons:

he was ill; his shift was over at three o'clock.

The semi-colon connects (or separates– however you want to look at it) two complete thoughts, each of which could, if we chose, stand alone as a complete sentence. We choose to keep them together with the semi-colon when we feel that they are so closely related in thought as to need to be together; however, at the same time, we do not wish to subjugate one to the other by using a conjunction. (It's a judgment call; there's no right or wrong.)

Specific instances in which a semi-colon should be used.

1. To separate two complete thoughts with no conjunction. (as noted above)2. Before conjunctive adverbs/adverb phrases*, such as however. (Note: these

conjunctive adverbs are always followed by a comma, as in, “He went in for trial; however, it was postponed.”) A word about conjunctive adverbs— they are first adverbs. When used strictly as adverbs, they do not require the semi-colon, comma combination.

Used as conjunctive: He arrived with me; accordingly, he was not there to hear the speaker.

Used as an adverb: He was late, and was chastised accordingly.

Conjunctive adverbs/adverbial phrases are as follow; however, the three that are most used are however, nevertheless, and therefore.

accordingly for example in other words otherwiseafter all for instance instead similarlyalso further likewise stillanyway furthermore meanwhile subsequentlyas a result hence moreover thenbesides however nevertheless thereaftercertainly in addition next thereforeconsequently incidentally nonetheless thuseven so indeed of coursefinally in fact on the other hand

Specific instances in which a colon should be used.

The colon is often used currently as a substitute for a period, as in “He walked me to the elevator: He was a gentleman.” You see this a lot in upscale publications, where the writers are trying to be unique and avant garde.

Do not use the colon in this way. It is not specifically wrong, but it is not what we would consider standard use; and it is, quite frankly, unnecessary. In the above example, a semi-colon (without the second capitalized “he”), or a period and two complete sentences, would have been clear enough.

The colon should be used to separate the main thought in a sentence from other thoughts that further explain it. Example #1 below shows this. Example #2 shows the colon used the same way as in #1, but the second part of the sentence is broken out in a list. Example #3, however, shows a complete thought introducing a separate list. Notice that the colon is NOT used.

1) Use the colon when you have a list that follows which expands something in the sentence, as in, “We found three items in the apartment: a gun, a rope, and a list of names.”

2) Use the colon before a list that remains part of a sentence.

Example*: We found three items in the apartment:a gun,a rope, anda list of names.

3) Do NOT use the colon, necessarily, after the words “as follow/as follows”. A period is your best choice.

Example*: The items we found in the apartment are as follow.-A gun-A rope-A list of names

Note: Do NOT use a colon to introduce a quotation or after "for example".

Parentheses & Brackets & the Ellipsis

In the previous section, I mentioned parenthetical expressions. These are clarifying comments which are not a direct part of what one is talking about. They are, if you will, the voice of the omnipotent narrator or writer. (See “dashes”, below.)

Parentheses, however, also have a function in format. Often, the parentheses will enclose a date, name, or title of a work or page number in a line of text to help cite it. This is true in both the MLA and APA formats, which will be discussed in Part III.

Examples: MLA (Jones, 4) Indicates the last name of the author & pg.APA (Jones, 2008, p. 4) Also tells us the year of writing.

Brackets may serve a similar function. They can insert parenthetical material; however, brackets may be used to insert parenthetical material in quotations. Such use is rare, however. Their standard use in quotations is to show that the writer who is quoting has inserted something into the line to clarify. For instance, if an original was in past tense, then I might change it to present, so that it would read well. Brackets alert my reader to such changes.

Original: "The guidance worked when they were all gathered together."Change: "The guidance work[s] when they [are] all gathered together."

The Ellipsis is also most often used in quotations. An ellipsis is those three little dots that show that the sentence did not begin or end with the words the writer is quoting.

Beginning: "... when we are all gathered together."Ending: "the guidance worked...". or "The guidance worked...."

Notice that when the ellipsis is used at the beginning, there is a space before the word that comes next. This implies that it is attached to the words that came before it which we do not

see. When the ellipsis appears at the end, we do see the word to which they are attached. The three dots begin right after the word before– there is no space.

Period: inside or outside? In the ending use of the ellipsis, I have offered two alternatives. The question is, why are there two choices? The first, where the period is outside the quotation, the period is indicating the ending of an entire sentence which contains the quote, but not the quote itself.

Example: His paper proved conclusively that "the guidance worked...".

In the second example, we are allowing the quotation to stand alone. Notice the capitalized "t". We are saying to the reader, "There was more to this sentence, but then it ended."

Example: There was simply no equivocation. "The guidance worked...."

So, just as words change their function and meaning, so punctuation tells the reader things about what they are reading. In one case, "here is the end of my sentence"; in the other, "here is the end of his."

The ellipsis is also often used in dialogue to show hesitation.

Example: "I... I... I just couldn’t."

It may also show a complete pause.

Example: "I... Oh, I don’t want to answer you now!"

Note: In everyday writing, we often use the ellipsis to just show that we want the reader to continue the thought in his own head or to introduce a new topic. Personally, if someone has asked me questions in an email, I might write, "As to your first question... " and then begin my answer. This, however, is a frivolous use of the ellipsis and should not be used in formal writing.

Quotation Marks

There are only two instances in which one uses quotation marks: to surround a direct quotation; to set off a word as unique.

1. As do parentheses and brackets, quotation marks contain something that is not part of the sentence, itself.

2. Like parentheses and brackets, there is no such thing as one quotation mark; they only work in pairs.

3. Like parentheses and brackets, and unlike all internal sentence punctuation, a space does not always follow. Instead, a space precedes the first mark and follows the second.

4. And, like parentheses and brackets, the marks face each other, rather than pointing in one direction, i.e., parentheses ( ), quotation marks “ ”

5. Unlike parentheses and brackets, quotation marks are further separated from the rest of the sentence by additional punctuation, such as a comma.

Correctly used marks: He said to me, “I don't want you as my attorney.”

Notice that a comma and the requisite space which follows it separate the quoted material from the rest of the sentence. Also, notice that the period is inside the quotes.

There is a lot of confusion about “the period, inside the quotes.” We noted one variation above in the use of the ellipses, but there are others.6. In most cases where the quotes are: (1) surrounding a direct quotation, and (2)

ending the sentence which is inside the quotes, the period should be inside the quotes. 7. Quotation marks should NOT be placed inside the quotes when the quotation

marks are: (1) NOT surrounding a direct quotation, but are merely being used for emphasis; and (2) when the material being quoted is not the end of the quotation.

