Decisions in Groups

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Topic

Problem solving and decisionmaking

chapter 5

Decisions in Groups

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Work Groups and DecisionMaking

• Work Groups are the most likelysource of standard setting, valuesetting, support, approval,

criticism and censure.• Group membership commonly

provides the setting in hich the

decision maker translates hatought to be done into hatactually gets done.

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The !arvard Model

• "n this frameork, group behavior isdescribed in terms of to systems, the#e$ternal% and the #internal%.

• &$ternal 'ystem (ehavior) "t includesboth*

+. the given behavior, brought into thegroup situation by virtue of individualcharacteristics and abilities of peoplebrought together to form the group, and

. the behavior re-uired by e$ternal factorsand the needs for task completion.

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•"nternal 'ystem (ehavior) – "t consists of that behavior hich

emerges ithin the group over a periodof time and hich is not strictly re-uired

or laid don by e$ternal systems.• Three maor components in group

behavior)

– /ctivities

– "nteractions

– 'entiments

The !arvard Model

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•/ctivities – "t means hat a member of the group

does individually. They are often hat isspeci0ed by the e$ternal system. /n

employee might be hired speci0callybecause of the activities he1she is capableof undertaking.

• "nteractions

– This means contacts beteen to or moremembers of the group. "nteractions areoften speci0ed by the e$ternal system aspart of a re-uired ay of orking.

The !arvard Model

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• 'entiments – 2eelings about the ork that is being

done, and about those ho are doingit or involved ith it. Group members

bring sentiments into the groupthrough the beliefs, ideals and valuesdeveloped because of their lifeoutside the group.

– 'ometimes, particular sentiments arepart of the re-uired behavior of groupmembers.

The !arvard Model

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•

"mportance of "nternal 'ystem (ehavior) – "n the development of internal system

behavior, it is perhaps the emergence ofsentiments hich provide the key for a morecomple$ pattern of emergent behavior.

– This ill include changes in group activitiesand interactions hich may start to a3ecttheir re-uired outputs.

– The relationship beteen e$ternal system

re-uirements and the internal systembehavior that emerges is shon in thediagram.

The !arvard Model

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Technology Job Designhysicalconditions

Background Factors Required & given beh. Eergent behavior !onsequences

!anage"entassu"#tions$ #ractices

%eadershi#behavior&or"alorgani'ationRules()*ternal (re+ards $#unish"ents

)cono"ic andsocialenviron"ent

ersonalbac,grounds(e*ternal-status factors

roductivity

atisfaction

/ndividual

Develo#"ent

ReuiredActivities

Reuired/nteraction

Reuiredenti"ents

ivenenti"ents or

alues

/nternal socialstructure

3"e"bershi#categories

Eergent

interaction

Eergent

activit"

Eergent

sentient

#ors

Feedback

1 23

4 56

7

$

The !arvard Model4elationship beteen elements of e$ternal internal

systems

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• (y operating ithin a particular groupsituation, individual members are facedith stimuli or cues hich act to provideinformation for them, either alloing the

prediction of hat might be acceptablebehavior, or in giving feedback on hothe individual is already doing.

• 'uch stimuli fall into to categories)

–/mbient and

–Discretionary

Group "n6uences on "ndividual(ehavior

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• /mbient 'timuli – These are those stimuli to hich all group

members ill be subected merely by beinga member of the group and of occupying a

particular physical and social conte$t. – This stimuli can be derived from many of

the characteristics of the group and itscircumstances. These can include)

•

Physical location• 'tatus of the group

• 7ind of people in the group

• 7ind of ork and task of the group


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•8onsider the ambient stimuli emanating from thefolloing memo)

• /mbient stimuli provide a picture of #hat isavailable% for ne members.

• 9ther ambient stimuli provide the clues as to hoone must behave so as to achieve hissatisfactions.


'eo Fro( )he !hance**or

)o( 'ebers o+ ,trategic -*anning !oittee

)he net eeting o+ the ,trategic -*anning !oittee /i** be

he*d over a /orking *unch on net )hursda" in the !hance**or0s

eeting ha**. !hance**or0s ssistant /i** *et "ou have rior sight

o+ the enu. -*eas *iaise /ith hi as to "our choice o+ +ood and

other requireents.

