Dbms Lab Manual Regulation 2013
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VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur-603 202, Kancheepuram District, Tamil nadu (!!iliat ed t" nna #ni$ersit%, &hennai' Department of INFORMA TION TECHNOLOGY DBMS LAB MANUA L Prepared by Mr.R.Senthil ) *+, Dept "! T, ./& Subject Code & Name : T632 – D1MS a Year / Semester : 4 egree & Branch : B.Tech – IT
Transcript of Dbms Lab Manual Regulation 2013
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VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur-603 202, Kancheepuram District, Tamilnadu
(!!iliated t" nna #ni$ersit%, &hennai'
Department of
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
DBMS LAB MANUALPrepared by
Mr.R.Senthil) *+,
Dept "! T,
./&
Subject Code & Name: T632 – D1MS a
Year / Semester : 4
egree & Branch : B.Tech – IT
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(s )er nna #ni$ersit% S%llaus #nder 203 Regulati"ns'
SYLLABUS
(&"mm"n t" n!"rmati"n Techn"l"g% 5 &"mputer Science /ngineering'
&reati"n "! a dataase and riting S7 8ueries t" retrie$e in!"rmati"n !r"m the dataase
2 )er!"rming nserti"n, Deleti"n, M"di!%ing, ltering, #pdating and .ieing rec"rds ased "n c"nditi"ns3 &reati"n "! .ies, S%n"n%ms, Se8uence, nde9es, Sa$e p"int
: &reating an /mpl"%ee dataase t" set $ari"us c"nstraints
; &reating relati"nship eteen the dataases
6 Stud% "! )4S7 l"ck
< =rite a )4S7 l"ck t" satis!% s"me c"nditi"ns % accepting input !r"m the user
> =rite a )4S7 l"ck that handles all t%pes "! e9cepti"ns
? &reati"n "! )r"cedures
0 &reati"n "! dataase triggers and !uncti"ns
Mini pr"@ect (pplicati"n De$el"pment using +racle4 M%s8l '
a' n$ent"r% &"ntr"l S%stem
' Material Re8uirement )r"cessing
c' A"spital Management S%stem
d' Raila% Reser$ati"n S%stem
e' )ers"nal n!"rmati"n S%stem
!' =e 1ased #ser denti!icati"n S%stem
g' Timetale Management S%stem
h' A"tel Management S%stem
LAB EQUIPMENTS
Aardare and S"!tare re8uired !"r a atch "! 30 studentsB
Hardware:30 )ers"nal &"mputers
Software:
Front end B .14.& CC4. "r /8ui$alent
Back end B +racle 4 S7 4 M%S74 )"stress 4 D12 "r /8ui$alent
Platform B =ind"s 2000 )r"!essi"nal4E)
+racle ser$er c"uld e l"aded and can e c"nnected !r"m indi$idual )&s
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OBJECT!ES:
The "t#dent "ho#ld $e made to:
• earn t" create and use a dataase
• 1e !amiliariFed ith a 8uer% language
• Aa$e hands "n e9perience "n DD &"mmands
• Aa$e a g""d understanding "! DM &"mmands and D& c"mmands
• GamiliariFe ad$anced S7 8ueries
• 1e /9p"sed t" di!!erent applicati"ns
O%TCOMES:
&t the end of the co#r"e' the "t#dent "ho#ld $e a$le to:
• Design and implement a dataase schema !"r a gi$en pr"lem-d"main
• )"pulate and 8uer% a dataase
• &reate and maintain tales using )4S7
• )repare rep"rts
REFERE(CE:sp"ken-tut"rial"rg
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY CLASSES
)O*S
• =ith"ut )ri"r permissi"n d" n"t enter int" the a"rat"r%
• =hile entering int" the 1 students sh"uld ear their D cards• The Students sh"uld c"me ith pr"per dress c"de
• Students sh"uld sign in the +N R/ST/R e!"re entering int" the la"rat"r%
• Students sh"uld c"me ith "ser$ati"n, rec"rd n"te, class n"tes, and la rele$ant ""k t" the la"rat"r%
• Students sh"uld maintain silence inside the la"rat"r%
• !ter c"mpleting the la"rat"r% e9ercise, make sure t" shutd"n the s%stem pr"perl%
)O(T*S
• Students ringing the ags inside the la"rat"r%
•
Students earing slippers insides the la"rat"r%• Students using the c"mputers in an impr"per a%
• Students scriling "n the desk and mishandling the chairs
• Students using m"ile ph"nes inside the la"rat"r%
• Students making n"ise inside the la"rat"r%
(TRO)%CTO( TO S+,
S+,B
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Structured 8uer% language pr"n"unced as (S/7#/' This language is used t" c"mmunicate t" "racle
dataase
)ata$a"e Mana-ement S"tem /)BMS0B
t is a s"!tare it helps t" manage the dataase management s%stem sh"uld ale t" per!"rm the
!"ll"ing acti$ities $er% easil%
nserting the ne data
2 #pdating the e9iting data
3 Deleting unnecessar% data
: Retrie$ing the re8uire data
• dataase al"ng ith the s"!tare hich helps t" manage The dataase is called dataase
management s%stem (D1MS'
• D1MS hich is ased "n relati"nal the"r% is called as relati"nal dataase management s%stem
E1am2le" of R)BMSB
+R&/
2 S7 S/R./R
3 D12
: MHS7
; SH1S/
6 T/R DT
< MS &&/SS
S+, Command"
The S7 language is sudi$ided acc"rding t" their !uncti"ns as !"ll"s
•
)), 3 )ata )efinition ,an-#a-e
• )M, 3 )ata Mani2#lation ,an-#a-e
• )R,4)+, - )ata Retrie5al ,an-#a-e 4 )ata +#er ,an-#a-e
• )C,0 3 )ata Control ,an-#a-e
• TC,0 3 Tran"action Control
)ata )efinition ,an-#a-e /)),0:
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Data De!initi"n anguage (DD' "r Schema De!initi"n anguage, statements are used t" de!ine the dataase
structure "r schema
• CRE&TE - t" create "@ects in the dataase
• &,TER - alters the structure "! the dataase
• )ROP - delete "@ects !r"m the dataase
• TR%(C&TE - rem"$e all rec"rds !r"m a tale, including all spaces all"cated !"r the rec"rds are rem"$ed
• COMME(T - add c"mments t" the data dicti"nar%
• RE(&ME - rename an "@ect
)ata Mani2#lation ,an-#a-e /)M,0:
Data Manipulati"n anguage (DM' statements are used !"r managing data ithin schema "@ects
• (SERT - insert data int" a tale
• %P)&TE - updates e9isting data ithin a tale
• )E,ETE - deletes all rec"rds !r"m a tale, the space !"r the rec"rds remain
• MER6E 3 %PSERT "perati"n (insert "r update'
• C&,, - call a )4S7 "r a$a supr"gram
• E7P,&( P,&( - e9plain access path t" data
• ,OC8 T&B,E - c"ntr"l c"ncurrenc%
)ata Retrie5al ,an-#a-e 4 )ata +#er ,an-#a-e /)R,4)+,0:
• SE,ECT - retrie$e data !r"m the a dataase
)ata Control ,an-#a-e /)C,0:
)ata Control ,an-#a-e (D&' statements S"me e9amplesB
• 6R&(T - gi$es userIs access pri$ileges t" dataase
• RE!O8E - ithdra access pri$ileges gi$en ith the RNT c"mmand
Tran"action Control /TC,0:
Transacti"n &"ntr"l (T&' statements are used t" manage the changes made % DM statements t all"s
statements t" e gr"uped t"gether int" l"gical transacti"ns
• COMMT 3 sa$e "rk d"ne
• S&!EPO(T - identi!% a p"int in a transacti"n t" hich %"u can later r"ll ack
• RO,,B&C8 - rest"re dataase t" "riginal since the last &+MMT
• SET TR&(S&CTO( - &hange transacti"n "pti"ns like is"lati"n le$el and hat r"llack segment t" use
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Fiq: SQL Architecture:
R#le":
+racle reser$ed "rds cann"t e used
2 #ndersc"re, numerals, letters are all"ed ut n"t lank space
3 Ma9imum length !"r the tale name is 30 characters
: T" di!!erent tales sh"uld n"t ha$e same name
; =e sh"uld speci!% a uni8ue c"lumn name
6 =e sh"uld speci!% pr"per data t%pe al"ng ith idth
< =e can include Jn"t null c"nditi"n hen needed 1% de!ault it is Lnull
> t is a c"mmand ased language
? t is n"t case sensiti$e
0 /$er% c"mmand sh"uld end ith L
/$er% c"mmand starts ith J$er
2 t is similar t" /nglish This language is de$el"ped in the %ear ?<2 Mr&+DD, % 1M
de$el"ped % J1M
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WORDS TO REMEMBER
This appendi9 lists "rds that ha$e a special meaning t" +racle /ach "rd pla%s a speci!ic r"le in the c"nte9t in hich it appears G"
e9ample, in an NS/RT statement, the reser$ed "rd NT+ intr"duces the tales t" hich r"s ill e added 1ut, in a G/T&A "r S//&T
statement, the reser$ed "rd NT+ intr"duces the "utput h"st $ariales t" hich c"lumn $alues ill e assigned
Oracle Re"er5ed 9ord"
The !"ll"ing "rds are reser$ed % +racle That is, the% ha$e a special meaning t" +racle and s" cann"t e rede!ined G"r this
reas"n, %"u cann"t use them t" name dataase "@ects such as c"lumns, tales, "r inde9es
&&/SS &+MM/NT G+T S +)T+N STRT #N+N
DD &+M)R/SS G+R /./ +R S//&T #N7#/
&+NN/&T GR+M K/ +RD/R S/SS+N #)DT/
T/R &R/T/ RNT +&K )&TGR// S/T #S/R
ND &#RR/NT R+#) +N )R+R SAR/ .DT/
NH DT/ A.N ME/ET/NTS )R.//S SO/ .#/S
RRH/N D/&M D/NTG/D MN#S )#1& SMNT .R&AR
S D/G#T MM/DT/ M+D/ R= S71#G .R&AR2
S& D//T/ N N+TG+#ND R/NM/ S#&&/SSG# ./=
#DT D/S& N&R/M/NT N+=T R/S+#R&/ SHN+NHM =A/N/./R
1/T=//N DSTN&T ND/E N# R/.+K/ SHSDT/ =A/R/1H DR+) NT N#M1/R R+= T1/ =TA
&AR /S/ NS/RT +G R+=D TA/N
&A/&K /E&#S./ NT//R +GGN/ R+=1/ T+
&#ST/R /ESTS NT/RS/&T +N R+=N#M TR/R
&+#MN G/ NT+ +NN/ R+=S #D
Oracle 8eword"
The !"ll"ing "rds als" ha$e a special meaning t" +racle ut are n"t reser$ed "rds and s" can e rede!ined A"e$er, s"me might e$entual
ec"me reser$ed "rds
DMN &+#NT G+R/N MN/ET/NTS )R/&S+N S7/RR+R
GT/R &#RS+R G+RTRN MN.#/ )RMRH S7STT/
+&T/ &H&/ G+#ND M+D#/ )R.T/ STT/M/NTPD
NHO/ DT1S/ G#N&T+N M+#NT )R+&/D#R/ STTST&S
R&A./ DTG/ + N/ET )R+G/ ST+)
R&A./+ D1 +T+ N/= 7#+T ST+R/
#TA+ROT+N D/& R+#)S N+R&A./+ R/D S#M
. D/&R/ N&#DN N+&&A/ R/ S=T&A
1&K#) DS1/ ND&T+R N+&H&/ R/&+./R SHST/M
1/N DSM+#NT NTRNS N+ME.#/ R/G/R/N&/S T1/S
1/&+M/ D+#1/ NSTN&/ N+MN.#/ R/G/R/N&N T1/S)&/
1/G+R/ D#M) NT N+N/ R/S/T+S T/M)+RRH
1+&K /&A K/H N++RD/R R/STR&T/D TAR/D
1+DH /N1/ N#/ N+R/S/T+S R/#S/ TM/&&A/ /ND H/R N+RM R+/ TR&N
&N&/ /S&)/ NK N+S+RT R+/S TRNS&T+N
&S&D/ /./NTS STS N#M/R& R+1&K TR/RS
&AN/ /E&/)T +G/ +GG S./)+NT TR#N&T/
&AR&T/R /E&/)T+NS MN/ +D S&A/M #ND/R
&A/&K)+NT /E/& MN# +NH S&N #NMT/D
&+S/ /E)N ME +)/N S/&T+N #NT
&+1+ /E/&#T/ MEDTG/S +)TM S/M/NT #S/
&+MMT /ET/NT MENSTN&/S +=N S/7#/N&/ #SN
&+M)/ /ET/RNH ME+G/S )&K/ SAR/D =A/N
&+NSTRNT G/T&A ME+AST+RH )R/ SN)SA+T =RT/
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&+NSTRNTS G#SA ME+M/M1/RS )&TN&R/S/ S+M/ =+RK
&+NT/NTS GR//ST METRNS )&T#S/D S+RT
&+NTN#/ GR//STS ME.#/ )N S7
&+NTR+G/ G+R&/ MN ) S7&+D/
P,4S+, Re"er5ed 9ord"
The !"ll"ing )4S7 ke%"rds ma% re8uire special treatment hen used in emedded S7 statements
1+RT &#ST/R D//T/ A.N N# R/S+#R&/ T1/
&&/)T &#ST/RS D/T D/NTG/D N#M1/R R/T#RN T1/S
&&/SS &+#TA D/S& G N#M1/RP1S/ R/./RS/ TSK
DD &+#MNS DTS N +G R/.+K/ T/RMNT/
&+MMT DS)+S/ ND/E +N R+1&K TA/N
T/R &+M)R/SS DSTN&T ND/E/S +)/N R+=D T+
ND &+NN/&T D+ ND&T+R +)T+N R+=1/ TR#/
NH &+NSTNT DR+) NS/RT +R R+=N#M TH)/
RRH &+#NT /S/ NT//R +RD/R R+=TH)/ #N+N
RRH/N &RSA /SG NT/RS/&T +TA/RS R#N #N7#/
S &R/T/ /ND NT+ +#T S./)+NT #)DT/
S& &#RR/NT /NTRH S )&K/ S&A/M #S/
SS/RT &#RR. /E&/)T+N /./ )RTT+N S//&T .#/S
SSN &#RS+R /E&/)T+NPNT K/ )&TGR// S/)RT/ .R&AR
T DT1S/ /ESTS MT/D )+ST./ S/T .R&AR2
#TA+ROT+N DTP1S/ /ET ++) )RM SO/ .RN&/
. DT/ GS/ ME )R+R SMNT ./=
1S/PT1/ D1 G/T&A MN )R.T/ S)&/ ./=S
1/N D/1#+GG G+T MN#S )R+&/D#R/ S7 =A/N
1/T=//N D/1#+N G+R MS1/ )#1& S7&+D/ =A/R/
1NRHPNT//R D/&R/ G+RM M+D RS/ S7/RRM =A/
1+DH D/&M GR+M M+D/ RN/ STRT =TA
1++/N D/G#T G#N&T+N NT#R R/ STT/M/NT =+RK
1H &A/&K /N/R& N/= R/&+RD STDD/. E+R
&S/ &+S/ +T+ N/ET. R//S/ S#1TH)/
&AR D/GNT+N RNT N+&+M)R/SS R/MR S#M&ARP1S/ D/H R+#) N+T R/NM/ T1#TA
Oracle Re"er5ed (ame"2ace"
&"ntains a list "! namespaces that are reser$ed % +racle The initial characters "! !uncti"n names in +racle liraries are restricted t"
the character strings in this list 1ecause "! p"tential name c"n!licts, use !uncti"n names that d" n"t egin ith these characters
G"r e9ample, the S7QNet Transparent Net"rk Ser$ice !uncti"ns all egin ith the characters NS, s" %"u need t" a$"id naming !uncti"ns
that egin ith NS
(ame"2ace ,i$rar
+ +& !uncti"ns
S !uncti"n names !r"m S71 and s%stem-dependent liraries
E e9ternal !uncti"ns !"r E applicati"ns "nl%
/N K) N N& ND N NM NR NS NT NO TT& #) nternal !uncti"ns
S+, O2erator"
&n "perat"r is a reser$ed "rd "r a character used primaril% in an S7 statementIs =A/R/ clause t" per!"rm
"perati"n(s', such as c"mparis"ns and arithmetic "perati"ns +perat"rs are used t" speci!% c"nditi"ns in an S7
statement and t" ser$e as c"n@uncti"ns !"r multiple c"nditi"ns in a statement
• rithmetic "perat"rs
• &"mparis"n "perat"rs
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• "gical "perat"rs
• +perat"rs used t" negate c"nditi"n
&rithmetic o2erator"
ssume $ariale a h"lds 0 and $ariale h"lds 20, thenBOperator Description Example
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will give 30
- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand fro left hand operand a - b will give -!0
" #ultiplication - #ultiplies values on either side of the operator a " b will give $00
% &ivision - &ivides left hand operand b' right hand operand b % a will give $
( #odulus - &ivides left hand operand b' right hand operand and returns reainder b ( a will give 0
Com2ari"on o2erator"
O2erator )e"cri2tion E1am2le
&hecks i! the $alues "! t" "perands are e8ual "r n"t, i! %es then c"nditi"n ec"mes true (a ' is n"t
true
&hecks i! the $alues "! t" "perands are e8ual "r n"t, i! $alues are n"t e8ual then c"nditi"n ec"mes true (a ' is true
UV &hecks i! the $alues "! t" "perands are e8ual "r n"t, i! $alues are n"t e8ual then c"nditi"n ec"mes true (a UV ' is true
V &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is greater than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n ec"mes
true
(a V ' is n"t
trueU &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is less than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n ec"mes true (a U ' is true
V &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is greater than "r e8ual t" the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n
ec"mes true
(a V ' is n"t
true
U &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is less than "r e8ual t" the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n
ec"mes true
(a U ' is true
U &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is n"t less than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n ec"mestrue
(a U ' is !alse
V &hecks i! the $alue "! le!t "perand is n"t greater than the $alue "! right "perand, i! %es then c"nditi"n ec"mes true
(a V ' is true
,o-ical o2erator"
O2erator )e"cri2tion
The "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" all $alues in an"ther $alue set
ND The ND "perat"r all"s the e9istence "! multiple c"nditi"ns in an S7 statementIs =A/R/ clause
NH The NH "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" an% applicale $alue in the list acc"rding t" the c"nditi"n
1/T=//N The 1/T=//N "perat"r is used t" search !"r $alues that are ithin a set "! $alues, gi$en the minimum $alue and the ma9imum $alue
/ESTS The /ESTS "perat"r is used t" search !"r the presence "! a r" in a speci!ied tale that meets certain criteria
N The N "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" a list "! literal $alues that ha$e een speci!ied
K/ The K/ "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue t" similar $alues using ildcard "perat"rs
N+T The N+T "perat"r re$erses the meaning "! the l"gical "perat"r ith hich it is used /gB N+T /ESTS, N+T 1/T=//N, N+T N, et
+R The +R "perat"r is used t" c"mine multiple c"nditi"ns in an S7 statementIs =A/R/ clause
S N# The N# "perat"r is used t" c"mpare a $alue ith a N# $alue
#N7#/ The #N7#/ "perat"r searches e$er% r" "! a speci!ied tale !"r uni8ueness (n" duplicates'
SQL Functions
SQL has many bui!"in #unc!i$ns #$r per#$rmin% cacua!i$ns $n da!a.
S+, &--re-ate F#nction"
S7 aggregate !uncti"ns return a single $alue, calculated !r"m $alues in a c"lumn
• &'()* " +e!urns !he a,era%e ,aue
• -/0T)* " +e!urns !he number $# r$1s
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• I+ST)* " +e!urns !he rs! ,aue
• L&ST)* " +e!urns !he as! ,aue
• &)* " +e!urns !he ar%es! ,aue
• I0)* " +e!urns !he smaes! ,aue
• S/)* " +e!urns !he sum
S+, Scalar f#nction"
S7 scalar !uncti"ns return a single $alue, ased "n the input $alue
• /-&S)* " -$n,er!s a ed !$ upper case
• L-&S)* " -$n,er!s a ed !$ $1er case
• I)* " 9!rac! charac!ers #r$m a !e9! ed
• L0)* " +e!urns !he en%!h $# a !e9! ed
• +/0)* " +$unds a numeric ed !$ !he number $# decimas specied
• 0:)* " +e!urns !he curren! sys!em da!e and !ime
• +&T)* " $rma!s h$1 a ed is !$ be dispayed
S+, Strin- F#nction"S7 string !uncti"ns are used primaril% !"r string manipulati"n The !"ll"ing tale details the imp"rtant string
!uncti"nsB(ame )e"cri2tion
;
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S&(' Returns numeric $alue "! le!t-m"st character
1N(' Returns a string representati"n "! the argument
1TP/NTA(' Returns length "! argument in its
&ARP/NTA(' Returns numer "! characters in argument
&AR(' Returns the character !"r each integer passed
&AR&T/RP/NTA(' s%n"n%m !"r &ARP/NTA('
&+N&TP=S(' Returns c"ncatenate ith separat"r
&+N&T(' Returns c"ncatenated string
&+N.(' &"n$erts numers eteen di!!erent numer ases
/T(' Returns string at inde9 numer
/E)+RTPS/T(' Returns a string such that !"r e$er% it set in the $alue its, %"u get an "n string and !"r e$er% unset it, %"u get an "!! stringG/D(' Returns the inde9 (p"siti"n' "! the !irst argument in the suse8uent arguments
GNDPNPS/T(' Returns the inde9 p"siti"n "! the !irst argument ithin the sec"nd argument
G+RMT(' Returns a numer !"rmatted t" speci!ied numer "! decimal places
A/E(' Returns a string representati"n "! a he9 $alue
NS/RT(' nserts a sustring at the speci!ied p"siti"n up t" the speci!ied numer "! characters
NSTR(' Returns the inde9 "! the !irst "ccurrence "! sustring
&S/(' S%n"n%m !"r +=/R('
/GT(' Returns the le!tm"st numer "! characters as speci!ied
/NTA(' Returns the length "! a string in %tes
+DPG/(' "ads the named !ile
+&T/(' Returns the p"siti"n "! the !irst "ccurrence "! sustring
+=/R(' Returns the argument in l"ercase
)D(' Returns the string argument, le!t-padded ith the speci!ied string
TRM(' Rem"$es leading spaces
MK/PS/T(' Returns a set "! c"mma-separated strings that ha$e the c"rresp"nding it in its set
MD(' Returns a sustring starting !r"m the speci!ied p"siti"n
+&T(' Returns a string representati"n "! the "ctal argument
+&T/TP/NTA(' s%n"n%m !"r /NTA('
+RD(' ! the le!tm"st character "! the argument is a multi-%te character, returns the c"de !"r that character
)+ST+N(' s%n"n%m !"r +&T/('
7#+T/(' /scapes the argument !"r use in an S7 statement
R//E) )attern matching using regular e9pressi"ns
R/)/T(' Repeats a string the speci!ied numer "! times
R/)&/(' Replaces "ccurrences "! a speci!ied string
R/./RS/(' Re$erses the characters in a string
RAT(' Returns the speci!ied rightm"st numer "! characters
R)D(' ppends string the speci!ied numer "! timesRTRM(' Rem"$es trailing spaces
S+#ND/E(' Returns a s"unde9 string
S+#NDS K/ &"mpares s"unds
S)&/(' Returns a string "! the speci!ied numer "! spaces
STR&M)(' &"mpares t" strings
S#1STRNPND/E(' Returns a sustring !r"m a string e!"re the speci!ied numer "! "ccurrences "! the delimiter
S#1STRN(', S#1STR(' Returns the sustring as speci!ied
TRM(' Rem"$es leading and trailing spaces
#&S/(' S%n"n%m !"r #))/R('
#NA/E(' &"n$erts each pair "! he9adecimal digits t" a character
#))/R(' &"n$erts t" uppercase
S+, (#meric F#nction"
S7 numeric !uncti"ns are used primaril% !"r numeric manipulati"n and4"r mathematical calculati"ns The !"ll"ing
tale details the numeric !uncti"nsB
(ame )e"cri2tion
1S(' Returns the as"lute $alue "! numeric e9pressi"n
&+S(' Returns the arcc"sine "! numeric e9pressi"n Returns N# i! the $alue is n"t in the range - t"
SN(' Returns the arcsine "! numeric e9pressi"n Returns N# i! $alue is n"t in the range - t"
TN(' Returns the arctangent "! numeric e9pressi"n
TN2(' Returns the arctangent "! the t" $ariales passed t" it
1TPND(' Returns the itise ND all the its in e9pressi"n
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1TP&+#NT(' Returns the string representati"n "! the inar% $alue passed t" it
1TP+R(' Returns the itise +R "! all the its in the passed e9pressi"n
&/(' Returns the smallest integer $alue that is n"t less than passed numeric e9pressi"n
&/N(' Returns the smallest integer $alue that is n"t less than passed numeric e9pressi"n
&+N.(' &"n$ert numeric e9pressi"n !r"m "ne ase t" an"ther
&+S(' Returns the c"sine "! passed numeric e9pressi"n The numeric e9pressi"n sh"uld e e9pressed in radians
&+T(' Returns the c"tangent "! passed numeric e9pressi"n
D/R//S(' Returns numeric e9pressi"n c"n$erted !r"m radians t" degrees
/E)(' Returns the ase "! the natural l"garithm (e' raised t" the p"er "! passed numeric e9pressi"nG++R(' Returns the largest integer $alue that is n"t greater than passed numeric e9pressi"n
G+RMT(' Returns a numeric e9pressi"n r"unded t" a numer "! decimal places
R/T/ST(' Returns the largest $alue "! the input e9pressi"ns
NT/R.('Takes multiple e9pressi"ns e9p, e9p2 and e9p3 s" "n and returns 0 i! e9p is less than e9p2, returns i!
e9p is less than e9p3 and s" "n
/ST(' Returns the minimum-$alued input hen gi$en t" "r m"re
+(' Returns the natural l"garithm "! the passed numeric e9pressi"n
+0(' Returns the ase-0 l"garithm "! the passed numeric e9pressi"n
M+D(' Returns the remainder "! "ne e9pressi"n % di$ing % an"ther e9pressi"n
+&T('Returns the string representati"n "! the "ctal $alue "! the passed numeric e9pressi"n Returns N# i! passe
$alue is N#
)(' Returns the $alue "! pi
)+=(' Returns the $alue "! "ne e9pressi"n raised t" the p"er "! an"ther e9pressi"n
)+=/R(' Returns the $alue "! "ne e9pressi"n raised t" the p"er "! an"ther e9pressi"n
RDNS(' Returns the $alue "! passed e9pressi"n c"n$erted !r"m degrees t" radians
R+#ND('Returns numeric e9pressi"n r"unded t" an integer &an e used t" r"und an e9pressi"n t" a numer "! decim
p"ints
SN(' Returns the sine "! numeric e9pressi"n gi$en in radians
S7RT(' Returns the n"n-negati$e s8uare r""t "! numeric e9pressi"n
STD(' Returns the standard de$iati"n "! the numeric e9pressi"n
STDD/.(' Returns the standard de$iati"n "! the numeric e9pressi"n
TN(' Returns the tangent "! numeric e9pressi"n e9pressed in radians
TR#N&T/(' Returns numeric e9p truncated t" e9p2 decimal places ! e9p2 is 0, then the result ill ha$e n" decimal p"int
LIST OF EPERIMENTS
. Creation of a data$a"e and writin- S+, ;#erie" to retrie5e information from the data$a"e.