Correctly punctuated: He said he wanted “moral support”.

Note: I will add, however, that few people know this, as it has become accepted to always place the period within the quotation marks. If you're unsure about when to do what, then just place the period within the quotes.

SOMETIMES, a direct quotation is broken up.

Correctly punctuated: “I want to see him,” she demanded. “I won't wait.”

Notice that the quoted material is “I want to see him. I won't wait.” Two complete sentences.

In this case, we have placed a comma where the period would normally be in the first sentence, because the “she demanded” comes afterward and is, essentially, part of the first sentence.

Correctly punctuated: “I wasn't anywhere near the bank,” she said, “or the grocery store.”

When the second part of the quote is part of the first sentence, then we again use a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence. "She said" follows the rule of the appositive.

Ending Punctuation: period, question mark & exclamation point

There should be little confusion about ending punctuation. After all, a sentence ends when it ends. Yet, herein lies the confusion. Some people have difficulty determining when a sentence ends. And, in a sense, this takes us right back to our first discussion: What is a sentence?

If the thought is complete, end the sentence. If you keep going on and on, eventually meaning will be lost. I once edited a piece in which the writer had created an entire

paragraph that was just one sentence; it was 10 lines long. I kept it for years, but, sadly, do not have it anymore to show you. Oddly, however, it was not a "run on" sentence; it was just way, way too long.

A run-on is not just a sentence that is too long; it is a sentence that does not have the correct punctuation in it, and, thereby, runs on from one thought to the next. Learn to use punctuation correctly, and you will never write a run-on, no matter how long the sentence.

Dashes Dashes have only one use: to separate a discontinuity of thought from the text of the sentence. Any other use is wrong. What we mean by “discontinuity” is some comment that is completely off topic; that is out of context.

Correct use: I peeked over his shoulder– I mean, what else could I do.Incorrect use: I peeked over his shoulder– because I wanted to.The first sentence above contains two complete thoughts, but the second thought is really unrelated to the first. It is said to be a parenthetical thought, and, in fact, one option if one is unsure about how to use the dash in such an instance is to simply use parentheses, instead; e.g., “I peeked over his shoulder. (I mean, what else could I do?)”

The second example sentence should have a simple comma, rather than the dash, because the second clause is a dependent clause to the first. It is part of the same thought. And, in fact, even no interior punctuation would be permitted in the second sentence: “I peeked over his shoulder because I wanted to.” Why? Because "because I wanted to" is explanatory and could be considered "restrictive".

A word or two about the dash and the hypen.

*The dash is not a hyphen. A hyphen is only half the dash's length and is used to connect two parts of a word or phrase, as in: “Use a semi-colon.” or “I like my mother-in-law.”

*The dash should be connected to the word preceding it and be followed by a space. In this, it is not different than any other internal sentence punctuation. ALL INTERNAL SENTENCE PUNCTUATION IS CONNECTED TO THE WORD PRECEDING IT AND IS FOLLOWED BY AT LEAST ONE SPACE.

Admittedly, sometimes you will not have a choice in this. Microsoft Word, for instance, automatically connects two words between which there is a dash, because it uses what's called an em dash or m-dash; so-called because it is the length of an M or 3 hyphens. The m-dash is another convention of the printing world which was begun when computers first began using proportional type. If you are using Word, just let it stand; or, if you'd rather, just enter two hypens and a space. If you're using Corel WordPerfect and do that, the software will, correctly, turn your two hyphens into a proper dash.

The lonely apostrophe

As does its lower line twin the comma (,), the first function of an apostrophe (‘) is to indicate missing things. Consider "can’t", "won’t", "didn’t", etc. In such abbreviations, in which two words have been turned into one shorter word, the apostrophe shows us that letters are

missing. One might also say that it acts as a joiner, of sorts, as well, in that it joins the letters that are left to create the new word.

The apostrophe also shows possession, as in "Lynda’s book." However, it DOES NOT INDICATE PLURALITY. Way too often, these days, I read student papers in which an "s" has been joined to a word to indicate that it is plural, but it is preceded by an apostrophe. This is wrong. An apostrophe preceding or following an "s" indicates possession only.

The people’s book. UMBC’s library. The students’ dorm. The children’s room.

The apostrophe also used to be used when we were talking about eras. "In the 1970's..." we would say. But it is now rarely used– except possibly by me. "In the 1970s..." is acceptable.

Part C:Writing & Writing Formats

Writing

This section concerns the writing of essays. But all the writing that one may do, whether it is a letter to the IRS, an article in a newspaper, or a blog entry, follows the same basic rules. And, just as essays have formats, each of these types of writing have formats, as well. A letter, for instance, written in hardcopy, has a physical format that the text must be plugged into. An article in a newspaper requires the use of Associated Press format, or in a professional journal, often APA (American Psychological Association) format; a blog entry may contain certain short-cuts in writing that are not allowed in either letters or articles or essays.

However, no matter what format one is following, the writing, itself, is consistent. The way sentences are formed, the flow of the thought, these are constant. So, even though we focus here on the essay– and, most particularly, the student essay– all these rules can be transferred to other writing. What is an essay?

If you go to a written or on-line dictionary, you will find standard definitions of the word "essay". I took the following from Dictionary.com (accessed 8/21/09).

1. a short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative.

2. anything resembling such a composition: a picture essay.3. an effort to perform or accomplish something; attempt.4. Philately. a design for a proposed stamp differing in any way from the

design of the stamp as issued.5. Obsolete. a tentative effort; trial; assay.

The #1 definition is what we might call the true "standard"; however, it includes some things that may be confusing. For instance, it says that an essay is "short".

Define "short"?

Is an essay two pages or 10? One of the world’s most famous essayists, Ralph Waldo Emerson, wrote an essay entitled "Self-Reliance". It runs 19 pages (46 paragraphs), single-spaced. Short? Personally, I wouldn’t actually call that short. Or how about a 43-page paper? Or a doctoral thesis of 400 pages? In fact, all of these examples follow the rules and styles of essays, and may be thought of as essays.

Dictionary.com’s definition also says that an essay is a "literary composition". The average person, whether in school or out, would not consider himself capable of writing something that is "literary". We tend to think that one must know literature and/or write literature to be literary. And those who are in that discreet group often disagree over just what literature is. So, literary doesn’t really apply.