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• Discretionary 'timuli – Those stimuli hich are in some sense controlled

by the group members and hich aree$perienced by individual as a direct response tothe behaviors they actually e$hibit in the group.

– &mergent behavior is in6uenced over the longerterm by this type of stimulus hich isdiscretionary and selective in nature.

– 2or e$ample, agreement and support, e$pressed

by a colleague hen a manager makes aparticular decision, is a discretionary stimulus. "tis a deliberate and speci0c action in response toa particular event or action on the part of oneindividual.


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• Discretionary stimuli can serve anumber of purposes)

+. They allo the sociali:ation of

group members.. They can be used to induce

uniformity and reliability.

;. They may be used to reinforceemergent di3erences.


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• / pressure to conformity poses a barrier tothe introduction of ne ideas and nebehavior into decision groups.

• Within all groups, e$pectations e$ist as to

the behavior re-uired from members. 'uche$pectations about behavior are knon as#<orms%.

• / ork group may develop a strong norm

for consensus thus sacri0cing speed of thedecision.

• <ot all group members obey all norms allof the time.


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• Groups tend to developprocesses for enforcing andpolicing norms. !erbert

describes four stages in theenforcement process)

+. &ducation

. 'urveillance;. Warning

=. 'anctions


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+. &ducation) – The process of e$posing the ne group

members to group norms early in his or herinvolvement in the group > hen behavioroccurs hich is not that hich is re-uired themember receives negative and critical feedback.?this is the sociali:ation function of discretionary stimuli@

. 'urveillance) – The detection process. !o are members,

especially ne ones, recogni:ing and concurringith established normsA 'urveillance involvesall group members, because high degree ofcompliance is essential for the survival of thegroup as a social entity.


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;. Warning) – "f deviation from group norms is identi0ed,

various processes may be adopted as arningsto the deviant member. Generally, groupmembers tend to increase their contact andinteraction ith the member ho is seen to benormBbreaking. 'uch contact is friendly initially,but if compliance is not achieved, it becomesthreatening and punitive.

=. 'anctions) – "f it becomes clear that the #deviant% is not

going to fall into line, some form of sanction islikely to be applied such as social e$clusion andostracism.


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• Productivity > is a3ected byemergent behavior in several ays)

– Work groups determine their on

levels of output through thedevelopment of norms that areconcerned ith such notions asreasonableness, e3ort, and # a fair

dayCs ork%. – &$ternal systemCs notions of

productivity might get a3ected by thegroup members.

Potential 9utcomes from aGroupCs Decision Making

/ctivities

1$




• 'atisfaction – membership of a orking group and the

involvement ith others in decision makingcan often be a source of great satisfaction.

– Where there is relatively fre-uentinteraction and members like one another,here the social structure is relativelystable and ell understood, satisfaction is

relatively high. (ut this does not mean thatproductivity ill be high too.

– Thus the relationship beteen productivityand satisfaction is more comple$.


/ctivities

1%




• "ndividual Development – Decision groups vary considerably in the

e$tent to hich they allo members thefreedom to gro and develop.

– 'ituations that provide high level ofsatisfaction does not necessarily provideopportunities for personal groth anddevelopment.

– Groups that focus on opportunities ofgroth and development, have a eakerfocus on the demands of the e$ternalsystem.


/ctivities

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– Pressures on individual decisionmakers in a small group situationare considerable. 2or e$ample)• "ndividual behavior is most immediately udged by other group members.

• 'upport and sanction for decisionbehavior is most likely to come fromthose ho have been most directly

involved.• The individual is likely to providing such

support for other group members forreciprocal return.

The Move to GroupB/cceptableDecisions

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• 2aced ith such pressures there islikely to be a move toards a decisionacceptable to the group, rather thantoards ma$imi:ation in the interestsof the organi:ation.