;.;)ata )efinition ,an-#a-e /)),0.
a &R/T/
T/R
c DR+)
d TR#N&T/
e R/NM/
! &+MM/NT
;.2)ata Mani2#lation ,an-#a-e /)M,0
a NS/RT
#)DT/
c D//T/
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d S//&T
<. Performin- n"ertion' )eletion' Modifin-' <erin-' %2datin- and !iewin- record" $a"ed on
condition".
=. Creation of !iew"' Snonm"' Se;#ence' nde1e"' Sa5e 2oint.
=.. m2lementation of !iew".
32 m2lementation of Snonm"
33 m2lementation of Se;#ence
3: m2lementation of nde1e"
3; m2lementation of Sa5e 2oint.
>. Creatin- an Em2loee data$a"e to "et 5ario#" con"traint".
(a' )rimar% ke%, (e'Null, (i' Disale &"nstraints
('G"reign Ke%, W (!' N"t null, (@' Dr"p &"nstraints
(c' &heck, (g' De!ault,
(d' #ni8ue, (h' /nale &"nstraints,
?. Creatin- relation"hi2 $etween the data$a"e".
?. m2lementation of "et o2eration"
?.<. m2lementation of (e"ted +#erie" 4 S#$;#erie"
?.<. m2lementation the Join O2eration"
@. St#d of P,4S+, $lock.
A. 9rite a P,4S+, $lock to "ati"f "ome condition" $ acce2tin- in2#t from the #"er.
. 9rite a P,4S+, $lock that handle" all t2e" of e1ce2tion".
. Creation of Proced#re".
D. Creation of data$a"e tri--er" and f#nction"
D. m2lementation of Tri--er" and it" a22lication
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D.< m2lementation of F#nction".
. Mini 2roect /&22lication )e5elo2ment #"in- Oracle4 M";l 0
a' n$ent"r% &"ntr"l S%stem
' Material Re8uirement )r"cessing
c' A"spital Management S%stem
d' Raila% Reser$ati"n S%stem
e' )ers"nal n!"rmati"n S%stem
!' =e 1ased #ser denti!icati"n S%stem
g' Timetale Management S%stem
h' A"tel Management S%stem
Creation of a data$a"e and writin- S+, ;#erie" to retrie5e information from the data$a"e.
E1: (o: D/.0 )&T& )EF(TO( ,&(6%&6E/)),0
: :
&M:
T" e9ecute the $ari"us Data De!initi"n anguage c"mmands in RD1MS
OBJECT!E:
!ter c"mpleting the e9ercise the students can ale t" #nderstand h" t" create a tale ith list "!ields, M"di!% a r" using here clause, Dr"p a tale, Delete the unanted r"s in a tale
)&T& )EF(TO( ,&(6%&6E
t is used t" c"mmunicate ith dataase DD is used t"B
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&reate an "@ect
lter the structure "! an "@ect
T" dr"p the "@ect created
&,6ORTHM:
Step B Start the pr"gram
Step 2B " t" S7
Step 3B /nter the user name and pass"rd
Step :B &"nnect t" the dataase
Step ;B T%pe the c"mmands !"r creating tales and per!"rm $ari"us "perati"ns "n the tales
Step 6B The "utput is displa%ed
Step <B St"p the pr"gram
)), COMM&():
• &R/T/
• T/R
• DR+)
• TR#N&T/
• &+MM/NT
• R/NM/
CRE&TE T&B,E
&"nstraints are c"nditi"n !"r the data item t" e st"red int" a dataase There are t" t%pes "!
&"nstraints $iF, &"lumn &"nstraints and Tale &"nstraintsT!"#$s
n relati"nal dataase s%stems (D1S' data are represented using tales (relati"ns' 8uer% issued
against the D1S als" results in a tale tale has the !"ll"ing structureB
Tuple "r rec"rd
Tuple "r rec"rd 2
Tuple "r rec"rd n
tale is uni8uel% identi!ied % its name and c"nsists "! r"s that c"ntain the st"red
in!"rmati"n, each r" c"ntaining e9actl% "ne tuple ("r rec"rd' tale can ha$e "ne "r m"re c"lumns
c"lumn is made up "! a c"lumn name and a data t%pe, and it descries an attriute "! the tuples The
structure "! a tale, als" called relati"n schema, thus is de!ined % its attriutes The t%pe "!
;
Col#mn Col#mn < Col#mn n
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in!"rmati"n t" e st"red in a tale is de!ined % the data t%pes "! the attriutes at tale creati"n time
+racle "!!ers the !"ll"ing asic data t%pes:
Sl.(o )ata T2e )e"cri2tion
Char/n0 &haracter String n is the siFe "! $ariale Ma9imum siFe is 2;; characters The de!ault siFe is
< V!%c&!%'(n)
-harac!er s!rin% . n is !he si=e $# !he ,ariabe
= (#m$er enes 0umeric da!a !ype 1i!h space #$r 4< di%i! and space #$r si%n and decima p$in!> (#m$er /n0 0umeric ,ariabe.n is !he si=e $# !he ,ariabe
? (#m$er/n'd0 Numeric $arialen is the siFe "! $ariale and d is the siFe i! the decimal p"int
@ Raw/"iGe0 +a1 Binary da!a $# en%!h si=e by!es .a9imum si=e is 32767 by!es.A nte-er I! is same as number da!a !ype bu! ,aues 1i be 1h$e numbers. -$umns dened 1i!h !his
#$rma! n$! accep! decima ,aues. nte-er/n0 Species an in!e%er da!a !ype $# en%!h n. ,on- De!ines a character data t%pe upt" 32<60%tes +ne "ne l"ng c"lumn ma% e e!ined !"r tale This t%pe "! c"lumn
ma% n"t e used in su 8ueries, =here clauses "r inde9es
D ,on- Raw Same as +N e9cept it c"ntains inar% data "r %te strings and n"t interpreted % )4S7
,OB T2e LB ,ariabes can used in!erchan%eaby 1i!h L0( and L0( +&: ,ariabes. I! c$nsis!s $#BIL>BLB>-LB and 0LB
< BF,E I! is used !$ s!$re ar%e binary $b?ec!s in $pera!in% sys!em es $u!side !he da!abase= B,OB The 1+1 datat %pe t" st"re large inar% "@ects in the dataase, in-line "r "ut-"!-line /$er% 1+1 $ariale st"re
a l"cat"r, hich p"ints t" a large inar% "@ect The siFe "! a 1+1 cann"t e9ceed !"ur giga%tes
> C,OB The &+1 datat%pe t" st"re large l"cks "! character data in the dataase, in-line "r "ut-"!-line 1"th !i9ed-idthand $ariale-idth character sets are supp"rted /$er% &+1 $ariale st"res a l"cat"r, hich p"ints t" a large l"c
"! character data The siFe "! a &+1 cann"t e9ceed !"ur giga%tes
? (C,OB The N&+1 datat%pe t" st"re large l"cks "! N&AR data in the dataase, in-line "r "ut-"!-line 1"th !i9ed-idth
and $ariale-idth character sets are supp"rted /$er% N&+1 $ariale st"res a l"cat"r, hich p"ints t" a large
l"ck "! N&AR data The siFe "! an N&+1 cann"t e9ceed !"ur giga%tes
@
)&TE
The DT/ datat%pe t" st"re !i9ed-length datetimes, hich include the time "! da% in sec"nds since midnight The
date p"rti"n de!aults t" the !irst da% "! the current m"nth the time p"rti"n de!aults t" midnight The date !uncti"nSHSDT/ returns the current date and time
S7 uses the terms tale, r", and c"lumn !"r relati"n, tuple, and attriute, respecti$el% tale can ha$
up t" 2;: c"lumns hich ma% ha$e di!!erent "r same data t%pes and sets "! $alues (d"mains', respecti$el
)"ssile d"mains are alphanumeric data (strings', numers and date !"rmats
Sample Dataases used !"r illustrati"n "! S7 &"mmands is gi$en el" ith /R Diagram and c"rresp"nding Relati"nal
M"del ith suitale data entered in the tales
• Relati"n eteen /mpl"%ee and Department is ="rks is man% *t"-"ne
DT1S/ !"r /M)+H// and D/)RTM/NT /ntities
EMP Tale gi$en ith sample Data
EMP(O E(&ME JOB M6R HRE)&TE S&, COMM )EPT(O
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<36? SMTA &/RK <?02 <-D/&->0 >00 20
<:?? /N S/SMN <6?> 20-G/1-> 600 300 30
<;2 =RD S/SMN <6?> 22-G/1-> 2;0 ;00 30
<;66 +N/S MN/R <>3? 02-)R-> 2?<; 20
<6;: MRTN S/SMN <6?> 2>-S/)-> 2;0 :00 30
)EPT Tale gi$en ith Sample Data
)EPT(O )(&ME ,OC
0 &&+#NTN N/= H+RK
20 R/S/R&A DS
30 S/S &A&+
:0 +)/RT+NS 1+ST+N
+%ER: D
+: =rite a 8uer% t" create a tale empl"%ee ith empn", ename, designati"n, and salar%
Snta1: t is used t" create a tale
S7B &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/' XXX'
Command:
S7VCRE&TE T&B,E /M) (/M)N+ (%MBER />0'/NM/ !&RCH&R< /D0' D/SNTN !&RCH&R<
/D0'SRH (%MBER /' <00I
Tale created
Con"traint" with Ta$le Creation:
&"nstraints are c"nditi"n !"r the data item t" e st"red int" a dataase There are t" t%pes "!
&"nstraints $iF, &"lumn &"nstraints and Tale &"nstraints
Snta1:
Y&+NSTRNT c"nstraint nameZ
[YN+TZ N# 4 #N7#/ 4 )RMRH K/H\(&"lumnY,c"lumnZ'
G+R/N K/H (c"lumn Y, c"lumZX'
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+%ER: D>
+>: =rite a 8uer% !"r create a !r"m an e9isting tale ith selected !ields
Snta1: S%nta9 !"r create a !r"m an e9isting tale ith selected !ields
S7V &R/T/ T1/ UTR/T T1/ NM/V S S//&T /M)N+, /NM/GR+M US+#R&/
T1/ NM/V
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ EMP< S S//&T EMP(O, E(&ME GR+M EMP
Tale created
Command:
S7V D/S& /M)2
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- --------------------- ----/M)N+ N#M1/R (:'
/NM/ .R&AR2 (0'
+%ER: D?
+?: =rite a 8uer% !"r create a ne tale !r"m an e9isting tale ith"ut an% rec"rdB
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r create a ne tale !r"m an e9isting tale ith"ut an% rec"rd
S7V &R/T/ T1/ UTR/T T1/ NM/V S S//&T Q GR+MUS+#R&/ T1/ NM/V
=A/R/ UGS/ &+NDT+NV
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ /M)3 S S//&T Q GR+M /M) =A/R/V2
Tale created
Command:
S7V D/S& /M)3
Name Null] T%pe
------------------ -----------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(0'
D/SNTN.R&AR2(0'
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
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&,TER K MO)FC&TO( O( T&B,E
T" m"di!% structure "! an alread% e9isting tale t" add "ne m"re c"lumns and als" m"di!% the
e9isting c"lumns
lter c"mmand is used t"B
dd a ne c"lumn
2 M"di!% the e9isting c"lumn de!initi"n
3 T" include "r dr"p integrit% c"nstraint
+%ER: D@
+@: =rite a 7uer% t" lter the c"lumn /M)N+ N#M1/R (:' T+ /M)N+ N#M1/R (6'
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r alter 5 m"di!% "n a single c"lumn
S7 V T/R UT1/ NM/V M+DGH U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V(SO/'
Command:
S7VT/R T1/ EMP M+DGH EMP(O N#M1/R (6'
Tale altered
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Command:
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- ----------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(6'
/NM/ .R&AR2(0'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
+%ER: DA
7< =rite a 7uer% t" lter the tale empl"%ee ith multiple c"lumns (/M)N+,/NM/'
Snta1: T" alter tale ith multiple c"lumn
S7 V T/R UT1/ NM/V M+DGH U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V(SO/',
M+DGH U&+#MN NM/2VUDTTH)/V(SO/'XXXX
Command:
S7VT/R T1/ /M) M+DGH (/M)N+ N#M1/R (<', /NM/.R&AR2(2''
Tale altered
Command:
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- -------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(2'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
+%ER: D
7> =rite a 8uer% t" add a ne c"lumn in t" empl"%ee
Snta1: T" add a ne c"lumn
S7V T/R T1/ UT1/ NM/V DD (U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/VUSO/V'
Command:
S7V T/R T1/ /M) DD 7#G&T+N .R&AR2(6'
Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
---------------- ------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(2'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
7#G&T+N .R&AR2(6'
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+%ER: D
+: =rite a 8uer% t" add multiple c"lumns in t" empl"%ee
Snta1: S%nta9 !"r add a ne c"lumn
S7V T/R T1/ UT1/ NM/V DD (U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/VUSO/V,
(U&+#MN NM/2VUDT TH)/VUSO/VX'
Command:
S7VT/R T1/ /M) DD (D+1 DT/, D+ DT/'Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- --------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(2'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
7#G&T+N .R&AR2(6'
D+1 DT/
D+ DT/
REMO!E 4 )ROP
t ill delete the tale structure pr"$ided the tale sh"uld e empt%
+%ER: D
70 =rite a 8uer% t" dr"p a c"lumn !r"m an e9isting tale empl"%ee
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r add a ne c"lumn
S7V T/R T1/ UT1/ NM/V DR+) &+#MN U&+#MN NM/V
Command:
S7V T/R T1/ /M) DR+) &+#MN D+
Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
----------------- ------------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(2'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
7#G&T+N .R&AR2(6'
D+1 DT/
+%ER:
70 =rite a 8uer% t" dr"p multiple c"lumns !r"m empl"%ee
Snta1:The S%nta9 !"r add a ne c"lumn
S7V T/R T1/ UT1/ NM/V DR+) U&+#MNNM/V,U&+#MN NM/2V,XXX
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Command:
S7V T/R T1/ /M) DR+) (D+1, 7#G&T+N'
Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
------------------ ---------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(2'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
RE(&ME
+%ER: <
70 =rite a 8uer% t" rename tale emp t" empl"%ee
Snta1:The S%nta9 !"r add a ne c"lumn
S7V T/R T1/ R/NM/ U+D NM/V T+ UN/= NM/V
Command:
S7V T/R T1/ R/NM/ /M) T+ /M)+H//
S7V D/S& /M)+H//
Name Null] T%pe
------------------- --------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(<'
/NM/ .R&AR2(2'
D/SNTN .R&AR2(0'
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
TR%(C&TE T&B,E
! there is n" !urther use "! rec"rds st"red in a tale and the structure has t" e retained then the rec"rds al"ne
can e deleted
Snta1:
TR#N&T/ T1/ UT1/ NM/V
E1am2le:
Truncate tale /M)
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)ROP:
T" rem"$e a tale al"ng ith its structure and data
Snta1:The S%nta9 !"r add a ne c"lumn
S7V Dr"p taleUtale nameV
Command:
S7V dr"p tale empl"%ee
RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r DD c"mmands in RD1MS has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
)&T& M&(P%,&TO( ,&(6%&6E /)M,0 COMM&()S ( R)BMS
E1: (o: .<
: :
&M:
T" e9ecute and $eri!% the DM c"mmands are the m"st !re8uentl% used S7 c"mmands and is used
t" 8uer% and manipulate the e9isting dataase "@ects
)M, /)&T& M&(P%,&TO( ,&(6%&6E0
• S//&T
• NS/RT
• D//T/
• #)DT/
&,6ORTHM:
STEP : Start the D1MS
STEP <: &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
STEP =: nsert the rec"rd int" tale
STEP >: #pdate the e9isting rec"rds int" the tale
STEP ?: Delete the rec"rds in t" the tale
STEP @: use sa$e p"int i! an% changes "ccur in an% p"rti"n "! the rec"rd t" und" its "riginal
state
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STEP A: use r"llack !"r c"mpletel% und" the rec"rds
STEP : use c"mmit !"r permanentl% sa$e the rec"rds
(SERT
The S7 NS/RT NT+ Statement is used t" add ne r"s "! data t" a tale in the dataase
n"ert a record from an e1i"tin- ta$le:
+%ER: D
7 =rite a 8uer% t" insert the rec"rds in t" empl"%ee
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds in t" a tale
S+, :L (SERT (TO T&B,E (&MEL !&,%ES !&,' N!&,<*'..0I
Command:
S7VNS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S (0,INRNI,I/&T#R/RI,;000'
r" created
n"ert & Record %"in- S#$"tit#tion Method:
+%ER: D=
73 =rite a 8uer% t" insert the rec"rds in t" empl"%ee using sustituti"n meth"d
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds int" the tale
S7 BV NS/RT NT+ UT1/ NM/V .#/SU L5c"lumn name, L5c"lumn name 2, X'
Command:
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(5/M)N+,I5/NM/I,I5D/SNTNI,I5SRHI'
/nter $alue !"r empn"B 02
/nter $alue !"r enameB SR.NN
/nter $alue !"r designatinB /&T#R/R
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/nter $alue !"r salar%B ;000
r" created
old : NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(5/M)N+,I5/NM/I,I5D/SNTNI,I5SRHI'
new : NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(02,ISR.NNI,I/&T#R/RI,I;000I'
S7V 4
/nter $alue !"r empn"B 03
/nter $alue !"r enameB )NN/RS/.M/nter $alue !"r designatinB SST )R+G
/nter $alue !"r salar%B 20000
r" created
old : NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(5/M)N+,I5/NM/I,I5D/SNTNI,I5SRHI'
new : NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(03,I)NN/RS/.MI,ISST)R+GI,I20000I'
S7V 4
/nter $alue !"r empn"B 0:
/nter $alue !"r enameB &ANN
/nter $alue !"r designatinB A+D, )R+G
/nter $alue !"r salar%B :;000
r" created
old : NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(5/M)N+,I5/NM/I,I5D/SNTNI,I5SRHI'
new : NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(0:,I&ANNI,IA+D, )R+GI,I:;000I'
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ D/SNTN SRH----------- ------------ ------------------- --------------
0 NRN /&T#R/R ;000
02 SR.NN /&T#R/R ;000
03 )NN/RS/.M SST )R+G 20000
0: &ANN A+D, )R+G :;000
SE,ECT
SE,ECT Statement is used t" !etch the data !r"m a dataase tale hich returns data in the !"rm "!
result tale These result tales are called result-sets
)i"2la the EMP ta$le:
+%ER: D<
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Command:
S7V#)DT/ /M) S/T SRH 6000, D/SNTNISST )R+GI =A/R/ /M)N+02
r" updated
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ D/SNTN SRH
---------- ------------ -------------------- --------------
0 NRN /&T#R/R 6000
02 SR.NN SST )R+G 6000
03 )NN/RS/.M SST )R+G 20000
0: &ANN A+D, )R+G :;000
)E,ETE
The S+, )E,ETE 7uer% is used t" delete the e9isting rec"rds !r"m a tale H"u can use 9HERE
clause ith )E,ETE 8uer% t" delete selected r"s, "therise all the rec"rds "uld e deleted
+%ER: D@
7; =rite a 8uer% t" delete rec"rds !r"m empl"%ee
Snta1: Snta1 for delete Record" from the ta$le:
S7V D//T/ UT1/ NM/V =A/R/ U&+#MN NM/VU.#/V
Command:
S7V D//T/ /M) =A/R/ /M)N+03
r" deleted
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ D/SNTN SRH
---------- ------------ --------------------- --------------
0 NRN /&T#R/R 6000
02 SR.NN SST )R+G 6000
0: &ANN A+D, )R+G :;000
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RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r DM has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
Performin- n"ertion' )eletion' Modifin-' <erin-' %2datin- and !iewin- record" $a"ed on
condition".
E1: (o: D<
: :
&M:
T" per!"rming inserti"n, deleti"n, m"di!%ing, altering, updating and $ieing rec"rds ased "n
c"nditi"ns
&,6ORTHM:
STEP : Start the D1MS
STEP <: &"nnect t" the dataase (D1'
STEP =: &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
STEP >: nsert the rec"rd int" tale ased "n s"me c"nditi"n using =A/R/ &#S/
STEP ?: #pdate the e9isting rec"rds int" the tale ased "n s"me c"nditi"n
STEP @: Delete the rec"rds in t" the tale ased "n s"me c"nditi"n
STEP A: #se c"mmit !"r permanentl% sa$e the rec"rds
STEP : St"p the pr"gram
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)R,3)&T& RETRE!&, MP,EME(T(6 O( SE,ECT COMM&()S
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ /M)(
/M)N+ N#M1/R (:',
/NM/ .R&AR2 (0',
+1 .R&AR2(20',
MR N#M1/R(:',
AR/DT/ DT/,
S N#M1/R(>,2',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
'
Tale created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<36?,ISMTAI,I&/RKI,;00,I<-D/&->0I,I>000I,200' r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<:??,I/NI,IS/SMNI,;002,I20-G/1->0I,I3000I,300'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<;2,I=RDI,IS/SMNI,;003,I22-G/1->0I,I;000I,;00'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<;66,I+N/SI,IMN/RI,;002,I02-)R->;I,I<;000I,200'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<;66,IRI,I+=N/RI,;000,I30-)R-<;I,N#,00'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<;66,IK#MRI,I&+/I,;002,I2-N-><I,I;;000I,300'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<:??,IRM K#MRI,ISRS/SMNI,;003,I22-N-><I,I2000;;I,200'
r" created
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S7V NS/RT NT+ /M) .#/S(<;2,ISM K#MRI,ISRS/SMNI,;003,I22-N-<;I,I22000I,300'
r" created
THE SE,ECT ST&TEME(T S(T&7 9TH &))TO(&, C,&%SES:
Select Y Distinct 4 #ni8ue Z ( Qc"lumnname Y s alias\, XZ
Gr"m talename
Y here c"nditi"n ZY r"up 1H gr"up P%Pe9pressi"n Z
YAa$ing gr"upPc"nditi"n Z
Y+RD/R 1H [col(s)|expr|numeric_pos\ YS&^D/S&Z YN#S GRST^STZZ
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
------------ ---------------- --------------- ----------- ----------------- -------------- --------------------
<36? SMTA &/RK ;00 <-D/&->0 >000 200<:?? /N S/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000 300
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000 ;00
<;66 +N/S MN/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000 200
<;66 R +=N/R ;000 30-)R-<; 00
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;002 2-N->< ;;000 300
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N->< 2000;; 200
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N-<; 22000 300
> r"s selected
B %S(6 SE,ECTE) CO,%(MS
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ----------- ----------- --------------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<;66 R +=N/R
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
> r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
--------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
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B %S(6 BET9EE( 4 (OT 4 ( 4 (%,, 4 ,8E
BETWEEN S*nt!+:S//&T column_name(s)
GR+M table_name
=A/R/ column_name 1/T=//N value1 ND value2;
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S BET9EE( 0000 ND 30000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ------------------- ------------- -------------
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S (OT BET9EE( 0000 &() 30000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ---------------- ------------ ------------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
IN S*nt!+
SL-T column_name(s)
+ table_name
:@+ column_name I0 )value1>value2>...*A
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S ( (000;,<;000'
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- ----------- -------
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S (OT ( (000;,<;000'
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
6 r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S S (%,,
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ---------- ------------- ---------
<;66 R +=N/R
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S S (OT (%,,
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
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---------- ---------- ------------ ---------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
< r"s selected
,8E Snta1:
S//&T column_name(s)
GR+M table_name
=A/R/ column_name K/ pattern
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S ,8E ;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- ---------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QSQI/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRQI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
--------- ----------- ---------- --------------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E Q%QI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- --------- - ---------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E Q&QI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ----------- ------------- ----------
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000<;66 R +=N/R
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
6 r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E Q,,QI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ------------ --------------- ------------
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
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S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QEQI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S---------- -- -------- ---- ------------- ----------
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E Q%&QI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- - ------------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRQI 44=
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- ----------- ----------<;66 R +=N/R
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRJQI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- ----------- --------
<;66 R +=N/R
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QMQI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
------------ ------------ --------------- --------<36? SMTA &/RK >000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QMQI
n" r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E QRQI 44 >
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ ,8E Q8RQI 44 =
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- ----------- --------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ N+T ,8E QRJQI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ----------- --------------- ----------
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<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
< r"s selected
RE,&TO(&, OPER&TOR
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ S;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
6 r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ SUV;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
6 r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ SV;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- ------------------- ----------
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ SU;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S----------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ SU;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ------------ -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
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<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
6 r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ SV;;000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
------------ ---------- ----------------- ---------
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
&() 4 OR
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ +1ISRS/SMNI &() S22000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ------------ ------------------ ----------
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ +1ISRS/SMNI OR S22000
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M)
=A/R/ S;000 &() (+1ISRS/SMNI OR +1IS/SMNI'
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
---------- ---------- -------------------- ----------
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
OR)ER B
Snta1:S//&T column_name,column_name
GR+M table_name+RD/R 1H column_name,column_name S&^D/S&
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) OR)ER B E(&ME
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
------------ ------------ -------------------- ----------<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<;66 R +=N/R
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
> r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) +RD/R 1H /NM/ )ESCI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ------------ -------------------- ----------
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
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<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;<;66 R +=N/R
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
> r"s selected
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) +RD/R 1H /NM/ &SCI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S----------- ------------ -------------------- ----------
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;66 +N/S MN/R <;000
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;;000
<;66 R +=N/R
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN 22000
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
> r"s selected
TOP
44 TOP clause is n"t in "racle instead "! that RO9(%M
Snta1
S//&T column_name(s)
GR+M table_name
=A/R/ R+=N#M U number
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ RO9(%M >I
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S------------ ---------- -------------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
S7V S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,+1,S GR+M /M) =A/R/ RO9(%M > OR)ER B E(&MEI
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S
----------- ---------- ------------------ ----------
<:?? /N S/SMN 3000
<36? SMTA &/RK >000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;000
DISTINCT
S*nt!+:SELECT DISTINCT c$umnname,c$umnname
+ table_nameA
E1:
S7V S//&T )ST(CT +1 GR+M /M)
+1
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--------------------
&/RK S/SMN
SRS/SMN
MN/R
&+/
+=N/R
6 r"s selected
%S(6 &,TER
This can e used t" add "r rem"$e c"lumns and t" m"di!% the precisi"n "! the datat%pe
a0 &))(6 CO,%M(
Snta1:
alter tale Utable_nameV add Ucol datatypeV
E1:
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe ------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:' /NM/ .R&AR2(0'
+1 .R&AR2(20'
MR N#M1/R(:'
AR/DT/ DT/
S N#M1/R(>,2'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
S7V alter tale /M) add TE numer
Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
----------------------------------------- ------------------------ /M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(0'
+1 .R&AR2(20'
MR N#M1/R(:' AR/DT/ DT/
S N#M1/R(>,2'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
TE N#M1/R
$0 REMO!(6 CO,%M(
Snta1:alter tale Utable_nameV dr"p Ucol datatypeV
E1:
S7V alter tale /M) dr"p c"lumn TE
Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
------------------------ ----------------- ----------------------------
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? r"s selected
/$en th"ugh the c"lumn is unused still it ill "ccup% mem"r%
d0 )ROPP(6 %(%SE) CO,%M(S
Snta1:
alter tale Utable_nameV dr"p unused c"lumns
E1:S7V alter tale /M) dr"p unused c"lumns
Tale altered
Q H"u can n"t dr"p indi$idual unused c"lumns "! a tale
e0 RE(&M(6 CO,%M(
Snta1:
alter tale Utable_nameV rename c"lumn Uold_col_nameV t" Unew_col_nameV
E1:
S7V alter tale /M) rename c"lumn S t" SRH
Tale altered
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
--------------------- ------ ----------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(0'
+1 .R&AR2(20'
MR N#M1/R(:'
AR/DT/ DT/
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
(SERT
Method
6E(ER&, (SERT COMM&():
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M)(/M)N+,/NM/,+1,MR,AR/DT/,SRH'
.#/S(,IRM#I,IS/SMNI,;063,I2-N-><I,I;6:3;;I'
r" created
Method <
9THO%T SPECF THE CO,%M(S )ET&,S
S7V NS/RT NT+ /mp .#/S(,IRM#I,IS/SMNI,;063,I2-N-><I,I;6:3;;I'
r" created
Method =
(SERT(6 )&T& (TO SPECFE) CO,%M(S
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M)(/M)N+,/NM/,+1' .#/S(,IRM#I,IS/SMNI'
r" created
Method >
B CH&(6E THE OR)ER OF CO,%M(S
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S7V NS/RT NT+ /M)(salar%,/M)N+,/NM/,+1' .#/S(3;000,,IRM#I,IS/SMNI'
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m emp
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ SRH
---------- ---------- --------------- -------- -------------- ----------<36? SMTA &/RK ;00 <-D/&->0 >000
<:?? /N S/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000<;66 R +=N/R ;000 30-)R-<;
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;002 2-N->< ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N->< 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N-<; 22000<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N-<; 22000
RM# S/SMN ;063 2-N->< ;6:3;;
RM# S/SMN ;063 2-N->< ;6:3;;
RM# S/SMN RM# S/SMN 3;000
3 r"s selected
Method ?