The #1 definition also states that an essay is written in prose– in other words, it’s not poetry– yet, the #2 definition notes that "a picture essay" can be an "essay". So, one wonders, "If a picture can be an essay, then why can not a poem?"

Let us ignore definition #4, permanently, because it has nothing to do with writing, and #3 for just a moment. I ask you, however, to keep in mind #5, even though it also seems to have nothing to do with writing and, also, according to dictionary.com, is obsolete. The reason I want you to keep #5 in mind is the content of an essay.

To get to content, we must go back to #1. The last part of that definition states that an essay is, "...generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative." This part is important, because it is content that really makes a piece of writing– or a picture or a poem, for that matter– an essay. The most defining characteristic of an essay is that it makes a point.

I know this is not in any of the 1-5 definitions, but it is implied by the comment about content. Why do we analyze something? Why do we speculate on something? Why do we try to interpret something? To make a point.

Therefore, one thing an essay is NOT is a piece of writing that has no point to make. If it’s just someone’s ramblings about his day, then it can be a blog or an entry on Facebook, but it is not, under any circumstances, an essay.

And this takes us back to #3 & #5 above. Three says, "an effort to perform or accomplish something; attempt." Five, "a tentative effort; trial; assay."

Once upon a time, the word essay meant "a tentative effort; trial; assay". When we analyze or speculate or interpret something, we are making a "tentative effort" to understand and accomplish something. We are sending up a trial balloon; considering possibilities; we are surveying (assaying) issues and commenting on what they mean.

Therefore, these definitions really help us nail down what an essay is, which is as follows.

An essay is an attempt to examine and explain something, drawing a conclusion. Though an essay usually takes form as prose, it can also be a visual, auditory, musical, physical, or even poetic.

Now... I can imagine that there is also some confusion beginning over this definition. But let me give you some examples.

C A schematic drawing of a fireplace is NOT a visual essay.C A collage of fire, fireplaces, bonfires, etc., that is put together in an effort to make a

statement about how man misuses energy IS an essay.

C Someone dancing at a club is NOT creating a physical essay.C A modern dance troop interpreting Beethoven’s Requiem IS creating a physical

essay.

C A student who writes a paper in which he simply summarizes the writing of another has NOT written an essay.

C A student who writes a paper in which he explores, criticizes, and/or offers alternative theories to those in the writing of another HAS written an essay.

In other words, content– not form and format– make an essay, an essay.

We, of course, are not going to concern ourselves here with visual rhetoric (visual essay) or a musical essay or a physical essay. Our only concern will be the written essay.

If you are saying to yourself, "Well... for Pete’s sake... why didn’t she just say that in the first place," then I must say that if one is going to talk about a finger, one must first understand that it is attached to a hand. In other words, we need to know what an essay looks like, both in the short and long view. Now that we do, we will move on to our chosen type of essay: the written essay.

Types of Essays

There are basically three types of essays: Expository Essays, Narrative Essays, and Descriptive Essays.

Expository Essays investigate/expose a topic head-on. They are like news articles, giving facts about a particular idea, thing or happening. Unlike a news article, they take a perspective as they explore, define, contrast, etc., a topic. Like a news article, they should always be written in 3rd person, with the focus on "it".

Narrative Essays have the same purpose, but they expose their topics through the telling of a story. And, whereas an expository essay has no time constraints, a narrative does. The narrative story must move through time, taking us from one point to another– sometimes literally; sometimes figuratively. The narrative also tends to tell the story from someone’s point-of-view; it has a lead character or characters. Usually, narratives are written in 3 rd or 1st

person.

Descriptive Essays attempt to expose a feeling about an issue or happening. Just as do narratives, a descriptive essay often isolates a point in time. Usually written in 3 rd, the descriptive essay may also be written in 1st person, and, occasionally, in 2nd.

Examples:

Expository writing During the depression of the 1930's in America, women often worked in "sweat shops". They were so-called because people were jammed in closely together, there was no air-conditioning, and one tended to sweat.

Narrative writing The door opened and Mary stepped through it. The sound of it closing and locking behind her rushed over her like cold water, and she felt a

chill. Directed to an empty sewing machine on the aisle, she grabbed a sleeve from the pile that sat at her feet and began to sew.

Descriptive writing The air in the room grew foul with the smell of sweat as the day wore on, even as it hummed with the continuous tat-tat-tat of the sewing machines. Women, bent over their needles, forced their feet back and forth on the treadles to keep the needles moving in steady rhythm.

Notice that there is an element of narrative in the descriptive passage and there is also description in the narrative passage. This is normal.

1. Although essays have distinct types, an essay is usually not confined by that type. For instance: an 3rd person expository essay may have a 1st person narrative example or a descriptive passage; a narrative essay my use description and occasionally explain; or a descriptive passage may be found in narrative or exposition.

2. Person does not necessarily equate with point-of-view. A 3rd-person, expository essay, for instance, can still be written from the writer’s (1st person) point-of-view. It is not necessary to say "I think" or "I know" to have a 1st person point-of-view.

A fourth type of essay: Commentary

Commentary is a type of narrative essay; it is often called "narration". The two major differences between narrative and commentary are time and perspective.

C Whereas narrative covers a short period of time, commentary may jump over years. C Although narrative is always from the perspective of the "character" in the narrative,

commentary is always a 1st person point of view written in either 1st or 3rd person. C Whereas narrative attempts to "show" a person’s point, commentary simply "tells".

If you have ever been told "show, don’t tell", then what you’ve been asked to do is either write narrative or description, as opposed to the telling done through exposition or commentary.

Examples:

Narrative Example:3rd person Team United States walked into the Olympic stadium with

flags flying and music playing. People in the stadium cheered, applauded; some even wept.

1st person As Team United States entered the Olympic stadium, I couldn’t help the tears that welled up in my eyes. I reached into my pocket for the tissue I’d put there hours ago; I’d known I would need it.

Commentary Example:3rd person

w/1st persp. Watching Team United States enter the stadium was a spectacular site. People cheered; some booed.

1st person I was astounded by the spectacle of the opening to the Winter Games, but cringed when I heard some of the crowd booing. Whatever happened to fair play?

All of these examples tell of the same moment in time, but the way each is approached is unique.