• "t may become more important, underthese circumstances, to make #/%

decision than to make #T!&%decision.

The Move to GroupB/cceptableDecisions

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• Group Processes and Decision'uccess) 'tudies of the

e3ectiveness of di3erent processes in

group decision making have tendedto centre around the areas of)

+. uality of Decision

. 'peed of Decision

;. 8ommitment to the Decision

Decisions Made by Groups

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+. uality of Group Decision) – "f right process are in place,

groups can produce very high

-uality solutions to problems.'ome suggestions for rightprocesses are)

+. / high level of participation

. &-ual status in the treatment ofideas for members

;. / consensus approach


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/nalysis

8hoice

ndividua* ecision

*eentation

)ie

/nalysis 8hoice

rou ecision

*eentation

)ie

. The 'peed of Decision Making) – Eroom and Fetton hen considering the

importance of speed as a decisionattribute, suggest that it shouldbecome a criteria only after otherre-uirements such as -uality andcommitment to implementation havebeen taken into account.


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;.8ommitment – Taking part in the decision making

process builds a sense of onership

in the decision taken, and aconse-uent determination to putthem into e3ect.

– #if you make it, you make it ork%


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• / groing body of evidence suggeststhat people take more risky decisionsin group setting. This phenomenoncalled risky shift .

• Earious e$planations for risky shift)

+. Di3usion of responsibility

. eadership of the group by high risk

takers;. &$posure to ider range of vies

=. &$pressions of high risk are more sociallyacceptable

Group Decisions and 4iskTaking

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• /lthough managerial leaders cannotchose hether or not to e$erciseauthority, they can often choose hothey ill e$ercise it.

• Three factors limit the freedom ofchoice of a leader)

/. The basis of managerial poer

(. 4elationships beteen the managerand subordinate

8. The nature of the decision to be taken.

eadership 'tyle and Decision&3ectiveness

2$

d hi l d i i




/.The (asis of Managerial Poer) – This means the authority vested in the role.

(ut authority rarely e$ists on its on. "t isbacked up by)

+.The ability to disperse reards andpunishment

./ demonstration of skill and e$pertise?including technical organi:ational@

;.Poer based on respect and a3ection forthe manager as a person

The rst two are based in the role, the thirdon the personal attributes of the manager


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(.4elationship beteen the Managerand 'ubordinates)

– "mportant thing here is the degree oftrust and openness of communication.

– The values and aspirations of themanger and subordinates etc.

8.The <ature of the Task)

– 'trategic or 9perational – 'tructured or Hnstructured

– Dependent or "ndependent


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eadership 'tyle and Decision&3ectiveness8hoice of 'tyle

1.Leader

makesdecisionandannouncesit toemployees

withoutdiscussion

2.Leader

makes adecisionand sellsit toemployees

3.Leader

presentsideas andinvitesemployeequestions

4.Leader

presentstentativedecisionsubject tochange

5.Leader

presentsproblemgetssuggestionsand makesdecision

!.Leader

de"ineslimits andasksemployeesto make adecision

#.Leader

permitsemployeesto makeongoingdecisionswithin

de"inedlimits

$utocratic%articipative

)annenbau and ,chidt0s !ontinuu o+ eadershi Behavior

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d hi 't l d D i i




• "n terms of uality, 8ommitment, andTime, consultative and participativestyle should score ell in increasing the-uality of decisions and commitment.

• (ut for speed, autocratic style may bethe best option.

• "n terms of decision e3ectiveness,

hoever, it may be more appropriate tochoose a management style on thebasis of the particular decision beingfaced.

eadership 'tyle and Decision&3ectiveness8hoice of 'tyle

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/d t f G D i i



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• Groups can be made more e3ective throughe$perience and practice in decision making.

• The (uiltBin (ene0ts) – "t reduced the need for communication

– "t improves coordination – "t increases commitment

• The Potential (ene0ts) – "t can provide ider range of alternative

solutions – "t can o3er more information

– "t can o3er increased creativity and risk taking

/dvantages of Group DecisionMaking

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Decisions in Groups

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