(SERT 9TH SE,ECT
#sing this e can insert e9isting tale data t" an"ther tale in a single trip 1ut the tale structure sh"uld e sameSnta1:
nsert int" Utable1V select Q !r"m Utable2V
E1:
S7V D/S& /M)
Name Null] T%pe
------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------------/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
/NM/ .R&AR2(0'
+1 .R&AR2(20'MR N#M1/R(:'
AR/DT/ DT/
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
S7V create tale /M)+H//(/M)PN+,/M)PNM/,/M)P+1,AR,AR/DT/,SRH'
as select Q !r"m /M) here 2
Tale created
S7V D/S& /M)+H//
Name Null] T%pe ----------------- ----------------- -------------------------
/M)PN+ N#M1/R(:'
/M)PNM/ .R&AR2(0'
/M)P+1 .R&AR2(20'
AR N#M1/R(:'
AR/DT/ DT/
SRH N#M1/R(>,2'
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
n" r"s selected
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S7V insert int" /M)+H// select Q !r"m /M)3 r"s created
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
/M)PN+ /M)PNM/ /M)P+1 AR AR/DT/ SRH
---------- ---------------- -------------------- -------- ---------------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK ;00 <-D/&->0 >000
<:?? /N S/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000
<;66 +N/S MN/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000<;66 R +=N/R ;000 30-)R-<;
<;66 K#MR &+/ ;002 2-N->< ;;000
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N->< 2000;;
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N-<; 22000
<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N-<; 22000
RM# S/SMN ;063 2-N->< ;6:3;; RM# S/SMN ;063 2-N->< ;6:3;;
RM# S/SMN
RM# S/SMN 3;000
3 r"s selected
Method @
M%,TB,E (SERTS
=e ha$e tale called D/)T ith the !"ll"ing c"lumns and data
S7V select Q !r"m D/)T
D/)TN+ DNM/ +&
----------- ---------- -------
0 acc"unting ne %"rk
20 research dallas
30 sales &hicag"
:0 "perati"ns "st"n
CRE&TE ST%)E(T T&B,E
S7V &reate tale student(n" numer(2',name $archar(2',marks numer(3''
$0 M%,T (SERT 9TH &,, FE,)S
S7V nsert all
nt" student $alues(,a,00'
nt" student $alues(2,,200'
nt" student $alues(3,c,300'
Select Q!r"m dept here deptn"0
3 r"s created
S7V Select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
------- -------- ----------
a 00
2 2003 c 300
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c0 M%,T (SERT 9TH SPECFE) FE,)S
S7V insert all
nt" student (n",name' $alues(:,d'
nt" student(name,marks' $alues(e,:00'
nt" student $alues(3,c,300'
Select Q!r"m dept here deptn"0
3 r"s created
S7V Select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
------ -------- ---------
a 00
2 2003 c 300
: d
e :00
3 c 3006 r"s selected
d0 M%,T (SERT 9TH )%P,C&TE RO9S
S7V insert all
nt" student $alues(,a,00'
nt" student $alues(2,,200'
nt" student $alues(3,c,300'
Select Q!r"m dept here deptn" V 0
? r"s created
-- This inserts ? r"s ecause in the select statement retrie$es 3 rec"rds (3 inserts !"r each r" retrie$ed'
S7V Select Q !r"m student N+ NM/ MRKS
------ ---- -- ---------
a 00
2 2003 c 300
: d
e :00
3 c 300
a 00
a 00
a 00
2 2002 200
2 200
3 c 300
3 c 300
3 c 300
; r"s selected
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e0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE)
S7V create tale m%tl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Ta$le created.
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IramI,'
row created.
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IsamI,222' row created.
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(ItamI,333'
row created.
S7V select Q !r"m m%tl
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
ram
"am <<<
tam ===
S7V create tale %"urtl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Ta$le created.
S7V create tale %"urtl2(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Ta$le created.
S7V create tale %"urtl3(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Ta$le created
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl
no row" "elected
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl2
no row" "elected
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl3
no row" "elected
S7V insert all
hen n" V then
int" %"urtl $alues(IramuI,'
hen name IsamI then
int" %"urtl2 $alues(IsamuI,2222'
hen name ItamI then
int" %"urtl3 $alues(ItamuI,3333'select Q !r"m m%tl here n" V
> row" created.
S7V select Q !r"m m%tl
(&ME (O
33333333333333333333 3333333333
ram
"am <<<
tam ===
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S7V create tale m%tl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''Tale created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IramI,'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IsamI,222'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(ItamI,333' r" created
S7V select Q !r"m m%tl
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram
sam 222
tam 333
S7V create tale %"urtl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl2(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl3(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl:(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V insert all
hen n" V then
int" %"urtl $alues(IramuI,'
hen name IsamI then
int" %"urtl2 $alues(IsamuI,2222'
hen name ItamI thenint" %"urtl3 $alues(ItamuI,3333'
else
int" %"urtl: $alues(Ich"ttaI,::::'
select Q !r"m m%tl here n" V
> row" created.
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu
ramu
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl2
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
samu 2222
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl3
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
tamu 3333
-0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE) &() FRST
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S7V create tale m%tl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IramI,'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IsamI,222'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(ItamI,333'
r" created
S7V create tale %"urtl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl2(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl3(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl:(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V select Q !r"m m%tl
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram
sam 222
tam 333
S7V insert !irst
hen n" then
int" %"urtl $alues(IramuI,'
hen name IsamI then
int" %"urtl2 $alues(IsamuI,2222'
hen name ItamI then
int" %"urtl3 $alues(ItamuI,3333'
select Q !r"m m%tl here nameIramI
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu
-- This inserts rec"rd ecause the !irst clause a$"id t" check the remaining c"nditi"ns "nce the c"nditi"n is satis!ied
h0 M%,T (SERT 9TH CO()TO(S B&SE)' FRST &() E,SE
S7V create tale m%tl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
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S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IramI,'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IsamI,222'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(ItamI,333'
r" created
S7V create tale %"urtl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl2(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl3(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl:(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''Tale created
S7V select Q !r"m m%tl NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ram
sam 222
tam 333
S7V insert !irst
hen n" then
int" %"urtl $alues(IramuI,'
hen name IamI then
int" %"urtl2 $alues(IsamuI,2222'
hen name ItamI thenint" %"urtl3 $alues(ItamuI,3333'
else
int" %"urtl: $alues(IkamuI,::::'
select Q !r"m m%tl here nameIramI
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl2
n" r"s selected
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl3n" r"s selected
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl:
n" r"s selected
i0 M%,T (SERT 9TH M%,TB,E T&B,ES
S7V create tale m%tl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
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S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IramI,'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(IsamI,222'
r" created
S7V insert int" m%tl $alues(ItamI,333'
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m m%tl
NM/ N+-------------------- ----------
ram
sam 222tam 333
S7V create tale %"urtl(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl2(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl3(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V create tale %"urtl:(name $archar2(20',n" numer(0''
Tale created
S7V insert all
int" %"urtl $alues(IramuI,'
int" %"urtl2 $alues(IsamuI,22222'
int" %"urtl3 $alues(ItamuI,33333'
int" %"urtl: $alues(IkamuI,:::::'select Q !r"m m%tl here nameIramI
: r"s created
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
ramu
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl2
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
samu 22222
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl3
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
tamu 33333
S7V select Q !r"m %"urtl:
NM/ N+
-------------------- ----------
kamu :::::
QQ H"u can use multi tales ith speci!ied !ields, ith duplicate r"s, ith c"nditi"ns, ith !irst and else clausesGROUP BY
#sing gr"up %, e can create gr"ups "! related in!"rmati"n &"lumns used in select must e used ith gr"up %
"therise it as n"t a gr"up % e9pressi"n
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E1:
S7V select Q !r"m emp
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
------------ --------------- ------------------ ------- ---------------- --------- ---------------
<36? SMTA &/RK ;00 <-D/&->0 >000 200
<:?? /N S/SMN ;002 20-G/1->0 3000 300
<;2 =RD S/SMN ;003 22-G/1->0 ;000 ;00
<:?? RM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N->< 2000;;200
<;66 +N/S MN/R ;002 02-)R->; <;000 200<;2 SM K#MR SRS/SMN ;003 22-N-<; 22000 300
6 r"s selected
S7V select @" !r"m /M) gr"up % @"
+1
--------------------
&/RK
S/SMN
SRS/SMN
MN/R
S7V select @",S#M(S' !r"m /M) gr"up % @"
+1 S#M(S'----------------- ----------
&/RK >000
S/SMN >000
SRS/SMN 3:000;;
MN/R <;000
H&!(6
This ill "rk as here clause hich can e used "nl% ith gr"up % ecause "! asence "! here clause in gr"up %
S7V select deptn",@",sum(sal' T"talPSalar%P+!P/achPDept
!r"m emp gr"up % deptn",@" ha$ing sum(sal' V 3000
D/)TN+ +1 T+TPSRHP+GP/&APD/)T---------- ---- ---------------- -------------------------
200 MN/R <;000
200 SRS/SMN 2000;;
200 &/RK >000
;00 S/SMN ;000
300 SRS/SMN 22000
S7V select deptn",@",sum(sal' T"talPSalar%P"!P/achPDept !r"m emp
gr"up % deptn",@"
ha$ing sum(sal' V 3000
"rder % @"
D/)TN+ +1 T+TPSRHP+GP/&APD/)T
3333333333 33333333333333333 333333333333333333333333200 &/RK >000
200 MN/R <;000
;00 S/SMN ;000
200 SRS/SMN 2000;;
300 SRS/SMN 22000
%S(6 )E,ETE
S7V select Q !r"m /M)/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
---------- ---------- ------------------ -------- ---------------- -------- ---------------
00 RM &/RK ;00 <-D/&->: >000 30
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002 SM MN/R ;00 -N-> >;000 30
003 SM# S/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
00: RM# SRS/SMN ;002 22-#N->; :;000 303
S7V D//T/ /M) =A/R/ /NM/ISMI
r" deleted
S7V select Q !r"m /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
----------- ------------ ------------- -------- ------------------ ---------- -----------------
00 RM &/RK ;00 <-D/&->: >000 30003 SM# S/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
00: RM# SRS/SMN ;002 22-#N->; :;000 303
S7V D//T/ /M) =A/R/ /NM/ K/ IRPPI r" deleted
S7V select Q !r"m /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
----------- ----------- -------- ------- ---------------- --------- ------------003 SM# S/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
00: RM# SRS/SMN ;002 22-#N->; :;000 303
S7V D//T/ GR+M /M) =A/R/ /NM/ISM#I
r" deleted
TO )E,ETE &,, RECOR)S
S7V D//T/ GR+M /M)
r" deleted
)E,ETE )%P,C&TE RO9S
S7V S//&T Q GR+M m%T1 NM/ MRK
--------- ----------
RM 0
RM 0SM 02
SM 02
RM#
RM#SM# 03
SM# 03
SM# 03
TMR ;;;
K 23
2 r"s selected
S7V delete !r"m m%T1 there tr"id V (select min(t2r"D' !r"m m%T1 t2
here tname t2name and tmark t2mark': r"s deleted
S7V S//&T Q GR+M m%T1
NM/ MRK
--------- ----------
RM 0
SM 02RM#
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SM# 03
TM
R ;;;
K 23
> r"s selected
%"in- %P)&TE
S7V select Q !r"m /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+------------ ------------ ----------- --------- --------------- --------- ------------------00 RM &/RK ;00 <-D/&->: >000 30
002 SM MN/R ;00 -N-> >;000 30
003 SM# S/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
S7V #)DT/ /M) S/T S ;;;;;,+1 ISRMN/RI =A/R/ /NM/ K/ IRPPI
r" updated
S7V select Q !r"m /M)/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
---------- -------------- ------------------ -------- ------------- ------- ---------------
00 RM SRMN/R ;00 <-D/&->: ;;;;; 30
002 SM MN/R ;00 -N-> >;000 30003 SM# S/SMN ;003 0?-G/1->2 >000 302
S7V #)DT/ /M) S/T S ;;;;;,+1 ISRMN/RI
3 r"s updated
S7V select Q !r"m /M)
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
---------- ----------- ------------------ ------- --------------- --------- -------------00 RM SRMN/R ;00 <-D/&->: ;;;;; 30
002 SM SRMN/R ;00 -N-> ;;;;; 30
003 SM# SRMN/R ;003 0?-G/1->2 ;;;;; 302
RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r )er!"rming nserti"n, Deleti"n, M"di!%ing, ltering, #pdating an
.ieing rec"rds ased "n c"nditi"ns has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
Creation of !iew"' Snonm"' Se;#ence' nde1e"' Sa5e 2oint.
E1: (o: D= /=.0 VIEWS
: :
&M:
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T" create the $ie, e9ecute and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "n $ies
OBJECT!E:
• .ies Aelps t" encapsulate c"mple9 8uer% and make it reusale
• )r"$ides user securit% "n each $ie - it depends "n %"ur data p"lic% securit%
• #sing $ie t" c"n$ert units - i! %"u ha$e a !inancial data in #S currenc%, %"u can create $ie t"
c"n$ert them int" /ur" !"r $ieing in /ur" currenc%
$ie is n"thing m"re than a S7 statement that is st"red in the dataase ith an ass"ciated name $ie
is actuall% a c"mp"siti"n "! a tale in the !"rm "! a prede!ined S7 8uer%
$ie can c"ntain all r"s "! a tale "r select r"s !r"m a tale $ie can e created !r"m "ne "r man%
tales hich depends "n the ritten S7 8uer% t" create a $ie
.ies, hich are kind "! $irtual tales, all" users t" d" the !"ll"ingB
• Structure data in a a% that users "r classes "! users !ind natural "r intuiti$e
• Restrict access t" the data such that a user can see and (s"metimes' m"di!% e9actl% hat the% need
and n" m"re
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) B Start the DM1S
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting dataase(D1'
ST/) 3B &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
ST/) :B nsert rec"rd $alues int" the tale
ST/) ;B &reate the $ie !r"m the a"$e created tale
ST/) 6B Displa% the data presented "n the ./=
ST/) <B nsert the rec"rds int" the ./=,
ST/) >B &heck the dataase "@ect tale and $ie the inserted $alues presented
ST/) ?B /9ecute di!!erent &"mmands and e9tract in!"rmati"n !r"m the .ie
ST/) 0B St"p the D1MS
COMM&()S E7EC%TO(
CRE&TO( OF T&B,E:
Dataase $ies are created using the CRE&TE !E9 statement .ies can e created !r"m a
single tale, multiple tales, "r an"ther $ie T" create a $ie, a user must ha$e the appr"priate s%stem
pri$ilege acc"rding t" the speci!ic implementati"n
S7V &R/T/ T1/ EMP,OEE (
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/M)+H//PNM/ .R&AR2(0',
/M)+H//PN+ N#M1/R(>',D/)TPNM/ .R&AR2(0',
D/)TPN+ N#M1/R (;',
DT/P+GP+N DT/
'
Tale created
T&B,E )ESCRPTO(:
S7V D/S& EMP,OEE
NM/ N#] TH)/
---------------------------- ------------------------
/M)+H//PNM/ .R&AR2(0'
/M)+H//PN+ N#M1/R(>'
D/)TPNM/ .R&AR2(0'D/)TPN+ N#M1/R(;'
DT/P+GP+N DT/
CRE&TE !E9
S%(T&7 FOR CRE&TO( OF !E9
CREATE ,OR REPLACE- ,FORCE - VIEW .i$/n!0$ ,(co#u0n1n!0$2 co#u0n1n!0$)-AS Qu$%* ,/it& c&$c3 o4tion-5
CRE&TO( OF !E9
S7V &R/T/ ./= EMP!E9 S S//&T /M)+H//PNM/,/M)+H//PN+,
D/)TPNM/,
D/)TPN+,
DT/P+GP+N GR+M EMP,OEE
.ie &reated
)ESCRPTO( OF !E9
S7V D/S& /M)./=
NM/ N#] TH)/
---------------------- ----------------------------
/M)+H//PNM/ .R&AR2(0'
/M)+H//PN+ N#M1/R(>'D/)TPNM/ .R&AR2(0'
D/)TPN+ N#M1/R(;'
)SP,& !E9:
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)./=
/M)+H//PN /M)+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- ---------------
R. 2: /&/ >?
.H 3:; &S/ 2
R ?> T 22
R 00 &S/ 6<
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(SERTO( OF !&,%ES (TO !E9
R"s "! data can e inserted int" a $ie The same rules that appl% t" the #)DT/ c"mmand als" appl% t
the NS/RT c"mmand Aere, e can n"t insert r"s in &#ST+M/RSP./= ecause e ha$e n"t included all th
N+T N# c"lumns in this $ie, "therise %"u can insert r"s in a $ie in similar a% as %"u insert them in a tal
(SERT ST&TEME(T S(T&7:
S7V NS/RT NT+ U./=PNM/V (&+#MN NM/, X' .#/S(.#/,X'
COMM&():
S7V NS/RT NT+ /M)./= .#/S (ISRI, 20,I&S/I, 6<,I6-N+.-?>I'
R+= &R/T/D
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)./=
/M)+H//PN /M)+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- --------------
R. 2: /&/ >?
.H 3:; &S/ 2R ?> T 22
R 00 &S/ 6<
SR 20 &S/ 6<
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
/M)+H//PN /M)+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+ DT/P+GP
-------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- -------------- -----------------
R. 2: /&/ >? ;-#N-0;
.H 3:; &S/ 2 2-#N-06
R ?> T 22 30-S/)-06
R 00 &S/ 6< :-N+.->
SR 20 &S/ 6< 6-N+.->
)E,ETO( OF !E9:
R"s "! data can e deleted !r"m a $ie The same rules that appl% t" the #)DT/ and NS/RT c"mmands
appl% t" the D//T/ c"mmand
)E,ETE ST&TEME(T S(T&7:
S7V D//T/ U./=PNM/V=A/R/ U&+#MN NM/V .#/
Command:
S7V D//T/ GR+M /M)./= =A/R/ /M)+H//PNM/ISRI
r" deleted
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)./=
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/M)+H//PN /M)+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------ ----------------R. 2: /&/ >?
.H 3:; &S/ 2
R ?> T 22
R 00 &S/ 6<
%P)&TE ST&TEME(T:
$ie can e updated under certain c"nditi"nsB
• The S//&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain the ke%"rd DSTN&T
• The S//&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain summar% !uncti"ns
• The S//&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain set !uncti"ns
• The S//&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain set "perat"rs
• The S//&T clause ma% n"t c"ntain an +RD/R 1H clause
• The GR+M clause ma% n"t c"ntain multiple tales
• The =A/R/ clause ma% n"t c"ntain su8ueries
• The 8uer% ma% n"t c"ntain R+#) 1H "r A.N
• &alculated c"lumns ma% n"t e updated
• ll N+T N# c"lumns !r"m the ase tale must e included in the $ie in "rder!"r the NS/RT 8uer% t" !uncti"n
S(T&7:
S7V#)DT/ U./=PNM/V S/TU &+#MN NM/V U&+#MN NM/V CU./=V=A/R/ U&+#MN NM/V.#/
Command:
S7V #)DT/ /M)K../= S/T /M)+H//PNM/IK.I =A/R/ /M)+H//PNM/IR.I
r" updated
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)K../=/M)+H//PN /M)+H//PN+ D/)TPNM/ D/)TPN+
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- ----------------
K. 2: /&/ >?
.H 3:; &S/ 2
R ?> T 22
R 00 &S/ 6<
)ROP & !E9:
+$i"usl%, here %"u ha$e a $ie, %"u need a a% t" dr"p the $ie i! it is n" l"nger needed
S(T&7:
S7V DR+) ./= U./=PNM/V
E7&MP,E
S7VDR+) ./= /M)./=
$ie dr"ped
CRE&TE & !E9 9TH SE,ECTE) FE,)S:
S(T&7:
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S7V&R/T/ Y+R R/)&/Z ./= U./= NM/VS S//&T U&+#MN NM/VXGR+M
UT1/ NM/V
E7&MP,E3<:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= /M)P./= S S//&T /M)N+, /NM/,SRH GR+M /M)
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)P./=
E7&MP,E3=:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= /M)P./=2 S S//&T Q GR+M /M) =A/R/ D/)TN+0
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)P./=2
(ote:
Replace is the ke%"ard t" a$"id the err"r J"raP00?;Bname is alread% used % an e9isting a@ect
CH&(6(6 THE CO,%M(/S0 (&ME M THE !E9 )%R(6 &S SE,ECT
ST&TEME(T:
TPE3:
S+,L &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= /M)PT+TS(/D,NM/,S' S S//&T /M)N+, /NM/,SRH
GR+M /M)
.ie created
/M)N+ /NM/ S RH
----------- -------------- ------------
<36? SMTA 000
<:?? MRK 0;0
<;6; = ;00<6<> +AN >00
<;<> T+M ;00
<;:> T#RN/R ;00
6 r"s selected
.ie created
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)PT+TS
/M)N+ /NM/ SRH MRN+ D/)TN+
------------ ------------ ------------- ------------- -------------
<;<> T+M ;00 <2?> 0
<;:> T#RN/R ;00 <2?> 0.ie created
TPE3<:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= /M)PT+TS S S//&T /M)N+ /D,
/NM/ NM/, SRH S GR+M /M)
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)PT+TS
E7&MP,E FOR JO( !E9:
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TPE3=:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= D/)TP/M) S S//&T /M)N+ /D,
/NM/ /M)NM/,
D/)TN+ DN+,
1DNM/ DPNM/,
1+& DP+&
GR+M /M) ,D/)MT 1 =A/R/ D/)TN+1D/)TN+
S7V S//&T Q GR+M D/)TP/M)
/D NM/ S
-------- ---------- ---------- ----------
<36? SMTA 000
<:?? MRK 0;0
<;6; = ;00
<6<> +AN >00
<;<> T+M ;00
<;:> T#RN/R ;006 r"s selected
.ie created
/D NM/ S
--------- ----------- ----------
<36? SMTA 000
<:?? MRK 0;0
<;6; = ;00
<6<> +AN >00
<;<> T+M ;00
<;:> T#RN/R ;00
6 r"s selected
.ie created
/D /M)NM/ DN+ DPNM/ DP+&
---------- ---------------- ---------- ----------------- ----------------------
<;<> T+M 0 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<;:> T#RN/R 0 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<36? SMTA 20 S/S &A&+
<6<> +AN 20 S/S &A&+<:?? MRK 30 R/S/R&A O#R&A
<;6; = 30 R/S/R&A O#R&A
!E9 RE&) O(, &() CHEC8 OPTO(:
RE&) O(, C,&%SE:
H"u can create a $ie ith read "nl% "pti"n hich enale "ther t" "nl% 8uer% n" DM "perati"n can e
per!"rmed t" this t%pe "! a $ie
E7&MP,E3>:
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S7V&R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= /M)PN+PDM S S//&T Q GR+M /M) =TA R/D +NH
9TH CHEC8 OPTO( C,&%SE:
E7&MP,E3>:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= /M)P&KP+)T+N S S//&T /M)N+, /NM/, SRH, D/)TN+
GR+M /M) =A/R/ D/)TN+0 =TA &A/&K +)T+N
S7V S//&T Q GR+M /M)P&KP+)T+N
JO( !E9:
E7&MP,E3?:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ ./= D/)TP/M)P./= S S//&T /M)N+,
/NM/,
D/)TN+,
1DNM/,
1+&
GR+M /M) , D/)MT 1
=A/R/ D/)TN+1D/)TN+
S7V S//&T Q GR+M D/)TP/M)P./=
.ie created
/M)N+ /NM/ SRH D/)TN+
----------- ------------- --------------- --------------
<;<> T+M ;00 0
<;:> T#RN/R ;00 0
.ie created
/M)N+/NM/D/)TN+ DNM/ +&
----------- ------------ ------------- ------------- -------
<;<> T+M 0 &&+#NT N/= H+RK <;:> T#RN/R 0 &&+#NT N/= H+RK
<36? SMTA 20 S/S &A&+
<6<> +AN 20 S/S &A&+
<:?? MRK 30 R/S/R&A O#R&A<;6; = 30 R/S/R&A O#R&A
6 r"s selected
FORCE !E9:
E7&MP,E3@:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ G+R&/ ./= MH./= S S//&T Q GR+M EHO
S7V S//&T Q GR+M MH./=
S7V &R/T/ T1/ EHO S S//&T /M)N+,/NM/,SRH,D/)TN+ GR+M /M)
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S7V S//&T Q GR+M EHO
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ G+R&/ ./= MH./= S S//&T Q GR+M EHO
S7V S//&T Q GR+M MH./=
=arningB .ie created ith c"mpilati"n err"rs
S//&T Q GR+M MH./=
Q
/RR+R at line B
+R-0:063B $ie :03?MH./= has err"rs
Tale created
/M)N+ /NM/ SRH D/)TN+
---------- -------------------- ---------- ---------- -----------------<36? SMTA 000 20
<:?? MRK 0;0 30
<;6; = ;00 30
<6<> +AN >00 20
<;<> T+M ;00 0<;:> T#RN/R ;00 0
6 r"s selected
.ie created
/M)N+ /NM/ SRH D/)TN+
----------- ------------- ------------- ---------------
<36? SMTA 000 20
<:?? MRK 0;0 30
<;6; = ;00 30
<6<> +AN >00 20
<;<> T+M ;00 0
<;:> T#RN/R ;00 06 r"s selected
COMP,(6 & !E9:
S(T&7:
T/R ./= U./=PNM/V &+M)/
E7&MP,E:
S7V T/R ./= MH./= &+M)/
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S%n"n%ms are "!ten used !"r securit% and c"n$enience G"r e9ample, the% can d" the !"ll"ingB
• Mask the name and "ner "! an "@ect
• )r"$ide l"cati"n transparenc% !"r rem"te "@ects "! a distriuted dataase
• Simpli!% S7 statements !"r dataase users
• /nale restricted access similar t" specialiFed $ies hen e9ercising !ine-grained access c"ntr"l
H"u can create "th pulic and pri$ate s%n"n%ms 2#$lic s%n"n%m is "ned % the special user gr"up
named )#1& and e$er% user in a dataase can access it 2ri5ate s%n"n%m is in the schema "! a speci!i
user h" has c"ntr"l "$er its a$ailailit% t" "thers
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) B Start the DM1S
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting dataase(D1'ST/) 3B &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
ST/) :B nsert rec"rd $alues int" the tale
ST/) ;B &reate the s%n"n%ms !r"m the a"$e created tale "r an% data "@ect
ST/) 6B Displa% the data presented "n the s%n"n%ms
ST/) <B nsert the rec"rds int" the s%n"n%ms,
ST/) >B &heck the dataase "@ect tale and $ie the inserted $alues presented
ST/) ?B St"p the D1MS
E1am2le:
Snta1:
S+,LCRE&TE S(O(M s%n"n%mName FOR "@ect
+R
S+,L&R/T/ SHN+NHM tt !"r te"tI
Dependent +@ect - tt (SHN+NHM NM/ '
Re!erenced +@ect - te"t (T1/ NM/'
%S&6E:
• #sing emp %"u can per!"rm DM "perati"n as %"u ha$e create s%sn"nm !"r tale "@ect !