Writing the Essay

1. Rid yourself of the 5-paragraph essay thinking

If students have written essays at all in grades K-12, they have written what is commonly called the 5-paragraph essay. The rules of the essay are that you must introduce your topic and state your entire thesis, usually word-for-word, in the first paragraph; follow that with three body paragraphs; and end with a summary paragraph. It is very straightforward and, honestly, is not a bad starting point if you are in 4 th grade. However, it is, in my not-so-humble opinion, ridiculous to graduate from high school thinking that every essay one writes must be in this form. Step up from it; think of it as the basic form and move on to more sophisticated writing.

2. The first sentence

The first sentence of an essay is the most important. It catches your readers’ attention, directs them toward your topic, and creates the gate through which your writing finds its path. Too often, however, the first line of a student essay is dull, passive, and just lies there, providing no service to the essay, whatsoever.

Let’s say a student has a 1,000-word expository essay to write. It must be on an issue that affects college students. He chooses the lack of parking. His first sentence reads:

There are many reasons why parking at most colleges is not good, such as there aren’t enough spaces for everyone.

What’s wrong with it? Well...

First, it is dull. It has no spark to pull in my interest as a reader.Second, it is wordy (verbose). It takes why too many words to say what it wants to

say.Third, syntactically, it is incorrect.Fourth, it offers little information and what information it does offer is vague and

general.

So, let’s change it.

First, we get rid of "There are many reasons...". Just make this a rule. Do not, under any circumstances, begin any essay, letter, opinion column– anything– with those four words or any variation beginning with “There are many...”.

Second, we get rid of "most". If you tell the reader that "most colleges" have parking problems, his or her first thought is going to be "Who says so?" You need a documented resource and data to prove "most colleges". So, the writer should just use his own college as an example.

Third, we get rid of the evaluative word: good. This really tells the reader nothing; one person’s "good" is another person’s "bad". Use a word that says something.

Fourth, don’t use "such as". If you have a "such as" phrase, then rewrite it to be an active part of the sentence. Also, this "such as" is lame syntax. The writer says there are "many reasons" and then offers only one; and the one he offers is, essentially, obvious. There’s nothing new here.

Re-written, the line becomes a paragraph filled with description that captures the readers’ attention, but, more importantly, explains the problem.

To find a parking space at Howard Community College, some students and faculty hover in an area that experience tells them there might soon be a space. Others drive the circuit: around and around the same lot until a spot opens up. Others are stalkers. They wait until they see someone headed toward the parking lot, and follow him or her.

Then we need end the paragraph with a lead-in to the body of the essay. And, yes, it should offer the reader a sense of the writer’s point-of-view, but it need not be the entire, verbatim (word-for-word) thesis.

Thesis: Colleges need to find a way to make it easier to find on-campus parking.Transition: If the seeker is lucky, he finds a place in minutes; but, in fact, the process

can take half an hour or more. When one has to get to class, finding a parking place should be easier.

3. The body paragraphs.

The first sentence in the first body paragraph should directly relate to the final thought in the first paragraph. It should not be a re-hash or restatement, but a continuance. And, from the first paragraph, each successive paragraph should move along that same line, taking its respective cue from the last sentence of the paragraph that preceded it.

When those in control of the parking situation think about making it easier to find a parking space, the first thought is to simply build more parking. At HCC, just a few years ago, a parking garage was built on an inconvenient edge of the campus. It was meant to have held hundreds of cars and would have been an excellent place for staff to park, thus freeing lot spaces. This new facility, however, was unsafe.

Whether the parking garage was built with too much rebar or too little concrete, this author can not say; however, within a few months the parking lot was closed for repair. Although it is once again open for parking, it has been of little help in making parking easier, as, in that time, thousands more students have enrolled.

Up until this point, the writer has only been discussing parking at his school, but it is now time to widen the issue to all schools. Notice how the first line of the next paragraph directly takes the enrollment issue into the wider parking issue.

Limiting enrollment could be a way to make parking more available, but for community colleges like HCC and other, primarily, commuter colleges, it makes little sense. They are in the business of getting more students to keep the school going, not fewer. So, what is the best solution?

The Community College of Baltimore County has come up with a solution that works fairly well. Though it is not perfect– parking can still, on occasion, be hard to find– the theory behind it makes sense and is simple. It is based on the realization that all classes began and ended at the same time.

The typical college class begins on the hour: 8:00 o’clock class or 9:00, and so on. CCBC changed this. Its classes begin at all kinds of odd times: 8:10, 9:25, 10:45. I even had a class there that began at 11:27! By changing the times in this way, the student who has an 8:10 class can find parking at 7:55, when the student whose class ended at 7:37 is pulling out of a space. Cycling class times creates a situation in which one parking space can hold three to four times as many cars as it would if all classes began on the hour and ended 50 minutes later.

4. The conclusion

In the 5-paragraph essay format, the conclusion is often a summary. However, although the conclusion may contain, and, in the case of very long papers, should contain some summary, it primary purpose is to conclude. Concluding means to draw together facts, to resolve, to make your point; it is not simply a summary.

To truly solve a problem, one must know the cause. In the case of the parking shortage at HCC and other colleges that believe they need to build more parking, the problem is not too few parking spaces, but the fact that all classes begin and end on the hour or the half-hour. If such commuter colleges adopted staggered class scheduling, one parking space would do the job of more. Such class staggering may not totally correct a parking shortage, but it will certainly expand the number of parking spaces available for students and faculty, and, overall, make finding a parking space easier.

Notice that nowhere in this essay have I actually stated the thesis as written. However, what I have done is explored the reasons why parking is difficult and come up with a solution to make parking easier. I have, thereby, "stated" my thesis.

I would also like to bring to your attention that this is not an "A" essay. It is a good essay; a "B" essay in my book, but not an "A". I have intentionally created it so as to show what a good, average essay looks like. What would make it an "A"?

Had I, in my guise as student writer, done some research and found some data about parking at schools across the country, that might have brought it to an "A". Had I given more

examples of other schools’ attempts to solve their parking problems, that might have brought it to an "A".

But as it stands, what this essay has going for it is this: it is focused; it flows well; it states the problem/issue in the first paragraph, which also has a good lead in; it offers examples; it moves through the body toward a solid conclusion, and both the opening paragraph and the closing one address the thesis.

To make your own essays achieve these goals, there are some things you need to understand. The first is syntax.

Syntax

Everything that we have spoken of in Parts A and B relates to the syntax: the way words are put together in sequence to create sentences. One must understand how to put words and punctuation together to create meaning.

Syntax makes a difference in both the flow of writing and the ability of the reader to understand meaning. Below is an sentence taken from a student paper. (Note: "Males" is the author of a piece the student was analyzing.)

"The way that Males approaches this issue wasn’t really in a way of explaining the fact that TV does indeed affect a child and how they grow up; he more so talked about how many other things are out there that are influencing children’s actions." (Student paper 09)

What he means is:

Males does not approach this issue by explaining how TV may or may not affect a child and how he or she grows up; instead, Males speaks of the many other things that may influence a child’s actions.

The student’s writing may get his point across, but it does it in what is called "garbled syntax".8. Such phrases as "in a way of explaining" have no real meaning in the English

language; they are, syntactically speaking, non-existent. 9. The student also does not properly use pronouns and confuses his message

that way. He speaks of "a child", then uses "they". Who are "they"? We only have one child being spoken of.

10. He places the word "indeed," an interjection, which he does not surround with commas, as is required.

11. He also does not use active verbs or present tense. Both of these are required for the syntax in this sentence.

One new issue that garbles the syntax are phrases, such as "in a way of explaining", that are being used in our everyday speech. "As to how" is another one that is seen quite frequently as a substitute for that.

Example: He said as to how he was going to the game. (incorrect)He said that he was going to the game. (correct)

Of course, students are not the only ones who make syntactical errors, because students grow up to be business people, government officials, etc. Pretty much anyone who writes often makes syntactical errors, simply because he or she was never taught what is correct. Even those who write grammatical textbooks make errors.

Example: "My friend Joyce never sets foot on campus without her can of mace."

This sentence appears in a published textbook in a practice exercise concerning pronouns and antecedents. Contained in an unpleasant little paragraph about how college campuses are riddled with crime, this sentence has a major punctuation error, which, perhaps, you might now recognize. My friend and Joyce are the same; Joyce is an appositive and, therefore, should be surrounded by commas.

Corrected: "My friend, Joyce, never sets food on campus without her can of mace."

So, how do we make sure we are writing in a syntactically correct manner?

A long time ago, I created "writing rules" for my Writing and Speech students. These rules will not guarantee that your syntax will be correct, but they go a long way toward nudging it in that direction.

Writing Rule #1: Always use 3rd person (he, she, it, they/him, her, it, them) to express your ideas.

Reason for this Rule: First person is weak and usually unnecessary. Although there are some special circumstances in which first person is appropriate, such as a personal narrative example, most writers use it because that is the way they speak. Also, in many cases, it has been taught to them throughout their K-12 years as the way one expresses one’s opinion. I have students who cannot– literally– conceive of expressing their opinions without beginning their sentences with "I believe " or "I think". They are, however, not only incorrect, but the sentences that they create are weak and less believable.

Examples:weak 1st person: I believe that global warming is being exacerbated by man.strong 3rd person: Global warming is being exacerbated by man.

Note that the 3rd person statement is just that: a statement. It sounds factual and allows one to argue from a position of strength. If one says "I believe", then the reader must ask, "Who are you? Who are you that I should believe you?"

Second person should only be used for instructions or in other special circumstances when you, the writer, want to speak directly to the individual reader, as I am doing now.

correct use of "you": You must apply by February 5th. (instruction)

incorrect use of "you": So, when a student applies, you must do it by February 5th.

In the incorrect use example, the writer wants to speak generally and has begun in 3rd person, but, instead of continuing in 3rd person, he has created an "illogical shift" by using "you". In this case, "you" should be "he" or "he or she".

To learn how to write in third person, you must begin by ridding your writing completely of "I" or "you" in any way in any sentence. You must begin to think in 3rd person. Think about the "thing" about which you are writing; 90% of our writing concerns "it".

In 3rd person: Student applications must be turned in by February 5th.

Notice how much clearer and more easily understood the 3 rd-person sentence is. Even the 2nd-person instruction is not as clear.

Writing Rule #2: Be specific. a-Do not use qualifiers (sort of, maybe, etc.). b-Do not use superlatives (best, always, etc.). c-Do not overuse adjectives (big, pretty, etc.). d-Do not use 10 words to say something, when you could use five.

This rule appears self-explanatory. Just as you must rid yourself of 1st and 2nd person, you must also go through every paper, letter or report you write, and take out a, b and c, above. However, "d" is a bit harder to achieve.

Too many people have learned how to pad text; to use more words to say something. The most common thought is that the more words a writer uses, the more he sounds as if he knows what he’s talking about. This is, in fact, incorrect. Too many words garble the meaning and make a writer sound as if he does not, in any way, know what he is talking about.

Let your writing be cogent and succinct. This what writers call writing that is "tight". It means that every word which you have included in a sentence has meaning and needs to be there.

Writing Rule #3: Avoid clichés, such as "The grass is always greener..." or "One bad apple...."

Clichés include not just such well-known phrases and sentences as those above, but all phrases that are used too often. "Foolish hopes" is one I came across recently in grading some student papers. Why not just say "hopes"? Are all hopes "foolish"? There are times when clichés can be very useful, but, generally, they should be avoided. Writing Rule #4. Do not use slang or jargon, abbreviations or "net/text-speak".

Nothing frustrates a teacher more than seeing a student write some like "When u discover..." or "Martin Luther King was a really cool guy" or "She went thru the door" in a formal essay. Formal essays mean formal writing, and that includes completing all words, spelling them correctly, etc.

Students will write things like, "Then, he ask what was correct", instead of "Then, he asked...." This is not strictly a mistake of tense; it is, instead, writing what we hear. It is rare, for instance, for even the best speakers to hit the "k-d" sound hard at the end of asked, but that does not change the fact that the "ed" is there and the word must be written correctly.

The biggest trouble is that if we are allowed to write sloppily in school, it often translates to our professional lives. I once saw a sign that read "Park cars ahead." I puzzled over it. Did it mean that we must all park our cars ahead; did it mean that there was a parking garage ahead; did it mean that there were cars ahead that belonged to the Park Service? I protested to the City, and, amazingly, only a few months later– which is lightning speed for a government– an "ed" was attached. The sign now read "Parked cars ahead." Communication complete.

Writing Rule #5. Never start a sentence with "but" or "and"; never end a sentence with a preposition.

I’ve suggested this in our discussion about properly using subjective and objective cases; but, if you want to do yourself a favor, just follow this rule. You will be very unlikely to make any subjective/objective errors if you do follow it, and your writing will be, overall, more clear.

Writing Rule # 6. Never use a dash, even if one is absolutely called for. In that case, rethink and rephrase.