empl"%ees tale is dr"pped then status "! emp ill e in$alid
• "cal Dependencies are aut"maticall% managed % "racle ser$er
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COMM&()S:
CRE&TE THE T&B,E
S7V &R/T/ T1/ studentPtale(RegPN" numer(;',NM/ $archar2(;',MRK numer(3''
Tale created
(SERT THE !&,%ES (TO THE T&B,E
S7V insert int" studentPtale $alues(000,IramI,>;'
r" created
S7V insert int" studentPtale $alues(0002,IsamI,<;'
r" created
S7V insert int" studentPtale $alues(0003,IsamuI,?;'
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPT1/
R/PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ --------- ----------
000 ram >;
0002 sam <;
0003 samu ?;
CRE&TE THE S(O(M FROM T&B,E
S7V &R/T/ SHN+NHM ST#D/NTPSHN+NHM G+R ST#D/NTPT1/
S%n"n%m created
)SP,& THE !&,%ES OF T&B,E B %S(6 THE SS(O(M
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPSHN+NHM
R/PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ------------- ----------
000 ram >;
0002 sam <;
0003 samu ?;
(SERT THE !&,%ES TO THE S(O(M
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S7V insert int" studentPSHN+NHM $alues(0006,IRI,>0'
r" created
)SP,& THE !&,%ES ( BOTH T&B,E &() S(O(M
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPT1/
R/PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ----------- ----------
000 ram >;
0002 sam <;
0003 samu ?;
0006 R >0
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPSHN+NHMR/PN+ NM/ MRK
----------- --------- ---------
000 ram >;
0002 sam <;
0003 samu ?;
0006 R >0
O% C&( %P)&TE THE T&B,E B %S(6 S(O(M
S7V #)DT/ ST#D/NTPSHN+NHM S/T MRK00 =A/R/ R/PN+0006
r" updated
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPSHN+NHM
R/PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ----------- ----------------
000 ram >;
0002 sam <;
0003 samu ?;
0006 R 00
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPT1/
R/PN+ NM/ MRK
------------ ------------- ---------
000 ram >;
0002 sam <;
0003 samu ?;
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• =hether the se8uence ascends "r descends
• The inter$al eteen numers
• =hether +racle Dataase sh"uld cache sets "! generated se8uence numers in mem"r%
&,6ORTHM:
Step B Start the DM1S
Step 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting dataase (D1'
Step 3B &reate the se8uence ith its essential "pti"nal parameter
Step :B Displa% the data presented "n the se8uence % using pseud" c"lumn
Step ;B lter the se8uence ith di!!erent "pti"nal parameter
Step 6B Dr"p the se8uence
Step <B St"p the D1MS
Creatin- a Se;#ence
H"u create a se8uence using the &R/T/ S/7#/N&/ statement, hich has the !"ll"ing
S(T&7:
S+,LCRE&TE SE+%E(CE se8uencePname
YST&RT 9TH startPnumZ
Y(CREME(T B incrementPnumZ
Y [ M&7!&,%E ma9imumPnum ^ (OM&7!&,%E \ Z
Y [ M(!&,%E minimumPnum ^ (OM(!&,%E \ Z
Y [ CC,E ^ (OCC,E \ Z
Y [ C&CHE cachePnum ^ (OC&CHE \ Z
Y [ OR)ER ^ (OOR)ER \ Z
=here
• sequence_name is the name "! the se8uence
• start_num is the integer t" start the se8uence The de!ault start numer is
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• increment_num is the integer t" increment the se8uence % The de!ault increment numer is Th
as"lute $alue "! increment_num must e less than the di!!erence eteen maximum_num an
minimum_num
• maximum_num is the ma9imum integer "! the se8uence maximum_num must e greater than "
e8ual t" start_num, and maximum_num must e greater than minimum_num
• (OM&7!&,%E speci!ies the ma9imum is 02< !"r an ascending se8uence "r * !"r a descendin
se8uence N+ME.#/ is the de!ault
• minimum_num is the minimum integer "! the se8uence minimum_num must e less than "r e8ual t
start_num, and minimum_num must e less than maximum_num
• (OM(!&,%E speci!ies the minimum is !"r an ascending se8uence "r *026 !"r a descendin
se8uence N+MN.#/ is the de!ault
• CC,E means the se8uence generates integers e$en a!ter reaching its ma9imum "r minimum $alue
=hen an ascending se8uence reaches its ma9imum $alue, the ne9t $alue generated is the minimum=hen a descending se8uence reaches its minimum $alue, the ne9t $alue generated is the ma9imum
• (OCC,E means the se8uence cann"t generate an% m"re integers a!ter reaching its ma9imum "
minimum $alue N+&H&/ is the de!ault
• cache_num is the numer "! integers t" keep in mem"r% The de!ault numer "! integers t" cache i
20 The minimum numer "! integers that ma% e cached is 2 The ma9imum integers that ma%
cached is determined % the !"rmula &/(maximum_num - minimum_num'41S(increment_num'
• (OC&CHE means n" caching This st"ps the dataase !r"m pre-all"cating $alues !"r the se8uence
hich pre$ents numeric gaps in the se8uence ut reduces per!"rmance aps "ccur ecause cache
$alues are l"st hen the dataase is shut d"n ! %"u "mit &&A/ and N+&&A/, the dataas
caches 20 se8uence numers % de!ault
• OR)ER guarantees the integers are generated in the "rder "! the re8uest H"u t%picall% use +RD/R
hen using Real pplicati"n &lusters, hich are set up and managed % dataase administrat"rs
(OOR)ER d"esnt guarantee the integers are generated in the "rder "! the re8uest N++RD/R
is the de!ault
E1am2le:
Command:
S7V &R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se8N&R/M/NT 1H
STRT ith
ME.#/ ;
MN.#/ 0
Se;#ence created.
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alter S/7#/N&/ se8
ma9$alue 2;
N&R/M/NT 1H 2
c%cle
cache 2
dr"p S/7#/N&/ se8
E7&MP,E: <
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se82
N&R/M/NT 1H
start ith
ma9$alue ;
min$alue 0
c%cle
&&A/ :
E7&MP,E: =
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se83
N&R/M/NT 1H -
start ith 2
ma9$alue ;
min$alue 0
E7&MP,E: >
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se83
N&R/M/NT 1H -
start ith 2
ma9$alue ;
min$alue 0
c%cle
cache :
E7&MP,E: ?
&R/T/ S/7#/N&/ se8
N&R/M/NT 1H
start ith
ma9$alue 0
min$alue 0
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nde1
The inde9es are special "@ects hich uilt "n t"p "! tales The inde9es can d" "perati"n lik
S//&T , D//T/ and #)DT/ statement !aster t" manipulate a large am"unt "! data n ND/E ca
als" e called a tale and it has a data structure n ND/E is created "n c"lumns "! a tale +ne tale ma%
c"ntain "ne "r m"re ND/E tales
The S+, ()E7 doe" the followin-:
• ND/E/S can l"cate in!"rmati"n ithin a dataase $er% !ast
• n ND/E makes a catal"g "! r"s "! a dataase tale as r" can e p"inted ithin a !racti"n "!
time ith a minimum e!!"rt
• tale ND/E is a dataase structure hich arranges the $alues "! "ne "r m"re c"lumns in a
speci!ic "rder
• The per!"rmance "! an ND/E can n"t e rec"gniFed much hen dealing ith relati$el% small
tales
• ND/E can "rk pr"perl% and 8uickl% !"r the c"lumns that ha$e man% di!!erent $alues
•
t takes a l"ng time t" !ind an in!"rmati"n !"r "ne "r c"minati"n "! c"lumns !r"m a tale henthere are th"usands "! rec"rds in the tale n that case i! inde9es are created "n that c"lumns, hich
are accessed !re8uentl%, the in!"rmati"n can e retrie$ed 8uickl%
• The ND/E !irst s"rts the data and then it assigns an identi!icati"n !"r each r"
• The ND/E tale ha$ing "nl% t" c"lumns, "ne is a r"id and an"ther is inde9ed-c"lumn ("rdered
• =hen data is retrie$ed !r"m a dataase tale ased "n the inde9ed-c"lumn, the inde9 p"inter
searches the r"id and 8uickl% l"cates that p"siti"nin the actual tale and displa% the r"s s"ught
!"r
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How it differ from 5iew
• n ND/E is als" a tale S" it has a data structure
• ND/E/S are p"inters that represents the ph%sical address "! a data
• n ND/E is created "n c"lumns "! a tale
• n ND/E makes a catal"g ased "n "ne "r m"re c"lumns "! a tale
• +ne tale ma% c"ntain "ne "r m"re ND/E tales
• n ND/E can e created "n a single c"lumn "r c"minati"n "! c"lumns "! a dataase tale
T2e" of nde1e":
Simple nde9
2 &"mp"site nde9
Command
S&MP,E T&B,E:
S7V S//&T Q GR+M ST#D/NTPT1
SPN+ R/PN+ NM/ S/E D+1 T+TP)/R&/NT/ M+1/PN+ DDR/SS 1++D
--------- ------------ -------------------- ------ ----------- ------------------------------- ----------------- ------------- ------- 000 RM M -D/&->; <; ?<;6:3;<>? )+TN"B3046 1& 1C
2 0002 R M 6-N-<: ><; ?:;6:3;:;> 1& Nager +C3 0003 NRM G 22-G/1->< ?;; ?:63;: SKTA Nager C
: 000: nitha G 0;-MR->< 6:3 ?:63;;;; NN Nager 1
Sim2le nde1:
=hen inde9 is created "n "ne c"lumn it is called as simple inde9
Snta1:
&R/T/ ND/E UND/EPNM/V +N UT1/PNM/V (&+PNM/'
E1:
S7V create inde9 m%nde9 "n studentPtl(name'
nde9 created
note"
• nde9 sh"uld e created "n c"lumns hich e regularl% use in the here clause
•
=hen a inde9 is created a separate structure is created ith !irst c"lumn is R+=D and sec"ndc"lumn as inde9ed c"lumn
• The R"s in the inde9 ill e arranged in the ascending "rder "! inde9ed c"lumn
Com2o"ite nde1:
hen nde9 is created multiple c"lumns it is called c"mp"site inde9
E1:
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S7V create inde9 m%&"mpnde9 "n studentPtl(D+1,DDR/SS'
nde9 created
The a"$e inde9 mCom2nde1 is used "nl% hen "th the c"lumns are used in the here clause
)i"ad5anta-e" of inde1:
• nde9 ill c"nsume mem"r%
• The per!"rmance "! DM c"mmand ill e decreased
nde9 can als" e categ"riFed t" t%pesB
#ni8ue inde9
2 N"n-uni8ue inde9
%ni;#e nde1:
• ! the inde9ed c"lumn c"ntains uni8ue $alue it is called uni8ue inde9
• uni8ue inde9 is aut"maticall% created =hen e create a tale ith primar% ke% c"nstraint "r
uni8ue c"nstraint
Cmd
S7V create uni8ue inde9 m%nde9 "n studentPtl(name'
(on3#ni;#e inde1:
! an inde9 c"lumn c"ntains duplicated $alues the% are called as n"n-uni8ue inde9
See to inde1 ta$le":
S7V Select inde9Pname !r"m userPinde9es
ND/EPNM/
-----------------------
MH&+M)ND/E
MHND/E
SHSP&006:
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7uer% t" see list "! all the inde9es
S7V Select ND/EPNM/,T1/PNM/ !r"m userPinde9es
ND/EPNM/ T1/PNM/
------------------------------ ------------------------------
SHSP&006: T1P)K/H
MH&+M)ND/E ST#D/NTPT1MHND/E ST#D/NTPT1
7uer% t" see list "! all the inde9es al"ng ith c"lumn name
S7V Select inde9Pname, talePname, c"lumnPname !r"m userPindPc"lumns
ND/EPNM/ T1/PNM/ &+#MNPNM/
-------------------- ------------------- ------------------------MH&+M)ND/E ST#D/NTPT1 DDR/SS
MH&+M)ND/E ST#D/NTPT1 D+1
MHND/E ST#D/NTPT1 NM/.
S7V Desc userPinde9es
S7V Desc userPindPc"lumns
F#nction $a"ed inde1:
=hen inde9 is created % using !uncti"ns it is called as !uncti"n ased inde9
E1:
S7V &R/T/ ND/E m%Guncnde9 +N ST#D/NTPT1(l"er(name''
nde9 created
To dro2 on inde1:
E1:
S7V dr"p inde9 inde9P"!PstudentPtl
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RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r creati"n and $ari"us "perati"ns "n nde9es has een $eri!ied and
e9ecuted success!ull%
S&!E PO(T
E1: (o: D= /=.?0
: :
&M:
T" create the S./ )+NT !"r the transacti"n and $eri!% the $ari"us "perati"ns "! T& c"mmands
OBJECT!E:
The S&!EPO(T statement names and marks the current p"int in the pr"cessing "! a transacti"n
=ith the RO,,B&C8 TO statement, sa$ep"ints und" parts "! a transacti"n instead "! the h"l
transacti"n
n implicit sa$ep"int is marked e!"re e9ecuting an (SERT' %P)&TE' or )E,ETE statement
the statement !ails, a r"llack t" the implicit sa$ep"int is d"ne N"rmall%, @ust the !ailed S7 statement i
r"lled ack, n"t the h"le transacti"n i! the statement raises an unhandled e9cepti"n, the h"st en$ir"nment
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) B Start the DM1S
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting dataase (D1'
ST/) 3B &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
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ST/) :B nsert rec"rd $alues int" the tale "r per!"rm an% kind "! DM "perati"n
ST/) ;B &reate the S&!E PO(Ts !"r s"me set "! statement "n the transacti"n "! dataase "@ect
ST/) 6B #se the COMMT c"mmand t" sa$e the e!!ect "! the pre$i"us c"mmand "perati"n e9cept DD
c"mmand
ST/) <B #se the RO,,B&C8 TO SP,&B,E 4 RO,,B&C8 c"mmand !"r rest"re the dataase status
up t" the sa$e p"int
ST/) >B &heck the status "! the dataase
ST/) ?B St"p the D1MS
Snta1B
S./)+NTUS./)+NTPNM/V
E1B
S7V create tale +RD/RP)R+&/SSN(
+rderPD numer(3',
)r"ductPD $archar2(0',
7uantit% numer(3,2',
)rice numer(:,2'
'
Ta$le created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(0,IR&/-22I,I6;I,I30;0I'
row created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(02,I+I,I20I,I?0;0I'
row created.
S7V S//&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SSN
+RD/RPD )R+D#&TPD 7#NTTH )R&/
-------------- ---------------- -------------- ----------
0 R&/-22 6; 30;
02 + 2 ?0;
S7V COMMTI
Commit com2lete
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S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(03,I1SI,I2I,I?;I'
row created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(0:,I=T/R 1+TSI,I2I,I20I'
row created.
S7V S&!EPO(T &I
Sa5e2oint created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(0;,I/I,I>I,I:0;0I'
row created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(06,ISAM)++I,II,I<;;0I'
row created.
S7V S&!EPO(T BI
Sa5e2oint created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(0<,I1R S+)I,II,I:;;0I'
row created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(0>,IT+N/RI,II,I<;;0I'
row created.
S7V S&!EPO(T CI
Sa5e2oint created.
S7V insert int" +RD/RP)R+&/SSN $alues(0?,IS#RI,I20I,I60;0I'
row created.
S7V S//&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SSN
+RD/RPD )R+D#&TPD 7#NTTH )R&/
-------------- ---------------- --------------- ----------
0 R&/-22 6; 30;
02 + 2 ?0;
03 1S 2 ?;
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0: =T/R 1+TS 2 20
0; / > :0;
06 SAM)++ <;;
0< 1R S+) :;;
0> T+N/R <;;
0? S#R 2 60;
? r"s selected
S7V R+1&K T+ 1
Roll$ack com2lete.
S7V S//&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SSN
+RD/RPD )R+D#&TPD 7#NTTH )R&/---------------- ------------------- -------------- -------------
0 R&/-22 6; 30;
02 + 2 ?0;
03 1S 2 ?;
0: =T/R 1+TS 2 20
0; / > :0;
06 SAM)++ <;;
6 r"s selected
S7V R+1&K T+
Roll$ack com2lete.
S7V S//&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SSN
+RD/RPD )R+D#&TPD 7#NTTH )R&/
---------------- -------------------- ---------------- ------------
0 R&/-22 6; 30;
02 + 2 ?0;
03 1S 2 ?;
0: =T/R 1+TS 2 20
S7V R+1&K
Roll$ack com2lete.
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S7V S//&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SSN
+RD/RPD )R+D#&TPD 7#NTTH )R&/
--------------- -------------------- ---------------- -------------
0 R&/-22 6; 30;
02 + 2 ?0;
S7V R+1&K
Roll$ack com2lete.
S7V S//&T Q GR+M +RD/RP)R+&/SSN
+RD/RPD )R+D#&TPD 7#NTTH )R&/
---------------- ------------------- ---------------- -----------
0 R&/-22 6; 30;
02 + 2 ?0;
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RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r creati"n and $ari"us "perati"ns "n transacti"n (T& &+MMND'
sa$e p"int has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
Creatin- an Em2loee data$a"e to "et 5ario#" con"traint" in R)BMS
E1: (o: D>
: :
&M:
t the end "! this e9ercise students are ale
• T" di!!erentiate eteen sel! re!erential c"nstraints and !"reign ke% c"nstraint
• T" re!er a !ield "! a gi$en tale "r an"ther tale % using !"reign ke%
• T" appl% check c"nstraint 5 de!ault c"nstraint in an e!!ecti$e manner
&,6ORTHM:
ST/) B Start the DM1S
ST/) 2B &"nnect t" the e9isting dataase (D1'
ST/) 3B &reate the tale ith its essential c"nstraint
ST/) :B nsert rec"rd $alues int" the tale and then check the c"nstraint
ST/) ;B disale the c"nstraints and insert the $alues int" the tale
ST/) 6B i! %"u ant t" re-enale the c"nstraint then enale %"u can d"
ST/) <B St"p the D1MS
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CO(STR&(TS
&"nstraints are part "! the tale de!initi"n that limits and restricti"n "n the $alue entered int" its
c"lumns
(TE6RT CO(STR&(T
n integrit% c"nstraint is a mechanism used % "racle t" pre$ent in$alid data entr% int" the tale t has
en!"rcing the rules !"r the c"lumns in a tale
The t%pes "! the integrit% c"nstraints areB
a' D"main ntegrit%
' /ntit% ntegrit%
c' Re!erential ntegrit%
TPES OF CO(STR&(TS:
' )rimar% ke%
2' G"reign ke%4re!erences
3' &heck
:' #ni8ue
;' N"t null
6' Null
<' De!ault
CO(STR&(TS C&( BE CRE&TE) ( THREE 9&S:
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OR&3DDDD: #ni;#e con"traint /SE(TH,.SSCDD@?D0 5iolated
S7V insert int" T1P)K/H $alues(0003,IRI,>;'
row created.
S7V select Q GR+M T1P)K/H
R/N+ NM/ NHPS#1PMRK
----------- ------------- -----------------------------
000 ra@u <;
0002 ra@ >;0 Ka@ 22
0003 R >;
Col#mn le5el con"traint" #"in- 2rimar ke with namin- con5ention:
+%ER: >
7: =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el ith naming c"n$enti"n
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%
S7 V&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (
&+ NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/'&+NSTRNTS UNM/ +G &+NSTRNTSVUTH)/ +G &+NSTRNTSV,
&+ NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/'XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX'Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)+H// (
/M)N+ N#M1/R (:' CO(STR&(T EMPEMP(OP8 PRM&R 8E'
/NM/.R&AR2 (0',+1 .R&AR2 (6',S N#M1/R (;',D/)TN+ N#M1/R (<''
Ta$le le5el 2rimar ke con"traint":
+%ER: ?
7; =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints ith tale le$el ith naming c"n$enti"n
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r tale le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%
S7B V&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+NSTRNTS UNM/ +G TA/ &+NSTRNTSVUTH)/ +G TA/ &+NSTRNTSV'
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)+H// (/M)N+ N#M1/R(6',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',+1 .R&AR2(6',
S N#M1/R(<', D/)TN+ N#M1/R(;',
CO(STR&(T EMPEMP(OP8 PRM&R 8E/EMP(O00I
Ta$le le5el con"traint with alter command /2rimar ke0:
+%ER: @
76 =rite a 8uer% t" create primar% c"nstraints ith alter c"mmand
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/',
&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/''
ORU
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S7V T/R T1/ UT1/ NM/V DD &+NSTRNTS UNM/ +G TA/&+NSTRNTSV UTH)/ +G
TA/ &+NSTRNTSVU&+#MN NM/V'
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)+H//(/M)N+ N#M1/R(;',/NM/ .R&AR2(6',+1 .R&AR2(6',
S N#M1/R(6',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(6''
S7VT/R T1/ /M)3 DD &+NSTRNT EMP=EMP(OP8 PRM&R8E /EMP(O0I
REFERE(CE 4FORE6( 8E CO(STR&(T
t en!"rces relati"nship eteen tales T" estalish parent-child relati"nship eteen 2 tales ha$ing
c"mm"n c"lumn de!initi"n, e make use "! this c"nstraint T" implement this, e sh"uld de!ine the c"lumn in th
parent tale as primar% ke% and same c"lumn in the child tale as !"reign ke% re!erring t" the c"rresp"nding paren
entr%
Forei-n ke
c"lumn "r c"minati"n "! c"lumn included in the de!initi"n "! re!erential integrit%, hich "uld re!er t" a
re!erenced ke%
Referenced ke
t is a uni8ue "r primar% ke% up"n hich is de!ined "n a c"lumn el"nging t" the parent tale
Col#mn le5el forei-n ke con"traint
+%ER: A
7< =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Parent Ta$le:
Snta1: S%nta9 !"r &"lumn le$el c"nstraints #sing )rimar% ke%
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (
&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/'UTH)/ +G &+NSTRNTSV ,
&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/'XXXXXXXXX'
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ )EPT(
)EPT(O N#M1/R(3' PRM&R 8E,
)(&ME .R&AR2(20',,OC&TO( .R&AR2(;''
Tale created
S7V desc D/)T
Name Null] T%pe ----------------- ---------------- --------------------
D/)TN+ N+T N# N#M1/R(3'
DNM/ .R&AR2(20'
+&T+N .R&AR2(;'
S7V select Q !r"m D/)T
D/)TN+ DNM/ +&T+N
------------ ---------------- ---------------
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0 kamal chennai
02 ra@ini madurai
03 @ith k"$ai
Child Ta$le:
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/',
&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/' R/G/R/N&/S UT1/ NM/V(&+#MN NM/V X'
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ EMP,(EMP(O N#M1/R(:',)EPT(O N#M1/R(3' REFERE(CES D/)T()EPT(O',
)ES6( .R&AR2(0''Tale created
S7V desc /M)
Name Null] T%pe
-------------------------- ------------- ----------------------------
/M)N+ N#M1/R(:'
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3'
D/SN .R&AR2(0'
S7V insert int" /M) $alues(;00,0,IRI'
r" created
S7V insert int" /M) $alues(;003,03,IKI'
r" created
S7V insert int" /M) $alues(;006,0:,IRMHI'
insert int" /M) $alues(;006,0:,IRMHI'
Q
/RR+R at line B+R-022?B integrit% c"nstraint (SHST/MSHSP&002?:' $i"lated - parent ke% n"t
!"und
S7V select Q !r"m /M)/M)N+ D/)TN+ D/SN
---------- ------------ -------------
;00 0 R
;003 03 K
Col#mn le5el forei-n ke con"traint with namin- con5er"ion"
+%ER:
7> =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Parent Ta$le:
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using primar% ke%
S7 BV &R/T/U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/'UTH)/ +G
&+NSTRNTSV,&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/'X'
Child Ta$le:
Snta1: "%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%
S7 BV &R/T/U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/' ,
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&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/' CO(STR&(T CO(ST.(&MELR/G/R/N&/S UT1/ NM/V
(&+#MN NM/VX'
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ D/)T (D/)TN+ N#M1/R (2' PRM&R8E,
DNM/ .R&AR2 (20', +&T+N .R&AR2 (;''
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M): (/M)N+ N#M1/R (3',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R (2' CO(STR&(T EMP>&)EPT(OF8 REFERE(CES )EPT /)EPT(O0'
D/SN .R&AR2 (0''
Ta$le le5el forei-n ke con"traint":
+%ER:
7? =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints ith Tale le$el
Parent Ta$le:
Snta1:
S7 BV &R/T/U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/' UTH)/ +G
&+NSTRNTSV, &+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/'X'
Child Ta$le:
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r tale le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%
S7 BV &R/T/U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/',
&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/',
CO(STR&(T CO(ST.(&MELR/G/R/N&/S UT1/ NM/V (&+#MN NM/V'
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ D/)T(D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' PRM&R 8E,
DNM/ .R&AR2(20',+&T+N .R&AR2(;''
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M);(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2',
D/SN .R&AR2(0' CO(STR&(T E(P<)EPT(OF8 FORE6(8E/)EPT (O0 REFERE(CES
)EPT/)EPT(O00I
Ta$le le5el forei-n ke con"traint" with alter command:
+%ER:<D
720 =rite a 8uer% t" create !"reign ke% c"nstraints ith Tale le$el ith alterc"mmand
Parent Ta$le:
Snta1:
S7 BV&R/T/U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/'UTH)/ +G
&+NSTRNTSV , &+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/' XXXXXXXXXXXX'
Child Ta$le:
Snta1: The s%nta9 !"r tale le$el c"nstraints using !"reign ke%
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/',
&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/''
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Snta1:
S7V T/R T1/ UT1/ NM/V DD &+NSTRNT U&+NST NM/VR/G/R/N&/S UT1/ NM/V(&+#MN NM/V'
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ D/)T(D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' )RMRH K/H, DNM/ .R&AR2(20', +&T+N .R&AR2(;''
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M); (/M)N+ N#M1/R(3', D/)TN+ N#M1/R (2', D/SN .R&AR2 (0''S7VT/R T1/ /M)6 DD &+NSTRNT /M)6PD/)TN+PGK G+R/NK/H(D/)TN+'R/G/R/N&/S
D/)T(D/)TN+'
CHEC8 CO(STR&(T
&heck c"nstraint can e de!ined t" all" "nl% a particular range "! $alues hen the manipulati"n $i"lates th
c"nstraint, the rec"rd ill e re@ected &heck c"nditi"n cann"t c"ntain su 8ueries
Col#mn le5el check" con"traint:
+%ER: <
72 =rite a 8uer% t" create &heck c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints using check
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/'
&+NSTRNT U&+NSTRNTS NM/VUTH)/ +G &+NSTRNTSV(&+NSTRTNS &RT/R' ,
&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/''
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)<(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/SN .R&AR2(;',
S N#M1/R(;'CO(STR&(T /M)<PSP&K &A/&K(SV;00 NDSU000',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2''
Ta$le ,e5el Check Con"traint:
+%ER: <<
722 =rite a 8uer% t" create &heck c"nstraints ith tale le$el
Snta1: S%nta9 !"r Tale le$el c"nstraints using &heck
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/',
(&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+NSTRNTU&+NSTRNTS NM/VUTH)/ +G &+NSTRNTSV (&+NSTRTNS&RT/R''
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)>(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/SN .R&AR2(;',
S N#M1/R(;',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2',CO(STR&(TS /M)>PSP&K &A/&K(SV;00 &()SU000''
Check Con"traint with <er Command:
+%ER:<=
723 =rite a 8uer% t" create &heck c"nstraints ith tale le$el using alter c"mmand
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Snta1: S%nta9 !"r Tale le$el c"nstraints using &heck
S7BV&R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V(SO/',
(&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/',&+NSTRNTU&+NSTRNTS NM/VUTH)/ +G &+NSTRNTSV (&+NSTRTNS&RT/R''
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)?(/M)N+ N#M1/R,/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/SN .R&AR2(;',
S N#M1/R(;''
S7VT/R T1/ /M)? DD CO(STR&(TS /M)?PSP&K CHEC8 (SV;00 ND SU000'
%(+%E CO(STR&(T
t is used t" ensure that in!"rmati"n in the c"lumn !"r each rec"rd is uni8ue, as ith teleph"ne "r dri$er
license numers t pre$ents the duplicati"n "! $alue ith r"s "! a speci!ied c"lumn in a set "! c"lumn c"lumn
de!ined ith the c"nstraint can all" null $alue
! uni8ue ke% c"nstraint is de!ined in m"re than "ne c"lumn ie, c"minati"n "! c"lumn cann"t e speci!ied
Ma9imum c"minati"n "! c"lumns that a c"mp"site uni8ue ke% can c"ntain is 6
Col#mn ,e5el Con"traint:
+%ER:<>
72: =rite a 8uer% t" create uni8ue c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints ith uni8ue
S7 BV &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (U&+#MN NM/V UDTTH)/V (SO/' &+NSTRNT
UNM/ +G &+NSTRNTSVU&+NSTRNT TH)/V,
(&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/''
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)0(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',
D/SN .R&AR2 (;'CO(STR&(T /M)0PD/SNP#K #N7#/,
S N#M1/R (;'' Ta$le ,e5el Con"traint:
+%ER: <?