Dashes are a great tool, if and when they are absolutely needed. However, most people use dashes as a substitute for other punctuation that they don’t want to bother to use. There is no reason for a dash in a formal essay. If you’ve put one in, it’s wrong. Take it out.

Writing Rule #7. Never use nouns as adjectives.

Do not say :"The Howard Community Band drum" or "Baltimore Inner Harbor skyscraper."

DO SAY: "The Howard Community Band's drum" or "The skyscraper, towering over the Inner Harbor in Baltimore,..."

This, I’m afraid, is just another case of sloppy speaking and/or the influence of local dialects. I hear students often say phrases like “Miss Lambert class”, when they mean “Miss Lambert’s class”. Nouns are not adjectives; they must possess the final noun to properly modify it.

Writing Rule #8. Do not make up words.

One of my favorite made-up words is "physicalize". I was watching a football game and there was a particularly rough hit. The announcer said, "Wow! Did you see that guy physicalize that quarterback?!"

This is a process I call "nouning and verbing". It occurs when someone takes one word and changes it to fit what he wants to say. Sometimes, it is legitimate, because we lack a proper word. For instance: google. Google is the name of a company (a proper noun) and a

website. Someone, however, somewhere, started using it as a verb for looking up things on the website, as in "Google the topic." But, most of the time, nouning and verbing is not legitimate; it is just lazy.

Writing Rule #9: Never use words that you don’t know the meaning of and common usage for.

I have had students misuse the occasional word, here and there. But I had a student, once– on the suggestion of her boyfriend, she later told me– take, essentially, every normal word in her essay and substitute obscure words for them. This was supposed to make her look intelligent!

Her paper was three pages of garbled syntax that meant absolutely nothing. She got a F.,

Let me show you what I mean, by just "translating" the first sentence in the previous paragraph the way she did on her essay.

Original line: I had a student, once take, essentially, every normal word in her essay and substitute obscure words for them.

Translated: I dupe an educatee, erstwhile conduct, essentially, every typic articulate in her essay and ersatz recondite lyric for them.

If the translated sentence makes any sense at all to you, get yourself immediately to a language lab– or perhaps a psychiatrist’s office. You need help.

Writing Rule #10. Never separate a subject noun from its verb.

Do not say: "The boy, who, as he got closer, I realized I knew, came toward me."

DO SAY : "The boy came toward me. As he got closer, I realized I knew him."

The rule here could have been stated, "Don’t write convoluted, confusing structures", but simply remembering to never separate the noun from its verb seems easier to remember. The examples really say it all; keep it simple; keep it tight.

Writing Rule #11. Whenever possible, show, don’t tell.

If you use active, descriptive verbs, you are more likely to be able to paint a picture of what you are talking about to your reader, even when you are writing expository essays.

This is the difference between "The rain was heavy; the valley flooded and 25 houses were destroyed." and "Torrential rains flooded the valley, leaving 25 families homeless and their properties in ruin." Both of these sentences tell the facts. Both are totally respectable sentences. But sentence two tells the story, too. Writing Rule #12: Use more paragraphs rather than fewer.

I’ve had more than one student, who, stuck on the 5-paragraph essay format, insists that there can only be five paragraphs in any essay– even in a 6-page paper! This is simply not true, nor does it make for good communication.

Every new idea addressed requires a new paragraph. And, although it is generally true that one should strive to have no fewer than 2 sentences in a paragraph, it is still acceptable to have a single sentence paragraph if that is what is required, or, as I sometimes use them, for emphasis.

Writing Rule #13. Don’t state your topic, introduce it.

Never, under any circumstances, use the phrase, "This is going to be about..." in your writing; nor should you use any reconfiguration of this statement, i.e., "I'm going to talk about...", "This essay speaks to...", etc., with one exception, APA format. The introductory paragraphs in APA format often require just such phraseology. However, in all other circumstances, don’t use them.

Writing Rule #14. NEVER USE THE PHRASE "In conclusion..."

The problem with this is that in almost all circumstances in which it is used, it is a dangling modifier, e.g., it is syntactically incorrect.

If one is writing in first person, one can say, "In conclusion, I would like to end our discussion by saying that...."; however, usually it can not be rendered this way, because one is writing in 3rd person. So, instead, we get, "In conclusion, our discussion...". In this case, it is a dangling modifier. And, if you don’t know what a dangling modifier is, consult a comprehensive grammar text.

FORMATS: MLA, APA, and Chicago

What is a format?

A format is an artificial construction created by individual companies, organizations or professions to serve their individual needs. Usually, a format will cover both a physical format-- how something should appear-- and formats for reference citing and configuration, as well as some writing conventions.

I’ve mentioned, for instance, AP format, which was created by the Associated Press to help make all their reporters’ copy homogeneous. This, in turn, made it easier for typesetters. The marketing profession has its own formats (even its own dictionary), as do engineers, the medical establishment, and a great many other organizations and professions. However, we are just going to be concerned with the three formats most often used in education: Chicago, MLA and APA.

In education, the original format that everyone used was called Turabian, which eventually became Chicago format. It requires footnotes for every reference, which either appear at the bottoms of pages or in a single list of "endnotes" at the end of an essay or paper. Chicago also has a bibliographical format, which none of the others do, which I’ll explain in a moment.

In education, the Chicago format was supplanted by the MLA format in 1985. Developed by the Modern Language Association, MLA does NOT have a true bibliography; it has, instead, a Works Cited page. This was meant, I personally believe, to discourage students from doing useless research which they could list on a bibliography, and to encourage pointed research that they would actually cite in their papers. This is a laudable goal. And, although a Works Cited list is a list of bibliographical entries, it is not a bibliography, per se, which is a bibliographical list of all works consulted.

APA format is actually a journal article format created by the American Psychological Association for its members. It has grown in its use beyond those boundaries, however, so that now it is extensively used by graduate schools as an “essay” format. Don’t let instructions confuse you, should your instructor ask you for an essay or a bibliography in APA format. It actually covers neither. Just understand that what is wanted is a journal article and a resource list. Or just question your professor on the specifics– as I do.

I am not going to show you the minutiae of these formats; nor am I going to explain, specifically, how to use them. Each format has its own style guide; if you want more information about a particular format, purchase its guide, or go to the library and pull it off the shelf. Here, what I’m striving for is to help you understand the differences between the documentation formats, and to help you understand directions you may be given by your instructors. Perhaps, if you read this– or if they do– those instructions will become more clear.

Item Chicago MLA APA

footnotes yes under certain conditions under certain conditions

parenthetical citations

no yes yes

reference page "End Notes" "Works Cited" "Resources"

bibliography yes no no

A Word about References: It can not be emphasized enough that you must document your sources, and you must have sources for statements that you are not an expert on. As an instructor, I am so tired of reading students’ papers that begin with an undocumented statistic. "Fifteen percent of all college students do whatever."

"Who says?" is what I write in the margin. How do you know this?

Every statistic must be introduced with an attribution (see the next section) or formally cited (see the one after that), or both! Every idea that you have gotten from somewhere else must be attributed and/or cited. Every quotation must be attributed and/or cited. If you do not do this, not only does it weaken your paper, but it turns you into a plagiarist, which is punishable with fines and jail time if it reaches the "copyright infringement" stage, but, at its worst for you, could mean failure in the class or expulsion from your school.

Footnotes and Citations in Chicago, MLA & APA

Citation is an interesting word, which is both overused and often inaccurately used. A citation originally meant the actual quote taken from another source; yet, today, we mean the identification of that quote.

Some use the term "in-line citation" when what they really mean is "attribution". For instance, if I write, "John Smith, Professor of English at Johns Hopkins University, said, ..." and then quote him, I have just attributed that quote to John Smith. Others would say that I created an in line citation.

We use the word "cite" both as a noun meaning the actual written citation and as a verb meaning the action of identification. I can also cite a work using a footnote.

Thoroughly confused yet? Just wait.

In-text citations are as follow. Chicago uses a footnote1, as here demonstrated. MLA has in-text citations (Lambert, 50), as just noted, which contain the author’s name and the page number from which the quote or information is taken. APA also has in-text citations, but they can get amazingly long.

Near the end of this paragraph is an example of an APA citation that I used in a research paper. Notice that it gives the author’s name and page number, as does MLA, but also includes the year of the publication. Additionally, however, because I was quoting someone

1 The footnote is easily created these days by simply electing to "insert" a footnote. The benefit of the footnote style is that it doesn’t interrupt the read and the reference moves as the footnote moves. So, if you insert some materials above a footnote, bumping it to the next page, the footnote moves too.

that the author also quoted and who was quoted elsewhere, it ends up: (Hein, 1991, as cited in Boghossian, 2006, p. 1); and they can get even longer.

The primary point here, however, is that you must use documentation style which goes with the format you are using.

Something else to keep in mind is that you can not have in-text citations and no companion resource list. Too many students believe that it is enough to either provide the list or to provide the cites, but they are worthless unless they work as a team. Citations must be used in tandem with bibliographical documentation.

Bibliographical Documentation

Resource and reference lists, Works Cited lists and bibliographies all use bibliographic entry formats, but they are not all bibliographies. A bibliography is so-called because it was originally a list of books; that's what bibliography actually means. ("biblio" = book; graphy = chart or list.)

A bibliography, of course, now includes on-line sites, magazines, journals, blogs and all manner of written materials, as well as books; however, it is still called a bibliography if it lists all references explored in one's research. This point is key.

A bibliography is a list of ALL RELEVANT REFERENCES consulted in one's research. They need not all be cited in the research paper to make the list, just have been consulted and be relevant.

Chicago has the bibliography, but, additionally, has either the end note page or footnotes which show the individual cites actually used in the paper.

The APA resource list serves as a bibliography. It is meant to be a total listing of all references consulted to create a journal article. At the same time, the resource list is also the works cited/end notes list. It serves a dual purpose, so APA does not have two lists; just one. APA format specifically notes that it has no bibliography; instead, it has a resource list.

MLA also has only one list, but it does not serve a dual purpose. The Works Cited list in MLA is not meant to show all references consulted, but only those which are actually cited in a particular paper. MLA does not have a bibliography; only the Works Cited list.

Therefore, it becomes really confusing when an instructor asks you to create a bibliography in MLA format. As MLA has no bibliography, it would be difficult to find a format for it. It is equally confusing when you look in the index of a grammar book for "MLA bibliography" and it directs you to the page about the Works Cited list. So, to repeat: A Works Cited list contains bibliographical entries, but it is NOT a bibliography, as previously defined. It contains only those bibliographical listings for works actually quoted/used in the paper.

Likewise, APA is not an essay format; it's a journal article format. So, when an instructor asks you to write an essay using APA format, you, the student, reach the ready-to-tear-your-hair-out frame of mind before you realize that the instructor is simply mis-speaking. What that instructor means write a faux journal article, but he is calling it an essay. And, to be fair,

an article is a type of expository essay; however, the formats are unique from each other and therein lies the difficulty.

You will also find some instructors who want the APA resource list used strictly as a Works Cited page, or you will have instructors who ask for a bibliography in APA format. I had one in graduate school. I said, "How am I to do that, since APA has no bibliographical format?" Her basic reply was "wing it". What I did was look at the bibliography in the back of the APA Manual of Style and used that.

Each of these formats has particular conventions of documentation that are meant to make papers consistent and easier to read. Yet, teachers will often amend a format for their own needs. For instance, although I require my students use MLA format for essays, I also amend that format by requesting a different header on the page which contains unique information. Had I not asked for that unique header, however, students would simply submit using the header specified by MLA format. Additionally, MLA no longer requires url’s on its Works Cited entries; I do. The important point here is for the student to know what the format uses and then, should the instructor require it, be able to adapt to that requirement.

I will end with a word of caution: Do not use the automatic, electronic bibliography creators, either the on-line ones or the ones resident in Microsoft Word unless you know what is correct. Once you know what is correct, you can use them for convenience sake, but not until.

A Final Word...

As noted at the beginning of this reference text, I have not covered everything. Every student and every parent should have a comprehensive grammar text to which he or she can refer. What I hope I have done is given you answers to some of the questions that plague both students and teachers, and offered some insight into how the American English language works.

As the years continue, some things about the language will change, as they already have; but the basic rules and the way the language works will not. Know these and you will be able to navigate any changes that might occur.

Good Writing!APPENDIX A: A quick review of verb tenses:

Basic Infinitive is written with the pronoun “to”

Present tense indicates current/momentary happenings, as in “I take Karate lessons.”

Past tense indicates things that are over and done with, as in “I took Karate lessons.”

Future tense indicates a time when things have not yet happened, but will, as in “I will take Karate lessons.”

Present perfect indicates something that began in the past and continues to the present, as in “I have been taking Karate lessons.”