72; =rite a 8uer% t" create uni8ue c"nstraints ith tale le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r tale le$el c"nstraints ith uni8ue
S7 BV &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V (SO/',
(&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+NSTRNTUNM/ +G &+NSTRNTSVU&+NSTRNT TH)/V(&+#MN NM/''
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/SN .R&AR2(;',
S N#M1/R(;',
&+NSTRNT /M)PD/SNP#K #N#/(D/SN''
Ta$le ,e5el Con"traint <er Command:
+%ER:<@
726 =rite a 8uer% t" create uni8ue c"nstraints ith tale le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r tale le$el c"nstraints ith check using alter
S7 BV &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V (SO/',
(U&+#MN NM/2VUDTTH)/V (SO/''
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S7V T/R T1/ DD U&+NSTRNTSVU&+NSTRNTS NM/VU&+NSTRNTS TH)/V (&+#MN
NM/'
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)2(/M)N+ N#M1/R(3',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',D/SN .R&AR2(;',
S N#M1/R(;''
S7VT/R T1/ /M)2 DD &+NSTRNT /M)2PD/SNP#K#N7#/(D/SN'
(OT (%,, CO(STR&(TS
=hile creating tales, % de!ault the r"s can ha$e null $alue the en!"rcement "! n"t null c"nstraint in a tal
ensure that the tale c"ntains $alues
Col#mn ,e5el Con"traint:
+%ER: <A
72< =rite a 8uer% t" create N"t Null c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints ith n"t null
S7 BV &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V(U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V (SO/' &+NSTRNT
UNM/ +G &+NSTRNTSV U&+NSTRNT TH)/V,
(&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/''
Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)3(/M)N+ N#M1/R(:',
/NM/ .R&AR2(20' &+NSTRNT /M)3P/NM/PNN N+T N#,
D/SN .R&AR2(20',S N#M1/R(3''
(%,, CO(STR&(TS
Setting null $alue is appr"priate hen the actual $alue is unkn"n, "r hen a $alue "uld n"t e meaning!ul
• null $alue is n"t e8ui$alent t" a $alue "! Fer"
• null $alue ill ala%s e$aluate t" null in an% e9pressi"n
• =hen a c"lumn name is de!ined as n"t null, that c"lumn ec"mes a mandat"r%
ie, the user has t" enter data int" it
• N"t null ntegrit% c"nstraint cann"t e de!ined using the alter tale c"mmand hen the tale c"ntain r"s
Col#mn ,e5el Con"traint:
+%ER:<
72> =rite a 8uer% t" create Null c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints ith null
S7 BV &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (
U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V (SO/' CO(STR&(T UNM/ +G &+NSTRNTSV U&+NSTRNT
TH)/V,(&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/''
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Command:
S7V&R/T/ T1/ /M)3(/M)N+ N#M1/R(:',
/NM/ .R&AR2(20' &+NSTRNT /M)3P/NM/PNN N#,
D/SN .R&AR2(20',S N#M1/R(3''
)EF&%,T CO(STR&(TS
De!ault c"nstraints assign the de!ault $alues i! the $alues is n"t passed at the time "! inserting the $alues t" the tale
+%ER:<
72> =rite a 8uer% t" create de!ault c"nstraints ith c"lumn le$el
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r c"lumn le$el c"nstraints ith de!ault
S7 BV &R/T/ U+1TH)/VU+1NM/V (
U&+#MN NM/VUDTTH)/V (SO/' ,
U&+#MN NM/2 UDTTH)/V (SO/' )efa#lt Udefa#lt 5al#eV'
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ DG(
R/N+ N#M1/R(;',
NM/ .R&AR2(20',
MRKS N#M1/R(3' )EF&%,T ??
'
Tale created
S7V NS/RT NT+ DG .#/S(00,IR#NI,N#'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ DG(R/N+' .#/S(DD?'
r" created
S7V NS/RT NT+ DG .#/S(00,IRI,<>'
r" created
S7V S//&T Q GR+M DG
R/N+ NM/ MRKS
----------- ---------- ------------
00 R#N
00; ;;
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00 R <>
)S&B,(6 &() )ROPP(6 CO(STR&(TS
%S(6 )S&B,E4E(&B,E
=hene$er a c"nstraint is created !"r a c"lumn(s', e$er% time an entr% is made t" the c"lumn , it must
e$aluated t" determine hether the $alue is all"ed in that c"lumn(it checks d"esnLt .i"late the c"nstraint' !
large l"ck "! data is eing added t" a tale the $alidati"n pr"cess can se$erel% sl" d"n the "racle ser$er
pr"cessing speed H"u are certain that the data eing added t" a tale adheres t" the c"nstraints then disale th
c"nstraints hile adding that particular l"ck "! data "! data t" the tale
T" DS1/ a c"nstraint, issue an T/R T1/ c"mmand and change the status "! the c"nstraint t
DS1/ t a later time can reissue the T/R T1/ c"mmand and change the status "! the c"nstraint ack t
/N1/ S"metimes, temp"raril% disale "r dr"p a c"nstraint
Con"traint )i"a$le
+%ER:<
72? =rite a 8uer% t" disale the c"nstraints
Snta1: S%nta9 !"r disaling a single c"nstraint in a tale
S7VT/R T1/ UT1/-NM/V DS1/ &+NSTRNT U&+NSTRNTNM/V
S7VT/R T1/ /M)3 DS1/ &+NSTRNT /M)3P/NM/PNNN#
Con"traint Ena$le
+%ER: =D
730 =rite a 8uer% t" enale the c"nstraints
Snta1: Snta1 for di"a$lin- a "in-le con"traint in a ta$le:
S7VT/R T1/ UT1/-NM/V DS1/ &+NSTRNT U&+NSTRNTNM/V
Command:
S7VT/R T1/ /M)3 /N1/ &+NSTRNT /M)3P/NM/PNN N#
TO ,ST &,, THE CO(STR&(TS:
S7VS//&T Q GR+M #S/RP&+NSTRNTS
S7V S//&T &+NSTRNTPNM/,&+NSTRNTPTH)/,STT#S GR+M #S/RP&+NSTRNTS
&+NSTRNTPNM/ & STT#S
------------------------------ - --------SHSP&006;2 ) /N1/D
SHSP&006;; # /N1/D
SHSP&006;> ) DS1/D
: r"s selected
S7Vselect c"nstraintPname,c"nstraintPt%pe,status GR+M #S/RP&+NSTRNTS =A/R/ T1/PNM/1&
RES%,T:
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Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r &reating an /mpl"%ee dataase t" set $ari"us c"nstraints has een
$eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
CRE&T(6 RE,&TO(SHP BET9EE( THE )&T&B&SES ( R)BMS
E1: (o: D? /?.0 TO MP,EME(T&TO( OF SET OPER&TORS
: :
&M:
T" /9ecute and $eri!% The S7 &"mmands G"r Set +perat"rs mplementati"n n Relati"nal M"del
OBJECT!E:
Set "perat"rs are used t" retrie$e the data !r"m t" "r multiple tales
The% are di!!erent t%pes
• #ni"n• #ni"n all
• ntersect
• Minus
&,6ORTHM:
STEP : Start
STEP <: &reate t" di!!erent tales ith its essential attriutes
STEP =: nsert attriute $alues int" the tales
STEP >: &reate the result !"r the $ari"us set "perati"n
STEP ?: /9ecute &"mmand and e9tract in!"rmati"n !r"m the tales
STEP @B St"p
S&MP,E T&B,ES
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTPT
R/PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1/&T
------------ --------------- ----------- --------000 ram T DT STR#&T#R/
0002 Sam T DT1S/ SHST/M
0003 Tam T =/1 T/&AN++H
000: R T DS)000; T T D)
0006 khan T =/1 T/&AN++H
3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
< r"s selected
S7V select Q !r"m ST#D/NTP/&/
R/PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1/&T
------------ ---------------- ---- ----- --------------------
3000 RM# /&/ D)30002 SM# /&/ DS)
30003 TM# /&/ &R&#T D/SN
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3000: R# /&/ //&TR+ M/&AN&S
3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
%(O(
This ill c"mine the rec"rds "! multiple tales ha$ing the same structure
E1:
S7V select Q !r"m studentPT uni"n select Q !r"m studentP/&/
R/PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1/&T
----------- -------- ----------- ------------------000 ram T DT STR#&T#R/
0002 Sam T DT1S/ SHST/M
0003 Tam T =/1 T/&AN++H
000: R T DS)
000; T T D)
0006 khan T =/1 T/&AN++H
3000 RM# /&/ D)
30002 SM# /&/ DS)
30003 TM# /&/ &R&#T D/SN
3000: R# /&/ //&TR+ M/&AN&S
3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
r"s selected
%(O( &,,
This ill c"mine the rec"rds "! multiple tales ha$ing the same structure ut including duplicates
E1:
S7V select Q !r"m studentPT uni"n all select Q !r"m studentP/&/
R/PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1/&T
------------- ----------- ----------- --------------------
000 ram T DT STR#&T#R/
0002 Sam T DT1S/ SHST/M
0003 Tam T =/1 T/&AN++H
000: R T DS)
000; T T D)
0006 khan T =/1 T/&AN++H
3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
3000 RM# /&/ D)
30002 SM# /&/ DS)
30003 TM# /&/ &R&#T D/SN
3000: R# /&/ //&TR+ M/&AN&S
3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
3 r"s selected
(TERSECT
This ill gi$e the c"mm"n rec"rds "! multiple tales ha$ing the same structure
E1:
S7V select Q !r"m studentPT NT/RS/&T select Q !r"m studentP/&/
R/PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1/&T
------------ --------- ----------- -----------------
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3000; R /&/ &R&#T D/SN
M(%S
This ill gi$e the rec"rds "! a tale h"se rec"rds are n"t in "ther tales ha$ing the same structure
E1:
S7V select Q !r"m studentPT MN#S select Q !r"m studentP/&/
R/PN+ NM/ 1RN& S#1/&T
------------ ---------- ---------- -------------------
000 ram T DT STR#&T#R/
0002 Sam T DT1S/ SHST/M
0003 Tam T =/1 T/&AN++H
000: R T DS)
000; T T D)
0006 khan T =/1 T/&AN++H
6 r"s selected
RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands !"r S/T "perat"rs has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
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CRE&T(6 RE,&TO(SHP BET9EE( THE )&T&B&SES ( R)BMS
E1: (o: D? /?.<0 To im2lementation of (e"ted +#erie"
: :
&M:
T" e9ecute and $eri!% the S7 c"mmands !"r Nested 7ueries
OBJECT!E:
Nested 7uer% can ha$e m"re than "ne le$el "! nesting in "ne single 8uer% S7 nested 8uer% is a
S//&T 8uer% that is nested inside a S//&T, #)DT/, NS/RT, "r D//T/ S7 8uer%
&,6ORTHM:
STEP : Start the pr"gram
STEP <: &reate t" di!!erent tales ith its essential attriutes
STEP =: nsert attriute $alues int" the tale
STEP >: &reate the Nested 8uer% !r"m the a"$e created tale
STEP ?: /9ecute &"mmand and e9tract in!"rmati"n !r"m the tales
STEP @: St"p the pr"gram
Table -
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Snta1: s%nta9 !"r creating a tale.
S7B &R/T/ U+1TH)/V U+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/' X'
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ /M)2(/M)N+ N#M1/R(;',/NM/ .R&AR2(20',+1 .R&AR2(20',
S N#M1/R(6',MRN+ N#M1/R(:',D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3''
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds in t" a taleS7 BV NS/RT NT+ UT1/ NM/V .#/SU ., L.2,X'
Command:
S7V S//&T QGR+M /M)2
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 S MRN+ D)TN+
----------- ---------- ------- ------------ ---------- ----------
00 MA/SA )R+RMM/R ;000 ;60 200
002 MN+ T/ST/R 2000 ;60 200003 KRTAK )R+RMM/R 3000 :00 20
00: NR/SA &/RK :00 :00 20
00; MN T/ST/R 3000 :00 200006 .K D/SN/R 2;00 ;60 2000< M+AN D/SN/R :000 ;60 20
00> N.//N &R/T+N 20000 :00 20
00? )RSD DR 20000 ;60 202
00 N/SA DR ;000 :00 200
T&B,E3 <
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r creating a tale
S7B &R/T/ U+1TH)/V U+1NM/V (&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/',
&+#MN NM/ UDTTH)/V (SO/' XXXXXX
Command:
S7V &R/T/ T1/ D/)T2(D/)TN+ N#M1/R(3',D/)TNM/ .R&AR2(0',
+&T+N .R&AR2(;''
Tale created
Snta1: s%nta9 !"r insert rec"rds in t" a tale
S7 BV NS/RT NT+ UT1/ NM/V .#/SU ., L.2,X'
S7V S//&T QGR+M D/)T2
D/)TN+ D/)TNM/ +&T+N
---------- ---------- ---------------0< D/./+) DHR
20 D/1# #K
200 T/ST #S20 T/ST #SSR
0> D/1# DHR
0? 1#D )+TA/R
6 r"s selected
Snta1:
6E(ER&, S(T&7 FOR (ESTE) +%ER:
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E1: (o: D? /?.=0 To im2lementation the Join O2eration"
: :
&M:
T" e9ecute and $eri!% the S7 c"mmands !"r $ari"us @"in "perati"n
&,6ORTHM:
STEP : Start the pr"gram
STEP <: &reate t" di!!erent tales ith its essential attriutes
STEP =: nsert attriute $alues int" the tale
STEP >: &reate the tale "@ect !"r eas% re!erence
STEP ?: "in t" tales % using +N "perat"r
STEP @: Displa% the result "! the result tale
STEP A: St"p the pr"gram
JO(SB
"ins are used t" retrie$e the data !r"m multiple tales
T2e" of Join"B
/7#P+N
2 N+N /7#P+N
3 S/G +N
: +#T/R +N
: Right "uter @"in
:2 e!t "uter @"in
:3 Gull "uter @"in
E+%JO(B
=hen tales are @"ined asing "n a c"mm"n c"lumn it is called /7#P+N
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E1B
select empn", ename, dname !r"m emp, dept here empdeptn" deptdeptn"
EMPNO ENAME DNAME736 SIT@ +S&+-@74 &LL0 S&LS752; :&+ S&LS
(oteB
=e need t" menti"n @"in c"nditi"ns in the here clause
n /7#P+NS e al"ng use t" e8ual t" "perat"r in @"in c"nditi"n
E1B
SQL6S$#$t$ $04no2 $n!0$2 s!#2 7o"2 8n!0$2 #oc
9%o0 $042 8$4t
/&$%$ $048$4tno ; 8$4t8$4tno5
SQL6Selete empn", ename, sal, deptn", dname, l"c
!r"m emp, dept
here empdeptn" deptdeptn"44 err"r
SQL6Selete empn", ename, sal, empdeptn", dname, l"c
!r"m emp, dept
here empdeptn" deptdeptn" 44$alid
(oteB
• e need t" menti"n tale name d"t c"lumn(empdeptn"' name !"r the c"mm"n c"lumn t" res"l$e th
an% tale
• The c"mm"n c"lumn can e retrie$ed !r"m an% "! the tale
• =e can !ilter the data !r"m the result "! @"in
E1B
SQL6Select empn", ename, sal, empdeptn", dname, l"c
!r"m emp, dept
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here empdeptn" deptdeptn" ND sal V 2000
T" impr"$e the per!"rmance "! the @"in e need menti"n tale name d"t c"lumn name !"r all the c"lumns
E1B
SQL6Select empempn", empename, empsal,empdeptn", deptdname, deptl"c
!r"m emp,dept
here empdeptn" deptdeptn" ND sal V 2000
Ta$le alia"B
• Tale alias is an alternate name gi$en t" a tale
• 1% using a tale alias length "! the tale reduces and at the same time per!"rmance is maintains
• Tale alias are create in same clause can e used in select clause as ell as here clause
•
Tale alias is temp"rar% "nce the 8uer% is e9ecuted the tale alias are l"sed
E1B
SQL6Select //mpn", //name, /sal, /deptn", DDname, Dl"c
!r"m emp /, Dept D
here /deptn" Ddeptn"
Join the m#lti2le ta$le"/= ta$le"0B
Select Q !r"m reas
Cit State
Ne%"rk )
Dallas Mh
E1B
SQL6Select /empn", /ename, /sal,Ddname,state
!r"m emp /, dept D, reas
here /deptn" Ddeptn" ND Dl"c cit%
(oteB T" @"in Ln tales e need n- c"nditi"ns
(O( E+% JO(B
=hen e d" n"t use N+N /7# +N t" "perat"r in the @"in c"nditi"n is N+N /7# +N
E1B
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SQL6Select Q !r"m SRD/
RD/ +S AS <00 200
2 20 :00
3 :0 2000
: 200 3000; 300 ????
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, sgrade
!r"m emp e, salgrade s
here esal 1/T=//N sl"sal ND hisal
/M)N+ /NM/ RD/
<36? SMTA <><6 DMS
<?00 M/S 2
SQL6Select eempn", eename, sgrade
!r"m emp e, salgrade s
here esal 1/T=//N sl"sal ND shisal ND sgrade :
SE,F JO(B
=hen a tale is @"ining t" it sel! it is called sel! @"in n sel! @"ins e need t" create t" tale aliases
!"r the same tale
SQL6Select empn", ename, @", mgr, !r"m emp
SQL6Select eempn", eename, e@", mename
!r"m emp e, emp m
here emgr mempn"
Em2no Ename Jo$ Ename
<?02 G+RD NHST +N/S
<>6? S&+TT &/RK +N/S
<?00 M/S S/SMN 1K/
C&RTES&( PRO)%CTB
=hen tales are @"ined ith"ut an% @"in c"nditi"n it is called &artesian pr"duct n the result e get
all p"ssile c"minati"n
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
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!r"m emp e, dept d 44:Q:;6 r"s are selected
&(S JO(SB
The% are the three t%pes
((ER JO(SB
t is same as /8ui @"in
E1B
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e NN/R +N dept d +N(edeptn" ddeptn"'
2(&T%R&, JO(B
t is same as /8ui @"in
E1B
SQL6Select empn", ename, sal, deptn", dname,l"c !r"m NT#R +N dept
CROSS PRO)%CT4CROSS JO(B
t is same as &artesian pr"duct
E1B
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e &R+SS +N dept d 44:Q: ;6 r"s are displa%ed
)EF&%,TB
E1B
SQL6&reate tale stu(sn" numer(3',
Sname $archar2(0',
Marks numer(3' de!ault 00,
D"@ Date D/G#T s%sdate'
SQL6nsert int" stu(sn", sname' $alues(0,malli'
SQL6nsert int" stu $alues(02,R#N,:0,-N-0?'
SQL6nsert int" stu $alues (03,KRN,N#,2-G/1-0'
SN+ SNM/ MRKS D+
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0 malli 00 26-#N-2
02 R#N :0 -N-0?
03 KRN 2-G/1-0
S%PER 8EB
&"minati"n "! c"lumns hich can e used uni8ue ke% identi!% e$er% r" is called as super ke%
Tale "@ect
&"lumn ttriutes
R" Tuple4Rec"rd
O%TER JO(SB
t is e9tensi"n "! /7# +NS
n "uter @"ins e get match as ell as n"n matching r"s
(C' This called as "uter @"in "perat"r
. R6HT O%TER JO(B
S+, Snta1B
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e, dept d
here edeptn"(C' ddeptn" 44: C ; r"s
em2no ename "al de2tno dname loc
<?00 @ames ?;0 30 sales chicag"
>?63 adams :00 20 clerk ne%"rk
6<?> adams 2000 0 sales india
&(S S(T&7 OF R6HT O%TER JO(B
NS SHSTEB
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e RAT +#T/R +N dept d +N(edeptn" ddeptn"'
,EFT O%TER JO(B
S+, Snta1B
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e, dept d
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here edeptn" ddeptn"(C' 44:C3 < r" displa%ed
&(S S(T&7 OF ,EFT O%TER JO(B
&(S S(T&7:
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e /GT +#T/R +N dept d +N(edeptn" ddeptn"'
F%,, O%TER JO(B
&(S S(T&7B
SQL6Select eempn", eename, esal, edeptn", ddname, dl"c
!r"m emp e G# +#T/R +N dept d +N(edeptn" ddeptn"'
44: C 2 C 3 ? r"s are displa%ed
RES%,T:
Thus the S7 c"mmands to implementati"n the @"in "perati"ns has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted
success!ull%
St#d of P,4S+, $lock.
E1: (o: D@
: :
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1/N
/9ecutale c"mmands --------- (MNDT+RH'
/E&/)T+N
/9cepti"n handlers ----------(+)T+N'
/ND
4 T" e9ecute the pr"gram 4 c"mmand
)eclare:
This secti"n is used t" declare l"cal $ariales, curs"rs, /9cepti"ns and etc This secti"n is "pti"nal
E1ec#ta$le Section:
This secti"n c"ntains lines "! c"de hich is used t" c"mplete tale t is mandat"r%
E1ce2tion Section:
This secti"n c"ntains lines "! c"de hich ill e e9ecuted "nl% hen e9cepti"n is raised This
secti"n is "pti"nal
Sim2le"t P,4S+, Block:
1egin
--------
--------
--------
/ND
SER!ERO%TP%T
This ill e used t" displa% the "utput "! the )4S7 pr"grams 1% de!ault this ill e "!!
Snta1:
Set ser$er"utput "n ^ "!!
E1:
S7V set ser$er"utput "n
B,OC8 TPES
• n"n%m"us l"cks
• Named l"cks
aeled l"cks
Supr"grams
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Triggers
&(O(MO%S B,OC8S
n"n%m"us l"cks implies asic l"ck structure
E1:
7 B pr"gram t" displa% the string J
1/N
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(LM fir"t 2ro-ram*'B
/ND
4
,&BE,E) B,OC8S
aeled l"cks are an"n%m"us l"cks ith a lael hich gi$es a name t" the l"ck
E1:
UUm%Pl""ckVV
1/N
DmsP"utputputPline(LM% !irst pr"gram'B/ND
S%BPRO6R&MS
Supr"grams are pr"cedures and !uncti"ns The% can e st"red in the dataase as stand-al"n
"@ects, as part "! package "r as meth"ds "! an "@ect t%pe
TR66ERS
Triggers c"nsist "! a )4S7 l"ck that is ass"ciated ith an e$ent that "ccurs in the dataase
(ESTE) B,OC8S
l"ck can e nested ithin the e9ecutale "r e9cepti"n secti"n "! an "uter l"ck
)E(TFERS
• denti!iers are used t" name )4S7 "@ects, such as $ariales, curs"rs, t%pes and supr"grams
• denti!iers c"nsists "! a letter, "pti"nall% !"ll"ed % an% se8uence "! characters, including letters,
numers, d"llar signs, undersc"res, and p"und signs "nl% The ma9imum length !"r an identi!ier is30 characters
+%OTE) )E(TFERS
! %"u ant t" make an identi!ier case sensiti$e, include characters such as spaces "r use a reser$ed
"rd, %"u can encl"se the identi!ier in d"ule 8u"tati"n marks
E1:
D/&R/
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a numer B ;
numer B 6
1/N
dmsP"utputputPline(Qa V Q ^^ a'
dmsP"utputputPline(Q& V Q ^^ '
/ND
4
O#t2#t:
a 6
6
COMME(TS
&"mments impr"$e readailit% and make %"ur pr"gram m"re understandale The% are ign"red %
the )4S7 c"mpiler
There are t" t%pes "! c"mments a$ailale
• Single line c"mments
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• Multiline c"mments
S(6,E ,(E COMME(TS
single-line c"mment can start an% p"int "n a line ith t" dashes and c"ntinues until the end
"! the line
E1:
1/N
DmsP"utputputPline(Lhell"' 33 "am2le 2ro-ram
/ND
4
M%,T,(E COMME(TS
Multiline c"mments start ith the 4Q delimiter and ends ith Q4 delimiter
E1:
1/N
DmsP"utputputPline(Lhell"' 4 "am2le 2ro-ram 4
/ND
4
!&R&B,E )EC,ER&TO(S
.ariales can e declared in declarati$e secti"n "! the l"ck
E1:
D/&R/
a n#m$erI
$ n#m$er :V ?I
c n#m$er defa#lt @I
CO(ST&(T )EC,ER&TO(S
T" declare a c"nstant, %"u include the &+NSTNT ke%"rd, and %"u must suppl% a de!ault $alue
E1:
D/&R/
con"tant numer B ;
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c con"tant numer de!ault 6
(OT (%,, C,&%SE
H"u can als" speci!% that the $ariale must e n"t null
E1:
D/&R/
c"nstant numer not n#llB ;
c numer n"t null defa#lt @
&(CHORE) )EC,ER&TO(S
)4S7 "!!ers t" kinds "! anch"ring
• Scalar anch"ring
• Rec"rd anch"ring
SC&,&R &(CHOR(6
#se the _TH)/ attriute t" de!ine %"ur $ariale ased "n tales c"lumn "! s"me "ther )4S7
scalar $ariale
E1:
D/&R/
dn" de2t.de2tnot2eI
Sut%pe tPnumer is numer
a tPnumer
Sut%pe tPsn" is "t#dent."not2eI
.Psn" tPsn"
RECOR) &(CHOR(6
#se the _R+=TH)/ attriute t" de!ine %"ur rec"rd structure ased "n a tale
E1:
D/&R/
.Pdept de2trowt2eI
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Benefit" of &nchored )eclaration"
• S%nchr"niFati"n ith dataase c"lumns
• N"rmaliFati"n "! l"cal $ariales
PRO6R&MMER3)EF(E) TPES
=ith the S#1TH)/ statement, )4S7 all"s %"u t" de!ine %"ur "n sut%pes "r aliases "! prede!ined datat%pes, s"metimes re!erred t" as astract datat%pes
There are t" kinds "! sut%pes
• &"nstrained
• #nc"nstrained
CO(STR&(E) S%BTPE
sut%pe that restricts "r c"nstrains the $alues n"rmall% all"d % the datat%pe itsel!
E1:
Sut%pe p"siti$e is inar%Pinteger range 2:<:>36:<
• n the a"$e declarati"n a $ariale that is declared as p"siti$e can st"re "nl% ingeger greater
than Fer" e$en th"ugh inar%Pinteger ranges !r"m -2:<:>36:<C2:<:>36:<
%(CO(STR&(E) S%BTPE
sut%pe that d"es n"t restrict the $alues "! the "riginal datat%pe in $ariales declared ith thesut%pe
E1:
Sut%pe !l"at is numer
)&T&TPE CO(!ERSO(S
)4S7 can handle c"n$ersi"ns eteen di!!erent !amilies am"ng the datat%pes
&"n$ersi"n can e d"ne in t" a%s
/9plicit c"n$ersi"n
mplicit c"n$ersi"n
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E7P,CT CO(!ERSO(
This can e d"ne using the uilt-in !uncti"ns a$ailale
MP,CT CO(!ERSO(
)4S7 ill aut"maticall% c"n$ert eteen datat%pe !amilies hen p"ssile
E1:
D/&R/
a $archar(0'
1/N
select deptn" int" a !r"m dept here dnameI&&+#NTNI
/ND
n the a"$e $ariale a is char t%pe and deptn" is numer t%pe e$en th"ugh, "racle ill aut"maticall
c"n$erts the numeric data int" char t%pe assigns t" the $ariale
)4S7 can aut"maticall% c"n$ert eteen
• &haracters and numers
• &haracters and dates
!&R&B,E SCOPE &() !SB,T
The sc"pe "! a $ariale is the p"rti"n "! the pr"gram in hich the $ariale can e accessed G"r
)4S7 $ariales, this is !r"m the $ariale declarati"n until the end "! the l"ck =hen a $ariale g"es "ut
"! sc"pe, the )4S7 engine ill !ree the mem"r% used t" st"re the $ariale
The $isiilit% "! a $ariale is the p"rti"n "! the pr"gram here the $ariale can e accessed ith"ut
ha$ing t" 8uali!% the re!erence The $isiilit% is ala%s ithin the sc"pe ! it is "ut "! sc"pe, it is n"t $isil
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E1:
D/&R/
a numer 33 "co2e of a
1/N
--------
D/&R/ numer 33 "co2e of $
1/N
-----/ND
------
/ND
E1<:
D/&R/
a numer
numer1/N
33 a ' $ a5aila$le here
D/&R/
char(0'1/N
33 a and char t2e $ i" a5aila$le here
/ND-----
/ND
E1=:
UUm%Pl"ckVV
D/&R/
a numer numer
1/N33 a ' $ a5aila$le here
D/&R/
char(0'
1/N
33 a and char t2e $ i" a5aila$le here
33 n#m$er t2e $ i" a5aila$le #"in- m$lockLL.$
/ND
------/ND
P,4S+, CO(TRO, STR%CT%RES
)4S7 has a $ariet% "! c"ntr"l structures that all" %"u t" c"ntr"l the eha$i"ur "! the l"ck a
it runs These structures include c"nditi"nal statements and l""ps
• !-then-else
• &ase
o &ase ith n" else
o aeled case
o Searched case
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=hen valuen then sequence of statements;
/lse sequence of statements;
/nd case
E1:
D/&R/
dno numer(2'
1/N
select deptn" int" dno !r"m dept here dname I&&+#NTNI
case dno
hen D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is N/= H+RKI'
hen <D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is DSI'
hen =D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is &A&+I'
el"e
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is 1+ST+NI'
end case
/ND
O#t2#t:
"cati"n is N/= H+RK
C&SE 9THO%T E,SE
Snta1:
&ase test-variable
=hen value-1 then sequence of statements;
=hen value-2 then sequence of statements;
XX
=hen value-n then sequence of statements;
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/nd case
E1:
D/&R/
dn" numer(2'
1/N
select de2tno int" dno !r"m dept here dname I&&+#NTNI
case dno
hen D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is N/= H+RKI'
hen <D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is DSI'
hen =D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is &A&+I'
hen >D then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is 1+ST+NI'
end case
/ND
O#t2#t:
"cati"n is N/= H+RK
,&BE,E) C&SE
Snta1:
UUlaelVV
&ase test-$ariale
=hen $alue then se8uence "! statements
=hen $alue2 then se8uence "! statements
XX
=hen $aluen then se8uence "! statements
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/nd case
E1:
D/&R/
dn" numer(2'
1/N
select deptn" int" dn" !r"m dept here dname I&&+#NTNI
UUm%PcaseVV
case dn"
hen 0 then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is N/= H+RKI'
hen 20 then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is DSI'
hen 30 then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is &A&+I'
hen :0 then
dmsP"utputputPline(I"cati"n is 1+ST+NI'
end case
mca"eI
/ND
O#t2#t:
"cati"n is N/= H+RK
SE&RCHE) C&SE
Snta1:
&ase
=hen Ucondition-1V then sequence of statements;
=hen Ucondition-2V then sequence of statements;
XX
=hen Ucondition-nV then sequence of statements;
/nd case
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/nd i!
E1:
D/&R/
i numer B
1/N
loo2
dmsP"utputputPline(Ii I ^^ i'
i B i C
e9it hen i V ;
end loo2I
/ND
O#t2#t:
i
i 2
i 3
i :
i ;
9H,E ,OOP
Snta1:
=hile Uc"nditi"nV l""p
Sequence of statements;
/nd l""p
E1:
D/&R/
i numer B
1/N
9hile i U ; loo2
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dmsP"utputputPline(Ii I ^^ i'
i B i C
end loo2I
/ND
O#t2#t:
i
i 2
i 3
i :
i ;
FOR ,OOP
Snta1:
G"r Uloop_counter_variableV in low_bound i!_bound l""p
Sequence of statements;
/nd l""p
E1:
1/N
For i in ; loo2
dmsP"utputputPline(Ii I ^^ i'
end loo2
/ND
;2
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O#t2#t:
i
i 2
i 3
i :
i ;
E1<:
1/N
G"r i in re$erse ; l""p
dmsP"utputputPline(Ii I ^^ i'
end l""p
/ND
O#t2#t:
i ;
i :
i 3i 2
i
6OTO &() ,&BE,S
Snta1:
"t" label
=here label is a lael de!ined in the )4S7 l"ck aels are encl"sed in d"ule angle rackets
=hen a g"t" statement is e$aluated, c"ntr"l immediatel% passes t" the statement identi!ied %
the lael
E1:
1/N
For i in ; loo2
dmsP"utputputPline(Ii I ^^ i'
i! i : then
;2
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RES%,T:
Thus the Stud% "! )4S7 l"ck has een implemented % $ari"us c"ntr"l structure are $eri!ied and
e9ecuted success!ull%
!r"te a #L/S$L bloc% to sat"s' some cond"t"ons b' acce(t"ng "n(ut rom the
user)
E1: (o: DA
: :
&M:
T" implement the )4S7 l"ck t" satis!% s"me c"nditi"ns % accepting input !r"m the user
&,6ORTHM:
STEP : Start the pr"gram
STEP <: &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
;2
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)4S7 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
+<: =rite a )4S7 l"ck hich accepts empl"%ee numer and increment is salar% % 000]
D/&R/ numer(:'
B 5/mpn"
#pdate emp set sal sal C 000 here /mpn" /ND
4
+=: =rite a )4S7 l"ck hich empn" and delete that r" !r"m the emp tale]
D/&R/
numer(:'
1/N B 5/mpn"
Delete !r"m emp here /mpn"
/ND
4
+>: )4S7 !"r re$ersing the gi$en string
&l-orithm:
et the input string
2 Gind the length "! the string
3 /9tract the characters "ne % "ne !r"m the end "! the string
: &"ncatenate the e9tracted characters
; Displa% the c"ncatenated re$ersed string
6 St"p the pr"gram
Pro-ram:
declare
$archar2(0' B I5I
c $archar2(0'
l numer(2'
i numer(2'
g numer(2'
;2
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a B 0 B
dmsP"utputputPline(I!i"nacci series isI'
dmsP"utputputPline(a'
dmsP"utputputPline('
!"r i in 3 n
l""p
c B a C
dmsP"utputputPline(c'a B
B c
end l""p
e9cepti"n
hen negati$e then
dmsP"utputputPline(In sh"uld e greater than I'
end
S+,L 4
/nter $alue !"r nB0
"ld ;B n numer(3'B5n
ne ;Bn numer(3'B0
Gi"nacci
0
2
3
;>
3
2
3:
P,4S+, pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
+@: )r"gram t" check hether gi$en numer is rmstr"ng "r n"t
&l-orithm:
Step B Declare the $ariale N, S, D and D#)Step 2B St"re the $alue in $ar N and $ar D#)
Step 3B check !"r the $alue "! N, hich is n"t e8ual t" 0
Step :B di$ide $alue st"red in N % 0 and st"re it $ar D (Dn_0'
Step ;B the reminder ill e multipl% 3 times and st"re it in .ar SStep 6B The c"e!!icient ill e calculated using G++R !uncti"n nd st"re it in $ar N
Step <B repeat the Steps 3, :, ;, and 6 till l""p ill e terminated
Step >B &heck hether the st"red $alue and calculated $alues are sameStep ?B i! "th the $alues are same, then displa% JThe gi$en numer is rmstr"ng
Step 0B +therise displa% Jit is n"t rmstr"ng and terminate the l""p
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Declare
N numerS numer
D numer
1egin NB5n
SB0
=hile(n0'""p
Dn_0
SBsC(DQDQD'
NB!l""r(n40'/nd l""p
! (D#)S' then
D1MSP"utputputPline(Lnumer is armstr"ng'/lse
D1MSP"utputputPline(Lnumer is n"t armstr"ng'
/nd i!
/nd
Te"t !alid )ata Set:
/nter $alue "! n;3
O#t2#t:
numer is rmstr"ng
+A: =rite a pr"gram t" generate all prime numers el" 00
&MB t" generate all prime numers el" 00
Declare
numer
numer& numer
1egin
=hile(iU00'""p
&B0
B=hile(@Ui'
""p!(!l""r(i_@'0' then
&B &C/nd i!
B@C
/nd l""p!(c2' then
DmsP"utputputPline(i'
/nd i!/ndl""p
/nd
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!alid Te"t )ata
O%TP%T:
2
3
;
<
??
+: =rite a pr"gram t" dem"nstrate _t%pe and _r"t%pe attriutes
&MB t" dem"nstrate _t%pe and _r"t%pe attriutes
Declare
M%P/mpn" empempn"_t%pe
M%P/name empename_t%pe
M%P/mpr" emp_r"t%pe
N" numer
1egin
N"B5n"
Select empn",ename int" m%Pempn",m%Pename !r"m emp here empn"n"
!(S7l_r"c"unt' then
DmsP"utputputPline(Lempn" is ̂ ^ m%Pempn" ^^ Lename is L ^^ m%Pename'
/lse
DmsP"utputputPline( Lerr"r'
/nd i!
Select Q int" m%Pempr" !r"m emp here empn"n"
!(S7l_r"c"unt' then
DmsP"utputputPline(Lempn" is ̂ ^ m%Pempr"empn" ^^ Lename is L ^^ m%Pempr"ename'
/lse
DmsP"utputputPline( Lerr"r'
/nd i!
/nd
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!alid Te"t )ata
/nter the $alue !"r n"B
<<>>
O%TP%T
empn" is <<>> ename is $ina% s
empn" is <<>> ename is $ina% s
RES%,T:
Thus the )4S7 l"ck t" satis!% s"me c"nditi"ns % accepting input !r"m the user has een $eri!ied and
e9ecuted success!ull%
!r"te a #L/S$L bloc% that handles all t'(es o e*ce(t"ons .
E1: (o: D
: :
&M:
T" =rite a )4S7 l"ck that handles all t%pes "! e9cepti"ns
&,6ORTHM:
STEP: Start the pr"gram
STEP<: &reate a tale ith s"me $alid data
STEP=: rite the )4S7 pr"gram that t" handle the e9cepti"n "n e9cepti"n l"ck
STEP>: /9ecute the )4S7 pr"gram and gi$e the input $alues "r make the err"r "n the tale data
STEP?: Displa% the )4S7 pr"gram err"r message
STEP@: St"p the pr"gram
E7CEPTO(SB
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n )4S7, err"rs and arnings are called as e9cepti"ns =hene$er a prede!ined err"r "ccurs in th
pr"gram, )4S7 raises an e9cepti"n G"r e9ample, i! %"u tr% t" di$ide a numer % Fer" then )4S7
raises an e9cepti"n called O/R+PD.D/ and i! S//&T can n"t !ind a rec"rd then )4S7 raise
e9cepti"n N+PDTPG+#ND
)4S7 has a c"llecti"n "! prede!ined e9cepti"ns /ach e9cepti"n has a name These e9cepti"ns ar
aut"maticall% raised % )4S7 hene$er the c"rresp"nding err"r "ccurs
n additi"n t" )4S7 prede!ined e9cepti"ns, user can als" create his "n e9cepti"ns t" deal it
err"rs in the applicati"ns
The% are three t%pes "! /9cepti"ns
+R&/ )rede!ined /9cepti"n
2 +R&/ N"n )rede!ined /9cepti"n
3 #S/R De!ined /9cepti"n
S(T&7 OF E7CEPTO( H&(),(6
=A/N e9cepti"n- Y"r e9cepti"n -2Z TA/N
statements
Y=A/N e9cepti"n-3 Y"r e9cepti"n-:Z TA/N
statements Z
Y=A/N +TA/RS TA/N
statements Z
Q: The #$$1in% e9ampe handes NO<DATA<FOUND e9cep!i$n.
decare
C
be%in
seec! C
e9cep!i$n
1hen no<8!t!<9oun8 !hen
s!a!emen!sA
endA
O#t2#t:
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Q: The #$$1in% e9cep!i$n handin% par! !aDes !he same ac!i$n 1hen ei!her
NO<DATA<FOUND $r
TOO<MANY<ROWS e9cep!i$ns $ccur.
decare...
be%in
seec! ...
e9cep!i$n
1hen n$da!a#$und o% !$$manyr$1s !hen
s!a!emen!sA
endA
O#t2#t:
Q: The #$$1in% snippe! handes !hese !1$ e9cep!i$ns in diEeren! 1ays.
decare
...
be%in
seec! ...
e9cep!i$n
1hen no<8!t!<9oun8 !hens!a!emen!sA
1hen too<0!n*<%o/s !hen
s!a!emen!sA
endA
O#t2#t:
WHEN OTHERS is used !$ e9ecu!e s!a!emen!s 1hen an e9cep!i$n $!her !han 1ha!are men!i$ned in e9cep!i$n hander has $ccurred.
decare
ne1cc$de ,archar2)5* FG nuA
be%in
upda!e c$urses se! cc$de G ne1cc$de 1here cc$de G HcHA
e9cep!i$n
1hen 8u4<.!#<on<in8$+ !hen
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This /9cepti"n is Raised i! a S//&T NT+ statement returns n" r"s "r i! %"u re!erence an un-
initialiFed r" in a )4S7 tale
E1B
Declare
Psal empsal_t%pe
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( L=/&+M/ '
Select sal NT+ Psal !r"m emp here empn" 5empn"
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(Psal'
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LTANK H+# '
/E&/)T+N
hen (O)&T&FO%() then
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LN.D /M)N+'
/ND
4
TOOM&(RO9SB
This /9cepti"n is Raised i! a S//&T NT+ statement returns m"re than "ne r"
E1B
Declare
Psal empsal_t%pe
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( L=/&+M/ '
Select sal NT+ Psal !r"m emp here deptn" 30
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(Psal'
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LTANK H+# '
/E&/)T+N
hen T++PMNHPR+=S then
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LM+R/ TA/N +N/ R+= R/T#RN/D'
/ND
4
WERO)!)EB
Raised hen %"ur pr"gram attempts t" di$ide a numer % Fer"
E1B
Declare
Numer
1egin
B ;40
/9cepti"n
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hen O/R+PD.D/ then
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LD+ N+T D.D/ 1H 0 '
/ND
4
(oteB
This /9cepti"n is raised hen e tr% t" di$ided % Fer"
!&,%EERROR B
This /9cepti"n is raised hen there is miss match ith the $alue and data t%pe "! l"cal $ariale "r
siFe "! l"cal $ariales
E1 B
Declare
Psal empsal_t%pe
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( L=/&+M/ '
Select ename NT+ Psal !r"m emp here empn" <;2
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(Psal'
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LTANK H+# '
/E&/)T+Nhen .#/P/RR+R then
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( Lplease check the l"cal $ariales'
/ND
4
E1 2B
Declare
numer(3'1egin
B 23:/9cepti"n
hen .#/P/RR+R then
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( L)/S/ &A/&K TA/ +& .R1/S '
/ND4
)%P!&,O(()E7B (duplicate $alue "n inde9'
This /9cepti"n is raised hen e tr% t" insert a duplicate $alue in primar% ke% c"nstraint
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E1B
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( Lelc"me '
nsert int" student $alues(0:, LR#N,60'D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LThank %"u '
/9cepti"n
hen D#)P.P+NPND/E thenD1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(L D" n"t insert duplicates '
/ND
4
The a"$e pr"gram "rks "n an assumpti"n the tale student !"r i! ha$ing a primar% ke% SN+ c"lumn ith
$alue 0:
9HE( OTHERSB
=hen "thers are a uni$ersal /9cepti"n angular this can catch all the /9cepti"ns
Declare
Psal numer(:'
numer
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( L=elc"me '
Select sal NT+ PS !r"m emp here deptn" 5deptn"
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(LThe sal is X^^Psal'
B040
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( LThank %"u '
/9cepti"n
=A/N +TA/RS TA/ND1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/( Lplease check the c"de '
/ND
4
ERROR REPORT(6 F%(CTO(SB
The% are t" /rr"r Rep"rting !uncti"ns
S7&+D/
2 S7/RRM
These err"r rep"rting !uncti"ns are used in hen "thers clause t" identi!ied the e9cepti"n hich is raised S+,CO)EB t returns /RR+R&+D/
2 S+,ERRMB t returns /9cepti"n numer and /9cepti"n message
(oteB !"r N+PDTPG+#ND /9cepti"n S7&+D/ ill return 00
Declare
Psal numer(:'
numer
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/ND
4
)ragma /9cepti"nPinit is a c"mpiler directi$e hich is used t" ass"ciated an /9cepti"n name t" the
prede!ined numer
%SER )EF(E) E7CEPTO(B
These /9cepti"ns are de!ined and c"ntr"lled % the user These /9cepti"ns neither ha$e prede!ined
name n"r ha$e prede!ined numer Steps t" handle user de!ined /9cepti"ns
Ste2: )eclare the E1ce2tion
declareout_of_stock exception;
beginstatements;
end;
Ste2<: Rai"ed the E1ce2tion
if qty < 10 thenraise out_of_stock;
end if;
Ste2=: Catch the E1ce2tion
exceptionwhen out_of_stock then
-- handle the exception (that is reraised in outerblock
!!!end;
E1
Declare
MHP/E /E&/)T+N --Step
PS /M)S_TH)/
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(Lelc"me'
Select S NT+ PS !r"m emp here empn" 5empn"
G PS V 2000 TA/N
RS/ MHP/E --Step2
/NDG
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(LThe sal is X L^^Psal'
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D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(LThank %"u'
/E&/)T+N
=A/N MHP/E TA/N --Step3
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(LSal is t" high'
/ND
4
(oteB =hen "thers sh"uld e the last handler "! the e9cepti"n secti"n "ther ise e get a c"mpiler /RR+R
R&SE&PP,C&TO(ERROR:
• RS/P))&T+NP/RR+R is a pr"cedure hich is used t" thr" "ne err"r numer and err"r
message t" the calling en$ir"nment
• t internall% per!"rmance r"lls ack
• /RR+R numer sh"uld e range "! -20000 t" -20??? /RR+R message sh"uld e displa%ed less
then "r e8ual t" ;2 characters
Declare
Psal empsal_TH)/
1egin
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(L=elc"me'
nsert NT+ dept $alues (0>,arun,<0'
Select sal NT+ Psal !r"m emp here empn" <6?>
G Psal V 2000 TA/N
RS/P))&T+NP/RR+R(-20;0, LS S T++ AA'
/ND G
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(LTA/ S SX^^PS'
/ND
4
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RES%,T:
Thus the )4S7 l"ck that handles all t%pes "! e9cepti"ns has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted
success!ull%
Creat"on o& #rocedures)
E1: (o: D
: :
&M:
T" rite a )4S7 l"ck t" displa% the student name, marks h"se a$erage mark is a"$e 60_
&,6ORTHM:
STEP: Start the pr"gram
STEP<: &reate a tale ith tale name studPe9am
STEP=: nsert the $alues int" the tale and &alculate t"tal and a$erage "! each student
STEP>: /9ecute the pr"cedure !uncti"n the student h" get a"$e 60_
STEP?: Displa% the t"tal and a$erage "! student
STEP@: Terminate the applicati"n
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S(T&7
&R/T/ Y+R R/)&/Z )R+&/D#R/ name Y(parameterY,parameter, Z'Z
[S^S\
Yl"cal declarati"nsZ
1/N
e9ecutale statements
Y/E&/)T+N
e9cepti"n handlersZ
/ND YnameZ
E7EC%TO(:
S7V S/T S/R./R+#T)#T +N
0 PRO6R&M:
PROCE)%RE %S(6 POSTO(&, P&R&METERS:
SETT(6 SER!ERO%TP%T O(:
S7V S/T S/R./R+#T)#T +N
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ )R+&/D#R/ )R+& S
1/N
D1MSP+#T)#T)#TPN/(IAell" !r"m pr"cedureI'
/ND
4
O#t2#t:
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)r"cedure created
S7V /E/&#T/ )R+&
Aell" !r"m pr"cedure
)4S7 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
0 PRO6R&M:
+: PROCE)%RE %S(6 (OT&TO(&, P&R&METERS:
S7V &R/T/ +R R/)&/ )R+&/D#R/ )R+&2(N N N#M1/R,N2 N N#M1/R,T+T +#T N#M1/R'
1/N
T+T B N C N2
/ND
4
O#t2#t:
)r"cedure created
S7V .R1/ T N#M1/R
S7V /E/& )R+&2(33,66,BT'
)4S7 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
S7V )RNT T
T
----------
??