Past perfect indicates things over and done with, but there is always a “but”, as in “I had thought to go, but I ended up not having the money to buy a ticket.”

Future perfect indicates something that has its beginning now in the present, but will finish in the future, as in “I will have saved enough money by the end of next month.” If that same sentence were in the future tense, it would read, “I will save enough money next month.” (See the difference?)

Present progressive The word “progressive” simply means that the action continues (e.g., progresses) for a time. The present progressive means that the action is continuing now, as in “He is walking every day.”

Past progressive The action is in the past, but it continued for a time, as in “He was walking every day.” It is often followed by something more. “He was walking every day, but now he's not.”

Future progressive The action will take place in the future, over time. “He will be walking every day, as part of his diet plan.”

Present perfect prog. Something that began in the past and continues now. “He has been taking Karate lessons.” (but will probably stop soon)

Past perfect prog. Something that began in the far past, continued until recently. “He had been taking Karate lessons.” (but he's not now)

Future perfect prog. Something that will begin in the future and end at a known time in the future. “He will have been taking Karate lessons for two weeks by then.”

VOICE: Those who advise you on your writing will often say, “Keep it active.” or “Use active verbs.” Below is a brief explanation of what they are referring to.

Active voice: The subject does the action. He picked up the gun.Passive voice: The subject is acted upon.The gun was picked up by him.

APPENDIX B: IRREGULAR VERBS

Reminder: Verbs are said to be irregular if there are changes that occur either in the standard conjugation of the verb, as in to be; or the verb is irregular if its past participle* or its past forms are different from, or seem unrelated to, the infinitive. The verb “to go” is a good example of this. “I go.” is present tense. “I went.” is past tense. Or the verb “to eat”, where “eat” is present, “ate” is past, “eaten” is past participle.

Not knowing the irregular forms of the verbs is what produces such awkward wording as “He should have went.” instead of “He should have gone.” or “He has ate.” or worse yet, “He done ate.” instead of “He has eaten.”

Learning the irregular forms is simple. They must be committed to memory. The following is a list of the most used irregular verbs. Use it for reference until you know them by heart.

*Note: The past participle is the one used with have, has. (expl: He has gone) The present participle is used with is or was. (expl: He is going.) The present form is also often used in combination with did. (expl: He did go. )

Infinitive Present tense Present Past tense Past participle participle

to be am, are, is being were beento arise arise, arises arising arose arisento bear bear, bears bearing bore borneto begin begin, begins beginning began begunto bend bend, bends bending bent bentto bite bite, bites biting bit bittento blow blow, blows blowing blew blownto break break, breaks breaking broke brokento bring bring, brings bringing brought broughtto buy buy, buys buying bought boughtto catch catch, catches catching caught caughtto choose choose, chooses choosing chose chosento cling cling, clings clinging clung clungto come come, comes coming came cometo creep creep, creeps creeping crept creptto deal deal, deals dealing dealt dealtto dig dig, digs digging dug dugto dive dive, dives diving dove divedto do do, does doing did doneto draw draw, draws drawing drew drawnto drink drink, drinks drinking drank drunkto drive drive, drives driving drove drivento dwell dwell, dwells dwelling dwelt dweltto eat eat, eats eating ate eatento fall fall, falls falling fell fallento feed feed, feeds feeding fed fed

to feel feel, feels feeling felt feltto fight fights, fights fighting fought foughtto find find, finds finding found foundto flee flee, flees fleeing fled fledto fly fly, flies flying flew flownto forbid forbid, forbids forbidding forbade forbiddento forget forget, forgets forgetting forgot forgottento forgive forgive, forgives forgiving forgave forgivento freeze freeze, freezes freezing froze frozento get get, gets getting got gottento give give, gives giving gave givento go go, goes going went goneto grow grow, grows growing grew grownto hang hang, hangs hanging hung hung (for objects)

hanged hanged (for people)

to have have, has having had hadto hear hear, hears hearing heard heardto hide hide, hides hiding hid hiddento hold hold, holds holding held heldto keep keep, keeps keeping kept keptto know know, knows knowing knew knownto lay (objects only) lay, lays laying laid laidto lead lead, leads leading led ledto leave leave, leaves leaving left leftto lie (people only) lie, lies lying lain lain (body position)

to lie lie, lies lying lied lied (falsehood)to light light, lights lighting lit litto lose lose, loses losing lost lostto make make, makes making made madeto mean mean, means meaning meant meantto meet meet, meets meeting met metto pay pay, pays paying paid paidto prove prove, proves proving proved provento ride ride, rides riding rode riddento ring ring, rings ringing rang rungto rise rise, rises rising rose risento run run, runs running ran runto say say, says saying said saidto see see, sees seeing saw seento seek seek, seeks seeking sought soughtto sell sell, sells selling sold soldto send send, sends sending sent sentto shake shake, shakes shaking shook shakento shine (cast light) shine, shines shining shone shoneto shine (polish) shine, shines shining shined shined

to shoot shoot, shoots shooting shot shotto shrink shrink, shrinks shrinking shrank shrunkto sing sing, sings singing sang sungto sink sink, sinks sinking sank sunkto sit sit, sits sitting sat satto slay slay, slays slaying slew slainto sleep sleep, sleeps sleeping slept sleptto slide slide, slides sliding slid slidto speak speak, speaks speaking spoke spokento spend spend, spends spending spent spentto spin spin, spins spinning spun spunto spring spring, springs springing sprang sprungto stand stand, stands standing stood stoodto steal steal, steals stealing stole stolento sting sting, stings stinging stung stungto stink stink, stinks stinking stank stunkto stride stride, strides striding strode stridden (rarely used)

to strike strike, strikes striking struck struck (stricken**)

to swear swear, swears swearing swore swornto sweep sweep, sweeps sweep swept sweptto swim swim, swims swimming swam swumto swing swing, swings swinging swung swungto take take, takes taking took takento teach teach, teaches teaching taught taughtto tear tear, tears tearing tore tornto tell tell, tells telling told toldto think think, thinks thinking thought thoughtto throw throw, throws throwing threw thrownto understand understand(s) understanding understood understoodto wear wear, wears wearing wore wornto win win, wins winning won wonto wring wring, wrings wringing wrung wrungto write write, writes writing wrote written

**Note: The past participle of to strike is struck when it refers to physical violence; it is stricken when it refers to emotional violence. “He was struck across the mouth.” “She was stricken by the news.”