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end
4
O#t 2#t:
/nter $alue !"r aB >
"ld >B aB5a
ne >B aB>
/nter $alue !"r B 6
"ld ?B B5
ne ?B B6
)r"cedure created
S7V set ser$er"utput "n
S7V e9ecute pr"
&D is
>
RES%,T:
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Thus the implementati"n "! )4S7 pr"cedure has een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
C+,AT-.N ./ DATABAS, T+-00,+S AND /UNCT-.NS
D. m2lementation of Tri--er" and it" &22lication
E1: (o: D
: :
&M:
T" the mplementati"n "! Triggers !"r the purp"se "! m"nit"r the dataase "@ect(taleetc' !"r an
m"di!icati"n % the 8uer% user and4"r the pplicati"n pr"gram
&,6ORTHM:
Start the pr"gram
2 &reate the tale ith its essential attriutes
3 nsert attriute $alues int" the tale
: &reate the trigger !"r a particular tale
; Speci!% hen the trigger is t" e !ired - e!"re "r a!ter
6 Speci!% DM statement that in$"kes the trigger - #)DT/, D//T/, "r NS/RT
< Speci!% the t%pe "! triger hether r"-le$el trigger "r n"t
> &"nditi"n t" !ilter r"s
? )4S7 l"ck that is t" e e9ecuted hen trigger is !ired
0 M"di!% the speci!ied tale t" !ire the trigger
Displa% the trigger message !"r the particular kind "! m"di!icati"n
2 St"p the pr"gram
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)&T&B&SE TR66ERS
Triggers are similar t" pr"cedures "r !uncti"ns in that the% are named )4S7 l"cks it
declarati$e, e9ecutale, and e9cepti"n handling secti"ns trigger is e9ecuted implicitl% hene$er th
triggering e$ent happens The act "! e9ecuting a trigger is kn"n as !iring the trigger
%SE OF TR66ERS
• Maintaining c"mple9 integrit% c"nstraints n"t p"ssile thr"ugh declarati$e c"nstraints enale at tal
creati"n
• uditing in!"rmati"n in a tale % rec"rding the changes made and h" made them
• ut"maticall% signaling "ther pr"grams that acti"n needs t" take place hen chages are made t" a
tale
• )er!"rm $alidati"n "n changes eing made t" tales
• ut"mate maintenance "! the dataase
RESTRCTO(S O( TR66ERES
• ike packages, triggers must e st"red as stand-al"ne "@ects in the dataase and cann"t e l"cal t"
l"ck "r package
• trigger d"es n"t accept arguments
TPES OF TR66ERS
• DM Triggers
• nstead "! Triggers
• DD Triggers
•
S%stem Triggers
• Suspend Triggers
C&TE6ORES
Timing -- 1e!"re "r !ter
e$el -- R" "r Statement
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• R" le$el trigger !ires "nce !"r each r" a!!ected % the triggering statement R" le$el trigger is
identi!ied % the G+R /&A R+= clause
• Statement le$el trigger !ires "nce either e!"re "r a!ter the statement
TR66ER S(T&7
&R/T/ Y+R R/)&/Z TR/R trigername
[1/G+R/ ̂ GT/R\
[D//T/ ^ NS/RT ^ #)DT/ Y+G c"lumnsZ\
Y+R [D//T/ ^ NS/RT ^#)DT/ Y+G c"lumnsZ\Z
+N tale
YG+R /&A R+= Y=A/N c"nditi"nZZ
YR/G/R/N&N Y+D S "ldZ YN/= S neZZ
)4S7 l"ck
)M, TR66ERS
• DM trigger is !ired "n an NS/RT, #)DT/, "r D//T/ "perati"n "n a dataase tale t can
e !ired either e!"re "r a!ter the statement e9ecutes, and can e !ired "nce per a!!ected r", "r "nce
per statement
• The c"minati"n "! these !act"rs determines the t%pes "! the triggers These are a t"tal "! 2 p"ssil
t%pes (3 statements Q 2 timing Q 2 le$els'
OR)ER OF )M, TR66ER FR(6
• 1e!"re statement le$el
• 1e!"re r" le$el
• !ter r" le$el
• !ter statement le$el
E1:
Supp"se e ha$e a !"lling tale
S7V select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ---------- ------------
a 00
2 200
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3 c 300
: d :00
ls" e ha$e triggeringP!iringP"rder tale ith !iringP"rder as the !ield
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R TR/R
e!"re insert "n student
1/N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I1e!"re Statement e$elI'
/ND TR/R
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R TR/R2
e!"re insert "n student
!"r each r"
1/N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I1e!"re R" e$elI'
/ND TR/R2
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R TR/R3
a!ter insert "n student
1/N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I!ter Statement e$elI'
/ND TR/R3
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R TR/R:
a!ter insert "n student
!"r each r"
1/N
insert int" triggerP!iringP"rder $alues(I!ter R" e$elI'
/ND TR/R:
O#t2#t:
S7V select Q !r"m triggerP!iringP"rder
n" r"s selected
S7V insert int" student $alues(;,IeI,;00'
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r" created
S7V select Q !r"m triggerP!iringP"rder
GRNP+RD/R
--------------------------------------------------1e!"re Statement e$el
1e!"re R" e$el
!ter R" e$el!ter Statement e$el
S7V select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ------------ -------------- a 00
2 200
3 c 300
: d :00; e ;00
E1:
Supp"se e ha$e a tale called marks ith !ields n", "ldPmarks, nePmarks
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R +DPN/=
e!"re insert "r update "r delete "n student
!"r each r"
1/N
insert int" marks $alues(B"ldn",B"ldmarks,Bnemarks'
/ND +DPN/=
O#t2#t:
S7V select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ------- - --------- a 00
2 200
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;00
S7V select Q !r"m marks
n" r"s selected
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S7V insert int" student $alues(6,I!I,600'
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ----------- --------------
a 00
2 200
3 c 300
: d :00; e ;00
6 ! 600
S7V select Q !r"m marks
N+ +DPMRKS N/=PMRKS
---- ------------------- -------------------
600
S7V update student set marks;;; here n";
r" updated
S7V select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
----- ------- ----------
a 00
2 200
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;;;6 ! 600
S7V select Q !r"m marks N+ +DPMRKS N/=PMRKS
------ ---------------- ---------------600
; ;00 ;;;
S7V delete student here n" 2
r" deleted
S7V select Q !r"m student
N+ NM/ MRKS
------ -------------- ------------
a 00
3 c 300
: d :00
; e ;;;
6 ! 600
S7V select Q !r"m marks N+ +DPMRKS N/=PMRKS
----- -------------- ----------------
600
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; ;00 ;;;
2 200
REFERE(C(6 C,&%SE
! desired, %"u can use the R/G/R/N&N clause t" speci!% a di!!erent name !"r B"ld ane Bne
This clause is !"und a!ter the triggering e$ent, e!"re the =A/N clause
Snta1:
R/G/R/N&N Y"ld as "ldPnameZ Yne as nePnameZ
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R R/G/R/N&/PTR/R
e!"re insert "r update "r delete "n student
re!erencing "ld as "ldPstudent ne as nePstudent
!"r each r"
1/N
insert int"marks $alues(B"ldPstudentn",B"ldPstudentmarks,BnePstudentmarks'
/ND R/G/R/N&/PTR/R
9HE( C,&%SE
=A/N clause is $alid !"r r"-le$el triggers "nl% ! present, the trigger "d% ill e e9ecuted
"nl% !"r th"se r"s that meet the c"nditi"n speci!ied % the =A/N clause
Snta1:
=A/N tri!!er_condition
=here tri!!er_condition is a 1""lean e9pressi"n t ill e e$aluated !"r each r" The "new
and "old rec"rds can e re!erenced inside tri!!er_condition as ell, ut like R/G/R/N&N, the
c"l"n is n"t used there The c"l"n is "nl% $alid in the trigger "d%
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R =A/NPTR/R
e!"re insert "r update "r delete "n student
re!erencing "ld as "ldPstudent ne as nePstudent
!"r each r"
hen (nePstudentmarks V ;00'
1/N
insert int"
marks $alues(B"ldPstudentn",B"ldPstudentmarks,BnePstudentmarks'
/ND =A/NPTR/R
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TR66ER PRE)C&TES
There are three 1""lean !uncti"ns that %"u can use t" determine hat the "perati"n is
The predicates are
• NS/RTN
• #)DTN
• D//TN
E1:
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ TR/R )R/D&T/PTR/R
e!"re insert "r update "r delete "n student
1/N
i! inserting then
insert int" predicates $alues(II'
elsi! updating theninsert int" predicates $alues(I#I'
elsi! deleting then
insert int" predicates $alues(IDI'
end i!
/ND )R/D&T/PTR/R
O#t2#t:
S7V delete student here n"
r" deleted
S7V select Q !r"m predicates
MS
---------------
D
S7V insert int" student $alues(<,IgI,<00' r" created
S7V select Q !r"m predicates
MS
---------------
D
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S7V update student set marks <<< here n"<
r" updated
S7V select Q !r"m predicates
MS
---------------
D
#
(STE&)3OF TR66ERS
nstead-"! triggers !ire instead "! a DM "perati"n ls", instead-"! triggers can e de!ined "nl% "n
$ies nstead-"! triggers are used in t" casesB
• T" all" a $ie that "uld "therise n"t e m"di!iale t" e m"di!ied
• T" m"di!% the c"lumns "! a nested tale c"lumn in a $ie
RES%,T:
Thus the mplementati"n "! Triggers and its applicati"ns t" m"nit"r the m"di!icati"n in dataase ha
een $eri!ied and e9ecuted success!ull%
D.< MP,EME(T&TO( OF F%(CTO(S &() TS &PP,C&TO(
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!uncti"n is similar t" pr"cedure, e9cept that it returns a $alue The calling pr"gram sh"uld
use the $alue returned % the !uncti"n
CRE&TE F%(CTO(
The create f#nction c"mmand is used t" create a st"red !uncti"n
SYNTA:
&R/T/ Y+R R/)&/Z G#N&T+N name
Y(parameterY,parameter, Z'Z
RET%R( datat2e
[S ^ S\
Yl"cal declarati"nsZ
1/N
e9ecutale statementsRET%R( 5al#e
Y/E&/)T+N
e9cepti"n handlersZ
/ND YnameZ
(ote:
• OR REP,&CE is used t" create a !uncti"n e$en th"ugh a !uncti"n ith the same name alread%
e9ists
• RET%R( datat2e speci!ies the t%pe "! data t" e returned % the !uncti"n
• RET%R( statement in the e9ecutale part returns the $alue The $alue must e "! the same t%pe a
the return t%pe speci!ied using R/T#RN "pti"n in the header
•#ser-de!ined )4S7 !uncti"ns can e used in S7 in the same manner as the standard !uncti"n
such as R+#ND and S#1STR
+ : T" rite a )4S7 l"ck t" implementati"n "! !act"rial using !uncti"n
0 PRO6R&M:
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S7Vcreate !uncti"n !n!act(n numer'
return numer is
numer
egin
B
!"r i in n
l""p
BQi
end l""p
return
end
4
S7VDeclare
n numerB5n
% numer
egin
dmsP"utputputPline(%'
end
4
O#t2#t:
Guncti"n created
/nter $alue !"r nB ;
old <: n numerB5n
new <: n numerB;
20
)4S7 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
+<:create a !uncti"n hich c"unt t"tal n""! empl"%ees ha$ing salar% less than 6000
4f#nction $od4
&reate "r replace !uncti"n c"untPemp(esal numer'return numer as
&urs"r $inPcur as Select empn",sal !r"m emp
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En" empempn"_t%pe
Esal empsal_t%pe
& numer
1egin
+pen $inPcur
&B0
l""p
!etch $inPcur int" 9n",9sal
i!(9salUesal' then
cBcC
end i!
e9it hen $inPcur_n"t!"und
end l""p
cl"se $inPcur
return c
end
4
Guncti"n created
4f#nction "2ecification4
Declare
Ne numer
Esal numer
1egin
NeBc"untPemp(9sal'
DmsP"utputputPline(9sal'
DmaP"utputputPline(Lthere are L^^ne^^empl"%ees'
/nd
4
O%TP%T
There are > empl"%ees
+<: T" rite a )4S7 !uncti"n t" search an address !r"m the gi$en dataase
0 PRO6R&M
S7V create tale ph"ne""k (ph"nePn" numer (6' primar% ke%,
username $archar2(30',
d""rn" $archar2(0',
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street $archar2(30',
place $archar2(30',
pinc"de char(6''
tale created
S7V insert int" ph"ne""k $alues(2032,I$i@a%I,I204;DI,Iharathi streetI,IN+c"l"n%I,I62?002I'
r" created
S7V insert int" ph"ne""k $alues(2?:6<,I$asanthI,I3?D:I,IRK ha$anI,Isarakkal $ilaiI,I62?002I'
r" created
S7V select Q !r"m ph"ne""k
)A+N/PN+ #S/RNM/ D++RN+ STR//T )&/ )N&+D/
--------------- ---------------- ------------- ----------- ---------- --------------
2032 $i@a% 204;D harathi street N+ c"l"n% 62?002
2?:6< $asanth 3?D: RK ha$an sarakkal $ilai 62?002
S7V create "r replace !uncti"n !indddress(ph"ne in numer' return $archar2 as address $archar2(00'
egin
select username^^I,I^^d""rn" ^^I,I^^street ^^I,I^^place^^I,I^^pinc"de int" address !r"m ph"ne""k
here ph"nePn"ph"ne
return address
e9cepti"n
hen n"PdataP!"und then return Iaddress n"t !"undI
end
4
Guncti"n created
declare
address $archar2(00'
egin
addressB!indaddress(2032'
dmsP"utputputPline(address'
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end
4
O%TP%T :
.i@a%,204;D,harathi street,N+ c"l"n%,62?002
)4S7 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
declare
address $archar2(00'
egin
addressB!indaddress(23;;6'
dmsP"utputputPline(address'
end
4
O%TP%T<:
ddress n"t !"und
)4S7 pr"cedure success!ull% c"mpleted
Re"#ltB
Thus the implementati"n "! !uncti"ns and its applicati"ns has een e9ecuted success!ull%
SU##L,M,NT - A
BMS LAB 11A $U,ST.NS
=hat is dataase]
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dataase is a l"gicall% c"herent c"llecti"n "! data ith s"me inherent meaning, representing s"m
aspect "! real "rld and hich is designed, uilt and p"pulated ith data !"r a speci!ic purp"se
2 =hat is D1MS]
t is a c"llecti"n "! pr"grams that enales user t" create and maintain a dataase n "ther "rds it i
general-purp"se s"!tare that pr"$ides the users ith the pr"cesses "! de!ining, c"nstructing anmanipulating the dataase !"r $ari"us applicati"ns
3 =hat is a Dataase s%stem]
The dataase and D1MS s"!tare t"gether is called as Dataase s%stem
: =hat are the ad$antages "! D1MS]
Redundanc% is c"ntr"lled
2 #nauth"rised access is restricted
3 )r"$iding multiple user inter!aces
: /n!"rcing integrit% c"nstraints
; )r"$iding ackup and rec"$er%
; =hat is the disad$antage in Gile )r"cessing S%stem]
Data redundanc% and inc"nsistenc%
2 Di!!icult in accessing data
3 Data is"lati"n
: Data integrit%
; &"ncurrent access is n"t p"ssile
6 Securit% )r"lems
6 Descrie the three le$els "! data astracti"n]
The are hree le$els "! astracti"nB
)h%sical le$elB The l"est le$el "! astracti"n descries h" data are st"red
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2 "gical le$elB The ne9t higher le$el "! astracti"n, descries hat data are st"red in dataase an
hat relati"nship am"ng th"se data
3 .ie le$elB The highest le$el "! astracti"n descries "nl% part "! entire dataase
< De!ine the integrit% rules]
There are t" ntegrit% rules
/ntit% ntegrit%B States that )rimar% ke% cann"t ha$e N# $alue
2 Re!erential ntegrit%B States that G"reign Ke% can e either a N# $alue "r sh"uld
)rimar% Ke% $alue "! "ther relati"n
> =hat is e9tensi"n and intensi"n]
/9tensi"nB t is the numer "! tuples present in a tale at an% instance This is time dependent
2 ntensi"nB t is a c"nstant $alue that gi$es the name, structure "! tale and the c"nstraints laid "n i
? =hat is S%stem R] =hat are its t" ma@"r sus%stems]
S%stem R as designed and de$el"ped "$er a peri"d "! ?<:-<? at 1M San "se Research &enter
is a pr"t"t%pe and its purp"se as t" dem"nstrate that it is p"ssile t" uild a Relati"nal S%stem that can
used in a real li!e en$ir"nment t" s"l$e real li!e pr"lems, ith per!"rmance at least c"mparale t" that "e9isting s%stem
ts t" sus%stems are
Research St"rage
2 S%stem Relati"nal Data S%stem
0 A" is the data structure "! S%stem R di!!erent !r"m the relati"nal structure]
#nlike Relati"nal s%stems in S%stem R
D"mains are n"t supp"rted
2 /n!"rcement "! candidate ke% uni8ueness is "pti"nal
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3 /n!"rcement "! entit% integrit% is "pti"nal
: Re!erential integrit% is n"t en!"rced
=hat is Data ndependence]
Data independence means that the applicati"n is independent "! the st"rage structure and acces
strateg% "! data n "ther "rds, The ailit% t" m"di!% the schema de!initi"n in "ne le$el sh"uld n"t a!!ec
the schema de!initi"n in the ne9t higher le$el
T" t%pes "! Data ndependenceB
)h%sical Data ndependenceB M"di!icati"n in ph%sical le$el sh"uld n"t a!!ect the l"gical le$el
2 "gical Data ndependenceB M"di!icati"n in l"gical le$el sh"uld a!!ect the $ie le$el
N+T/B "gical Data ndependence is m"re di!!icult t" achie$e
2 =hat is a $ie] A" it is related t" data independence]
$ie ma% e th"ught "! as a $irtual tale, that is, a tale that d"es n"t reall% e9ist in its "n righ
ut is instead deri$ed !r"m "ne "r m"re underl%ing ase tale n "ther "rds, there is n" st"red !ile tha
direct represents the $ie instead a de!initi"n "! $ie is st"red in data dicti"nar%
r"th and restructuring "! ase tales is n"t re!lected in $ies Thus the $ie can insulate user!r"m the e!!ects "! restructuring and gr"th in the dataase Aence acc"unts !"r l"gical data independence
3 =hat is Data M"del]
c"llecti"n "! c"nceptual t""ls !"r descriing data, data relati"nships data semantics an
c"nstraints
: =hat is /-R m"del]
This data m"del is ased "n real "rld that c"nsists "! asic "@ects called entities and "
relati"nship
am"ng these "@ects /ntities are descried in a dataase % a set "! attriutes
; =hat is +@ect +riented m"del]
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This m"del is ased "n c"llecti"n "! "@ects n "@ect c"ntains $alues st"red in instance $ariale
ith in the "@ect n "@ect als" c"ntains "dies "! c"de that "perate "n the "@ect These "dies "! c"d
are called meth"ds +@ects that c"ntain same t%pes "! $alues and the same meth"ds are gr"uped t"gethe
int" classes
6 =hat is an /ntit%]
t is a IthingI in the real "rld ith an independent e9istence
< =hat is an /ntit% t%pe]
t is a c"llecti"n (set' "! entities that ha$e same attriutes
> =hat is an /ntit% set]
t is a c"llecti"n "! all entities "! particular entit% t%pe in the dataase
? =hat is an /9tensi"n "! entit% t%pe]
The c"llecti"ns "! entities "! a particular entit% t%pe are gr"uped t"gether int" an entit% set
20 =hat is =eak /ntit% set]
n entit% set ma% n"t ha$e su!!icient attriutes t" !"rm a primar% ke%, and its primar% ke
c"mpr"mises "! its partial ke% and primar% ke% "! its parent entit%, then it is said t" e =eak /ntit% set
2 =hat is an attriute]
t is a particular pr"pert%, hich descries the entit%
22 =hat is a Relati"n Schema and a Relati"n]
relati"n Schema den"ted % R(, 2, , n' is made up "! the relati"n name R and the list "
attriutes i that it c"ntains relati"n is de!ined as a set "! tuples et r e the relati"n hich c"ntains se
tuples (t, t2, t3, , tn' /ach tuple is an "rdered list "! n-$alues t($,$2, , $n'
23 =hat is degree "! a Relati"n]
t is the numer "! attriute "! its relati"n schema
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2: =hat is Relati"nship]
t is an ass"ciati"n am"ng t" "r m"re entities
2; =hat is Relati"nship set]
The c"llecti"n ("r set' "! similar relati"nships
26 =hat is Relati"nship t%pe]
Relati"nship t%pe de!ines a set "! ass"ciati"ns "r a relati"nship set am"ng a gi$en set "! entit% t%pes
2< =hat is degree "! Relati"nship t%pe]
t is the numer "! entit% t%pe participating
2> =hat is DD (Data De!initi"n anguage']
data ase schema is speci!ies % a set "! de!initi"ns e9pressed % a special language called DD
2? =hat is .D (.ie De!initi"n anguage']
t speci!ies user $ies and their mappings t" the c"nceptual schema
30 =hat is SD (St"rage De!initi"n anguage']
This language is t" speci!% the internal schema This language ma% speci!% the mapping eteen t
schemas
3 =hat is Data St"rage - De!initi"n anguage]
The st"rage structures and access meth"ds used % dataase s%stem are speci!ied % a set "
de!initi"n in a special t%pe "! DD called data st"rage-de!initi"n language
32 =hat is DM (Data Manipulati"n anguage']
This language that enale user t" access "r manipulate data as "rganised % appr"priate data m"del
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)r"cedural DM "r " le$elB DM re8uires a user t" speci!% hat data are needed and h" t
get th"se data
2 N"n-)r"cedural DM "r Aigh le$elB DM re8uires a user t" speci!% hat data are needed ith"u
speci!%ing h" t" get th"se data
33 =hat is DM &"mpiler]
t translates DM statements in a 8uer% language int" l"-le$el instructi"n that the 8uer% e$aluati"n
engine can understand
3: =hat is 7uer% e$aluati"n engine]
t e9ecutes l"-le$el instructi"n generated % c"mpiler
3; =hat is DD nterpreter]
t interprets DD statements and rec"rd them in tales c"ntaining metadata
36 =hat is Rec"rd-at-a-time]
The " le$el "r )r"cedural DM can speci!% and retrie$e each rec"rd !r"m a set "! rec"rds Thi
retrie$e "! a rec"rd is said t" e Rec"rd-at-a-time
3< =hat is Set-at-a-time "r Set-"riented]
The Aigh le$el "r N"n-pr"cedural DM can speci!% and retrie$e man% rec"rds in a single DM
statement This retrie$e "! a rec"rd is said t" e Set-at-a-time "r Set-"riented
3> =hat is Relati"nal lgera]
t is pr"cedural 8uer% language t c"nsists "! a set "! "perati"ns that take "ne "r t" relati"ns a
input and pr"duce a ne relati"n
3? =hat is Relati"nal &alculus]
t is an applied predicate calculus speci!icall% tail"red !"r relati"nal dataases pr"p"sed % /G
&"dd
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/g "! languages ased "n it are DS )A, 7#/
:0 A" d"es Tuple-"riented relati"nal calculus di!!er !r"m d"main-"riented relati"nal calculus]
The tuple-"riented calculus uses a tuple $ariales ie, $ariale h"se "nl% permitted $alues ar
tuples "! that relati"n /g 7#/
2 The d"main-"riented calculus has d"main $ariales ie, $ariales that range "$er the underl%in
d"mains instead "! "$er relati"n /g , D/D#&/
: =hat is n"rmaliFati"n]
t is a pr"cess "! anal%sing the gi$en relati"n schemas ased "n their Guncti"nal Dependencies (GDs
and primar% ke% t" achie$e the pr"perties
('MinimiFing redundanc%,
(2' MinimiFing inserti"n, deleti"n and update an"malies
:2 =hat is Guncti"nal Dependenc%]
Guncti"nal dependenc% is den"ted % E H eteen t" sets "! attriutes E and H that are suset
"! R speci!ies a c"nstraint "n the p"ssile tuple that can !"rm a relati"n state r "! R The c"nstraint is !"r an
t" tuples t and t2 in r i! tYEZ t2YEZ then the% ha$e tYHZ t2YHZ This means the $alue "! E c"mp"nen
"! a tuple uni8uel% determines the $alue "! c"mp"nent H
:3 =hat is "ssless @"in pr"pert%]
t guarantees that the spuri"us tuple generati"n d"es n"t "ccur ith respect t" relati"n schemas a!te
dec"mp"siti"n
:: =hat is NG (N"rmal G"rm']
The d"main "! attriute must include "nl% at"mic (simple, indi$isile' $alues
:; =hat is Gull% Guncti"nal dependenc%]
t is ased "n c"ncept "! !ull !uncti"nal dependenc% !uncti"nal dependenc% E H is !ull !uncti"na
dependenc% i! rem"$al "! an% attriute !r"m E means that the dependenc% d"es n"t h"ld an% m"re
:6 =hat is 2NG]
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relati"n schema R is in 2NG i! it is in NG and e$er% n"n-prime attriute in R is !ull
!uncti"nall% dependent "n primar% ke%
:< =hat is 3NG]
relati"n schema R is in 3NG i! it is in 2NG and !"r e$er% GD E either "! the !"ll"ing is true
E is a Super-ke% "! R
2 is a prime attriute "! R
n "ther "rds, i! e$er% n"n prime attriute is n"n-transiti$el% dependent "n primar% ke%
:> =hat is 1&NG (1"%ce-&"dd N"rmal G"rm']
relati"n schema R is in 1&NG i! it is in 3NG and satis!ies an additi"nal c"nstraint that !"r e$er% GD
E , E must e a candidate ke%
:? =hat is :NG]
relati"n schema R is said t" e in :NG i! !"r e$er% Multi$alued dependenc% E H that h"lds "$er R
"ne "! !"ll"ing is true
' E is suset "r e8ual t" ("r' EH R
2' E is a super ke%
;0 =hat is ;NG]
Relati"n schema R is said t" e ;NG i! !"r e$er% @"in dependenc% [R, R2, , Rn\ that h"lds R
"ne the !"ll"ing is true
' Ri R !"r s"me i
2' The @"in dependenc% is implied % the set "! GD, "$er R in hich the le!t side is ke% "! R
; =hat is D"main-Ke% N"rmal G"rm]
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relati"n is said t" e in DKNG i! all c"nstraints and dependencies that sh"uld h"ld "n the th
c"nstraint can e en!"rced % simpl% en!"rcing the d"main c"nstraint and ke% c"nstraint "n the relati"n
;2 =hat are partial, alternate,, arti!icial, c"mp"und and natural ke%]
. Partial 8e:
t is a set "! attriutes that can uni8uel% identi!% eak entities and that are related t" same "ne
entit% t is s"metime called as Discriminat"r
<. <ernate 8e:
ll &andidate Ke%s e9cluding the )rimar% Ke% are kn"n as lternate Ke%s
=. &rtificial 8e:
! n" "$i"us ke%, either stand al"ne "r c"mp"und is a$ailale, then the last res"rt is t" simpl% creat
a ke%, % assigning a uni8ue numer t" each rec"rd "r "ccurrence Then this is kn"n as de$el"ping a
arti!icial ke%
>. Com2o#nd 8e:
! n" single data element uni8uel% identi!ies "ccurrences ithin a c"nstruct, then c"mining multipl
elements t" create a uni8ue identi!ier !"r the c"nstruct is kn"n as creating a c"mp"und ke%
?. (at#ral 8e:
=hen "ne "! the data elements st"red ithin a c"nstruct is utiliFed as the primar% ke%, then it i
called the natural ke%
;3 =hat is inde9ing and hat are the di!!erent kinds "! inde9ing]
nde9ing is a techni8ue !"r determining h" 8uickl% speci!ic data can e !"und
T%pesB
1inar% search st%le inde9ing
2 1-Tree inde9ing
3 n$erted list inde9ing
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: Mem"r% resident tale
; Tale inde9ing
;: =hat is s%stem catal"g "r catal"g relati"n] A" is etter kn"n as]
RD1MS maintains a descripti"n "! all the data that it c"ntains, in!"rmati"n a"ut e$er% relati"
and inde9 that it c"ntains This in!"rmati"n is st"red in a c"llecti"n "! relati"ns maintained % the s%stem
called metadata t is als" called data dicti"nar%
;; =hat is meant % 8uer% "ptimiFati"n]
The phase that identi!ies an e!!icient e9ecuti"n plan !"r e$aluating a 8uer% that has the lea
estimated c"st is re!erred t" as 8uer% "ptimiFati"n
;6 =hat is durailit% in D1MS]
+nce the D1MS in!"rms the user that a transacti"n has success!ull% c"mpleted, its e!!ects sh"ul
persist e$en i! the s%stem crashes e!"re all its changes are re!lected "n disk This pr"pert% is calle
durailit%
;< =hat d" %"u mean % at"micit% and aggregati"n]
. &tomicit:
/ither all acti"ns are carried "ut "r n"ne are #sers sh"uld n"t ha$e t" "rr% a"ut the e!!ect "
inc"mplete transacti"ns D1MS ensures this % und"ing the acti"ns "! inc"mplete transacti"ns
<. &--re-ation:
c"ncept hich is used t" m"del a relati"nship eteen a c"llecti"n "! entities and relati"nships
is used hen e need t" e9press a relati"nship am"ng relati"nships
;> =hat is a )hant"m Deadl"ck]
n distriuted deadl"ck detecti"n, the dela% in pr"pagating l"cal in!"rmati"n might cause th
deadl"ck detecti"n alg"rithms t" identi!% deadl"cks that d" n"t reall% e9ist Such situati"ns are calle
phant"m deadl"cks and the% lead t" unnecessar% a"rts
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;? =hat is a checkp"int and =hen d"es it "ccur]
&heckp"int is like a snapsh"t "! the D1MS state 1% taking checkp"ints, the D1MS can reduc
the am"unt "! "rk t" e d"ne during restart in the e$ent "! suse8uent crashes
60 =hat are the di!!erent phases "! transacti"n]
Di!!erent phases are
' nal%sis phase,
2' Red" )hase,
3' #nd" phase
6 =hat d" %"u mean % !lat !ile dataase]
t is a dataase in hich there are n" pr"grams "r user access languages t has n" cr"ss-!il
capailities ut is user-!riendl% and pr"$ides user-inter!ace management
62 =hat is transparent D1MS]
t is "ne, hich keeps its )h%sical Structure hidden !r"m user
63 =hat is a 8uer%]
8uer% ith respect t" D1MS relates t" user c"mmands that are used t" interact ith a data ase
The 8uer% language can e classi!ied int" data de!initi"n language and data manipulati"n language
6: =hat d" %"u mean % &"rrelated su8uer%]
Su8ueries, "r nested 8ueries, are used t" ring ack a set "! r"s t" e used % the parent 8uer%
Depending "n h" the su8uer% is ritten, it can e e9ecuted "nce !"r the parent 8uer% "r it can e e9ecute
"nce !"r each r" returned % the parent 8uer% ! the su8uer% is e9ecuted !"r each r" "! the parent, this
called a c"rrelated su8uer%
c"rrelated su8uer% can e easil% identi!ied i! it c"ntains an% re!erences t" the parent su8uer% c"lumns i
its =A/R/ clause &"lumns !r"m the su8uer% cann"t e re!erenced an%here else in the parent 8uer% Th
!"ll"ing e9ample dem"nstrates a n"n-c"rrelated su8uer%
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/9ampleB
Select Q Gr"m &#ST =here I04034??0I N (Select +DT/ Gr"m +RD/R
=here &#ST&N#M +RD/R&N#M'
6; =hat are the primiti$e "perati"ns c"mm"n t" all rec"rd management s%stems]
dditi"n, deleti"n and m"di!icati"n
66 Name the u!!er in hich all the c"mmands that are t%ped in are st"red]
I/ditI 1u!!er
6< =hat are the unar% "perati"ns in Relati"nal lgera]
)R+/&T+N and S//&T+N
6> re the resulting relati"ns "! )R+D#&T and +N "perati"n the same]
N"
)R+D#&TB &"ncatenati"n "! e$er% r" in "ne relati"n ith e$er% r" in an"ther
+NB &"ncatenati"n "! r"s !r"m "ne relati"n and related r"s !r"m an"ther
6? =hat is RD1MS K/RN/]
T" imp"rtant pieces "! RD1MS architecture are the kernel, hich is the s"!tare, and the dat
dicti"nar%, hich c"nsists "! the s%stem-le$el data structures used % the kernel t" manage the dataase H"
might think "! an RD1MS as an "perating s%stem ("r set "! sus%stems', designed speci!icall% !"
c"ntr"lling data access its primar% !uncti"ns are st"ring, retrie$ing, and securing data
n RD1MS maintains its "n list "! auth"riFed users and their ass"ciated pri$ileges manages mem"r%
caches and paging c"ntr"ls l"cking !"r c"ncurrent res"urce usage dispatches and schedules user
re8uests and manages space usage ithin its tale-space structures
<0 Name the su-s%stems "! a RD1MS
4+, Securit%,
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' Dataase !iles
2' &"ntr"l !iles
3' Red" l"gs
The m"st imp"rtant "! these are the dataase !iles here the actual data resides The c"ntr"l !iles an
the red" l"gs supp"rt the !uncti"ning "! the architecture itsel! ll three sets "! !iles must e present, "pen
and a$ailale t" +racle !"r an% data "n the dataase t" e useale =ith"ut these !iles, %"u cann"t access th
dataase, and the dataase administrat"r might ha$e t" rec"$er s"me "r all "! the dataase using a ackup, i
there is "ne
<6 =hat is dataase Trigger]
dataase trigger is a )4S7 l"ck that can de!ined t" aut"maticall% e9ecute !"r insert, update, an
delete statements against a tale The trigger can e de!ined t" e9ecute "nce !"r the entire statement "r "nc
!"r e$er% r" that is inserted, updated, "r deleted G"r an% "ne tale, there are tel$e e$ents !"r hich %"u
can de!ine dataase triggers dataase trigger can call dataase pr"cedures that are als" ritten in )4S7
<< =hat are st"red-pr"cedures] nd hat are the ad$antages "! using them]
St"red pr"cedures are dataase "@ects that per!"rm a user de!ined "perati"n st"red pr"cedure ca
ha$e a set "! c"mp"und S7 statements st"red pr"cedure e9ecutes the S7 c"mmands and returns th
result t" the client St"red pr"cedures are used t" reduce net"rk tra!!ic
<> =hat is St"rage Manager]
t is a pr"gram m"dule that pr"$ides the inter!ace eteen the l"-le$el data st"red in dataase
applicati"n pr"grams and 8ueries sumitted t" the s%stem
<? =hat is 1u!!er Manager]
t is a pr"gram m"dule, hich is resp"nsile !"r !etching data !r"m disk st"rage int" main mem"r%
and deciding hat data t" e cache in mem"r%
>0 =hat is Transacti"n Manager]
t is a pr"gram m"dule, hich ensures that dataase, remains in a c"nsistent state despite s%stem
!ailures and c"ncurrent transacti"n e9ecuti"n pr"ceeds ith"ut c"n!licting
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> =hat is Gile Manager]
t is a pr"gram m"dule, hich manages the all"cati"n "! space "n disk st"rage and data structur
used t" represent in!"rmati"n st"red "n a disk
>2 =hat is uth"riFati"n and ntegrit% manager]
t is the pr"gram m"dule, hich tests !"r the satis!acti"n "! integrit% c"nstraint and checks th
auth"rit% "! user t" access data
>3 =hat are stand-al"ne pr"cedures]
)r"cedures that are n"t part "! a package are kn"n as stand-al"ne ecause the% independentl
de!ined g""d e9ample "! a stand-al"ne pr"cedure is "ne ritten in a S7QG"rms applicati"n These t%pe
"! pr"cedures are n"t a$ailale !"r re!erence !r"m "ther +racle t""ls n"ther limitati"n "! stand-al"n
pr"cedures is that the% are c"mpiled at run time, hich sl"s e9ecuti"n
>: =hat are curs"rs gi$e di!!erent t%pes "! curs"rs]
)4S7 uses curs"rs !"r all dataase in!"rmati"n accesses statements The language supp"rts the us
t" t%pes "! curs"rs
' mplicit
2' /9plicit
>; =hat is c"ld ackup and h"t ackup (in case "! +racle']
&"ld 1ackupB t is c"p%ing the three sets "! !iles (dataase !iles, red" l"gs, and c"ntr"l !ile' hen th
instance is shut d"n This is a straight !ile c"p%, usuall% !r"m the disk directl% t" tape H"u must shut d"
the instance t" guarantee a c"nsistent c"p% ! a c"ld ackup is per!"rmed, the "nl% "pti"n a$ailale in th
e$ent "! data !ile l"ss is rest"ring all the !iles !r"m the latest ackup ll "rk per!"rmed "n the dataas
since the last ackup is l"st
2 A"t 1ackupB S"me sites (such as "rldide airline reser$ati"ns s%stems' cann"t shut d"n the dataas
hile making a ackup c"p% "! the !iles The c"ld ackup is n"t an a$ailale "pti"n
>6 =hat is meant % )r"acti$e, Retr"acti$e and Simultane"us #pdate
)r"acti$e #pdateB The updates that are applied t" dataase e!"re it ec"mes e!!ecti$e in real "rld
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2 Retr"acti$e #pdateB The updates that are applied t" dataase a!ter it ec"mes e!!ecti$e in real "rld
3 Simulatne"us #pdateB The updates that are applied t" dataase at the same time hen it ec"mes e!!ecti$
in real "rld
SU##L,M,NT - B
)&T&B&SE &PP,C&TO(
Em2loee" Mana-ement &22lication
This applicati"n is used t" keep track "! in!"rmati"n a"ut empl"%ees "! a c"mpan% t als" st"re
the in!"rmati"n a"ut departments and lea$es taken % empl"%ees H"u are re8uired t" create tales (a
sh"n el"' and insert data int" each "! the tale
part !r"m gi$ing %"u an idea a"ut h" t" create tales ith c"nstraints, it als" enales %"u t" understan
h" t" create 8ueries, pl4s8l pr"grams, st"red pr"cedures and !uncti"ns and dataase triggers
A"e$er, n"te, this sample c"llecti"n "! tales is "nl% !"r learning purp"se and the% are h%p"thetical
• Re8uired Tales
• Structure "! Tales
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• &reating Tales
• "ading data int" tales
• 7ueries
Re;#ired Ta$le"
The !"ll"ing are the set "! tales t" e created t" st"re the re8uired in!"rmati"n
Ta$le (ame Meanin-
D/)T St"res the details "! departments "! the c"mpan%
/M)+H// St"res in!"rmati"n a"ut all the empl"%ees "! the c"mpan%
/./S St"res in!"rmati"n a"ut t%pes "! lea$es a$ailale
/M)P/./S St"res in!"rmati"n a"ut lea$es taken % the empl"%ees
Structure "! Tales
The !"ll"ing is the structure "! each "! the re8uired tale
D/)T Tale
St"res in!"rmati"n a"ut all the departments "! the c"mpan%
Col#mn (ame )atat2e Meanin-
D/)TN+ numer(2' Department Numer
D/)TNM/ $archar2(20' Department Name
A+D $archar2(20' Aead "! the department
Con"traint"
• D/)TN+ is primar% ke%
• D/)TNM/ must e uni8ue
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EMP,OEE ta$le
&"ntains in!"rmati"n a"ut all the empl"%ees "! the c"mpan%
Col#mn (ame )atat2e Meanin-
/M)N+ numer(;' /mpl"%ee Numer
/M)NM/ $archar2(20' /mpl"%ee Name
S numer(6' 1asic Salar%
D/)TN+ numer(2' Department t" hich empl"%ee el"ngs
D Date Date "! @"ining the c"mpan%
D/S $archar2(20' Designati"n "! the empl"%ee
Con"traint"
• /M)N+ is primar% ke%
• S must e V 000
• D/)TN+ is !"reign ke% re!erencing D/)TN+ "! D/)T tale
,E&!ES Ta$le&"ntains in!"rmati"n a"ut the t%pes "! lea$es a$ailale in the c"mpan%
Col#mn (ame )atat2e Meanin-
/./TH)/ char(' &"de !"r the t%pe "! lea$e
/./NM/ $archar2(20' Descripti"n "! the t%pe "! the lea$e
N+/./S numer(2' Numer "! lea$es all"tted t" each empl"%ee !"r a lea$e t%pe
Contraint"
• /./TH)/ is primar% ke%
• N+/./S must e U 20
EMP,E&!ES Ta$le
&"ntains in!"rmati"n a"ut the lea$es taken % empl"%ees
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N+/./S N#M1/R(2' &+NSTRNT /./SPN+/./SP&AK &A/&K ( N+/./S U 20'
'
&R/T/ T1/ /M)+H//
(
/M)N+ N#M1/R(;' &+NSTRNT /M)+H//P)K )RMRH K/H,
/M)NM/ .R&AR2(20', S N#M1/R(;' &+NSTRNT /M)+H//PSP&AK &A/&K ( S V 000',
D/)TN+ N#M1/R(2' &+NSTRNT /M)+H//PD/)TN+PGK R/G/R/N&/S D/)T(D/)TN+',
D/S .R&AR2(20',
D DT/,'
&R/T/ T1/ /M)P/./S(
/M)N+ N#M1/R(;' &+NSTRNT /M)P/./SP/M)N+PGK R/G/R/N&/S /M)+H//(/M)N+',
/./TH)/ &AR(' &+NSTRNT /M)P/./SP/./TH)/PGK R/G/R/N&/S /./S(/./TH)/'
&+NSTRNT /M)P/./SP/./TH)/PNN N+T N#, STDT/ DT/,
/NDDT/ DT/,
&+NSTRNT /M)P/./SP)K )RMRH K/H (/M)N+,STDT/',
&+NSTRNT /M)P/./SPDT/SP&AK &A/&K (STDT/ U /NDDT/''
"ading data int" tales
The !"ll"ing script inserts a !e r"s int" sample tales &lick here t" d"nl"ad the script t"
create sample data "r c"p% the script gi$en el" int" n"tepad, sa$e it ith S7 e9tensi"n and
run it at S7V using STRT c"mmand
R/M QQQQQQ script t" insert sample data int" /M)+H//S applicati"n QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQ #TA+R B )SRKNTA QQQQQQR/M QQQQQQ DT/ B 23-#-200 QQQQQQ
R/M QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
rem rem"$e all e9isting r"s !irst
D//T/ GR+M /M)P/./S
D//T/ GR+M /M)+H//D//T/ GR+M D/)T
D//T/ GR+M /./S
NS/RT NT+ /./S .#/S(ISI,IS&KI,;'
NS/RT NT+ /./S .#/S(I&I,I&S#I,;'
NS/RT NT+ /./S .#/S(I/I,I/RNNI,;'
NS/RT NT+ /./S .#/S(I+I,I+./RTM/I,;'
NS/RT NT+ D/)T .#/S(,IMNGRM/I,I/+R/I'NS/RT NT+ D/)T .#/S(2,I&/NT4S/R./RI,I1I'
NS/RT NT+ D/)T .#/S(3,ISHST/MSI,IRRHI'
NS/RT NT+ D/)T .#/S(:,INT/RN/TI,I)#I'
NS/RT NT+ D/)T .#/S(;,I&&+#NTSI,INDHI'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0,I/+R/I,2000,,I2-#-200I,I)MI'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(02,I1I,2000,2,I:-#-200I,I)MI'NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(03,IRRHI,;000,3,I-#-200I,I)MI'
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NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0:,I)#I,000,:,I2-#-200I,I)I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0;,INDHI,<000,;,I2;-#N-200I,IMI'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(06,IK/TSI,0000,,I<-#-200I,ISI'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0<,I+/I,>000,2,I;-#-200I,IS)I'NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0>,IR+1/RTSI,<;00,2,I;-#-200I,I)R+I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0?,IA/R1/RTI,>000,:,I22-#-200I,ISI'
NS/RT NT+ /M)+H// .#/S(0,IM&A/I,6000,:,I;-#-200I,I)R+I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(02,ISI,I23-#-200I,I2;-#-200I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(0:,I&I,I2:-#-200I,I2;-#-200I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(0:,ISI,I2>-#-200I,I2?-#-200I'NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(0,I&I,I2<-#-200I,I2>-#-200I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(06,I+I,I2>-#-200I,I2?-#-200I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(0?,I&I,I-#-200I,I2-#-200I'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(03,I&I,I2-#-200I,I;-#-200I'NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(0;,ISI,I<-#-200I,N#'
NS/RT NT+ /M)P/./S .#/S(0>,ISI,I23-#-200I,N#'
&+MMT
$uer"es +elated To ,m(lo'ees Management A((l"cat"on
+: DS)H /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D N TA/ ST ; DHS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ SHSDT/ - D U ;
+: DS)H /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D T+DH
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ TR#N&(SHSDT/' TR#N&(D'
(OTE:
TR#N& G#N&T+N S R/7#R/D N +RD/R T+ N+R/ TM/ DGG/R/N&/ 1/T=//N T=+ DT/S
+: DS)H =A+ A./ +N/D N TA/ ST =//K +G TA/ M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D V STPDH(D' - <
+: DS)H =A/N /M)+H// 02 AS TK/N AS GRST SRH
S//&T /M)NM/, STPDH(D' C GRST SRH DT/
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ 02
+: D//T/ /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
D//T/ GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI' T+P&AR(D,IMMHHHHI'
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+: D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+S/ SRH RN/ S 1/T=//N 2,000 T+ :,000
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S 1/T=//N 2000 ND :000
+: D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ 1/+N T+ D/)RTM/NT +R 3
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N (,3'
+: S//&T NM/S +G /M)+H//S =A+S/ NM/S STRT =TA IMI
S//&T /M)NM/
GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ /M)NM/ K/ IM_I
+: D//T/ TA+S/ /M)+H//S =A/R/ NM/ AS TA/ &AR&T/R II
D//T/ GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ K/ I__I
+: S//&T /M)+H//S =A/R/ S/&+ND &AR&T/R N NM/ S ISI
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ K/ IPS_I
+: S//&T TA+S/ /M)+H//S =A+S/ SRH S N+T KN+=N
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S S N#
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D N TA/ ST 20 DHS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ SHSDT/ - D U 20
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /./S G TA/ N#M1/R +G /./S S M+R/ TAN 0
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ - STDT/ V 0
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +G +NN,N#M1/R +G M+NTAS +G /E)/R/N&/ ND 1S& SRH
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' /E), S
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ R/ DR=N M+R/ TAN 0000 ND TA/ D/SNT+N S &+NTNN
M+R/ TAN 3 /TT/RS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V 0000 ND /NTA(D/S' V 3
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+S/ NM/ S &+NTNN M+R/ TAN +N/ S)&/
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S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ NSTR(/M)NM/, I I , , 2' UV 0
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S =A/R/ TA/ /./ STRT/D N TA/ )R/.+#S M+NTA ND TA/ /./ S N+T H/T
&+M)/T/D
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ STDT/ 1/T=//N STPDH( DDPM+NTAS(STDT/,-2'' C ND
STPDH( DDPM+NTAS(STDT/,-'' C
ND /NDDT/ S N#
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A/R/ 1S& SRH S M+R/ TAN 0000 +R D/SNT+N S ) ND
/E)/R/N&/ S M+R/ TAN 3 H/RS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V 0000 +R D/S I)I ND M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' V 36
+: DS)H /M)N+,NM/ ND GRST NM/ +G TA/ /M)+H// ND =A/N /M)+H// AS TK/N AS GRST SRH
S//&T S#1STR(/M)NM/,,NSTR(/M)NM/,I I' -' GNM/, STPDH(D' C
GR+M /M)+H//
+: GND TA/ ./R/ SRH +G TA/ /M)+H// =A+ +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
+: GND TA/ ./R/ SRH +G /&A D/)RTM/NT 1H TKN /M)+H//S =A+ /RN M+R/ TAN 0000
S//&T D/)TN+, .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V 0000
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S +N =TA 1+N#S =A&A = 1/ 00_ +N SRH G+R /M)+H//S +G
D/)RTM/NT ND <;_ G+R +TA/RS
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D/S, D, S, S Q D/&+D/(D/)TN+,,0,0<;' 1+N#S
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S TK/N 1H /M)+H//S =A/R/ TH)/ +G /./ S ISI ND /./ STRT/D +N M+NDH
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /./TH)/ ISI ND T+P&AR(STDT/,I!mDHI' IM+NDHI
+: DS)H /M)N+ ND N+ +G /./S TK/N 1H /M)+H//
S//&T /M)N+, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' N+ /./S
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GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
+: DS)H D/SNT+N ND T+T SRH +G TA/ /M)+H//S +G D/SNT+N
S//&T D/S,S#M(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/S
+: GND TA/ S#M +G SR/S N /&A D/SNT+N N /&A D/)RTM/NT
S//&T D/)TN+, D/S, S#M(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+, D/S
+: GND TA/ ./R/ SRH +G /&A D/)RTM/NT ND S//&T +NH TA+S/ /M)+H//S A.N SRH M+R/TAN 0000
S//&T D/)TN+, .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V 0000
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
+: DS)H MEM#M SRH
S//&T ME(S' GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H /M)N+ ,TH)/ +G /./,T+T N+ +G /./S TK/N
S//&T /M)N+,/./TH)/, S#M( /NDDT/ -STDT/' N+ /./S
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+, /./TH)/
+: DS)H D/)TN+,MN SRH,ME SRH ,DGG/R/N&/ 1/T=//N ME ND MN SRH G+R TA/ D/)RTM/NTS
TAT A./ M+R/ TAN 2 /M)+H//S
S//&T D/)TN+, MN(S', ME(S', ME(S' - MN(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N &+#NT(Q' V 2
+: DS)H /./TH)/ ND A+= MNH TM/S /&A /M)+H// AS TK/N /./
S//&T /./TH)/, /M)N+, &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /./TH)/,/M)N+
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+: DS)H /M)N+ +G TA/ /M)+H// =A+ AS TK/N M+R/ TAN 2 /./S N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI'
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/ -STDT/' V 2
+: DS)H D/SNT+N TAT &+NTN /TA/R M+R/ TAN ; /M)+H//S +R ./R/ SRH M+R/ TAN 2000
S//&T D/S
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/S
A.N &+#NT(Q' V ; +R .(S' V 2000
+: DS)H TA/ TH)/ +G /./ TAT S TK/N 1H M+R/ TAN 3 /M)+H//S
S//&T /./TH)/
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /./TH)/
A.N &+#NT (DSTN&T /M)N+' V 3
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +G +NN,D/)TNM/, SRH ND A+D
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D, D/)TNM/,S, A+D
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+
+: DS)H /M)N+,STDT/,/NDDT/,/./NM/ G+R TA/ &+M)/T/D /./S
S//&T /M)N+, STDT/, /NDDT/, /./NM/
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /./S
=A/R/ //./TH)/ /./TH)/ ND /NDDT/ S N+T N#
+: DS)H D/)TN+,D/)TNM/,/M)NM/,H/RS +G /E)/R/N&/ G+R TA/ /M)+H//S =TA D/S I)R+I
S//&T /D/)TN+, D/)TNM/, /M)NM/, TR#N&(M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' 4 2'
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+ ND D/S I)R+I
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TNM/,/./NM/,STDT/ ND ME N+ +G /./S N TA/ &T/+RH
S//&T //M)N+, /M)NM/, D/)TNM/, /./NM/,STDT/, N+/./S
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D, /M)P/./S /, /./S
=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+ ND //./TH)/ /./TH)/
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ND //M)N+ //M)N+
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /./S TK/N 1H /M)+H//S =A+ R/ A.N ID#K/I S TA/ A/D +G TA/
D/)RTM/NT
S//&T /Q
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /M)+H// /,D/)T D
=A/R/ //M)N+ //M)N+
ND /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+ ND A+D ID#K/I
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D GT/R /M)+H// I=HI AS +N/D
S//&T /Q
GR+M /M)+H// /, /M)+H// /2
=A/R/ /2/M)NM/ I=HI
ND /D V /2D
+: S//&T TA/ /M)+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N /./ N TA/ )R/S/NT M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N
( S//&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI' T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI'
'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G D/)RTM/NTS =A&A A./ M+R/ TAN 2 /M)+H//S
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N &+#NT(Q' V 2'
+: DSH TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 0 /./S
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N
( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M( /NDDT/ - STDT/' V 0
'
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+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G D/)RTM/NTS =A&A A./ M+R/ TAN 3 /M)+H//S +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N &+#NT(Q' V 3
'
+: DS)H TA/ NM/ +G TA/ /M)+H// DR=N TA/ ME SRH
S//&T /M)NM/ GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S
( S//&T ME(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ AS TK/N M+R/ TAN 0 S&K/./S +R M+R/ TAN ; /./S
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N
( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /./TH)/ISI
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/ ' V 0
'
+R /M)N+ N
( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/ ' V ;
'
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+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/SNT+N ND D/)TNM/ +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH /./S N
TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/S,D/)TNM/
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+
ND /M)N+ N+T N
( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G A+DIS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ N
( S//&T A+D
GR+M D/)T
'
+: DS)H TA/ D/)RTM/NTS N =A&A /M)+H//S A./ TK/N ME N+ +G /./S
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
(
S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /M)+H// /
=A/R/ //M)N+ //M)N+
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
(
S//&T ME(S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/''
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /M)+H// /
=A/R/ //M)N+ //M)N+
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
'
'
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+: DS)H /M)N+,N++G/./S G+R /M)+H//S =A+ R/ A/D/D 1H IST/./I
S//&T /M)N+, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ N
(
S//&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
(
S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ A+D IST/./I
'
'
R+#) 1H /M)N+
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S DR=N T+) 2 AA/ST SR/S
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H// /
=A/R/ 2 V ( S//&T &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V /S'
+: DR+) N #N=NT/D &+#MN GR+M NH T1/
TAS S D+N/ N TAR// ST/)S
&R/T/ T1/ N/=T1/ S S//&T ,1,& GR+M +DT1/
2 DR+) T1/ +DT1/
3 R/NM/ N/=T1/ T+ +DT1/
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)RTM/NT N =A&A T/ST +N/ /M)+H// AS TK/N M+R/ N+ +G /./S TAN./R/ /./S +G TA/ /M)+H//S =A+ +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N
(
S//&T /M)N+
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GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V
(
S//&T .(/NDDT/ - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI'
'
'
'
+: A+= MNH /M)+H//S R/ /RNN M+R/ TAN TA/ ./R/ SRH +G MN/RS
S//&T &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V ( S//&T .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D/S IMN/RI'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ 1/+N T+ D/)RTM/NT +R 3 ND DR= M+R/ TAN ;000 SRH
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N (,3' ND S V ;000
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /./S =A/R/ TA/ /M)N+ S N TA/ RN/ 03 T+ 0
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ 1/T=//N 03 ND 0
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A/R/ TA/ NM/ &+NTNS /TT/R E +R O
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//S
=A/R/ NM/ K/ I_E_I +R NM/ K/ I_O_I
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)RTM/NT =A/R/ A/D +G D/)RTM/NT S IST/./I ND TA/ D/)TNM/ &+NTNS I)I S
TA/ ST &AR&T/R
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ A+D IST/./I ND D/)TNM/ K/ I_)I
+: DS)H &+NSTRNTS +G /M)P/./S T1/
S//&T Q GR+M #S/RP&+NSTRNTS
=A/R/ T1/PNM/ I/M)P/./SI
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+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +G +NN 5 /E)/R/N&/ N M+NTAS
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' N+ M+NTAS
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H /M)N+,/./TH)/,STDT/,N+ +G DHS 1/T=//N SHSDT/ 5 STDT/ G+R /./S TAT R/ N+T
&+M)/T/D
S//&T /M)N+, /./TH)/, STDT/, /NDDT/ - STDT/
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ S N#
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,DT/ +N =A&A /M)+H// T++K GRST SRH (SS#MN +N ST +G /&A M+NTA
SRH S )D'
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, STPDH(D' C GRST S DT/
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ TA/ )TT/RN IT/I N NM/ ND NM/ AS M+R/ TAN ; /TT/RS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ K/ I_T/_I ND /NTA(/M)NM/' V ;
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /./S +N =TA TA/ DT/ +G &+MN ST#RDH GT/R STDT/ ND N+ +G DHS +G
/./S G+R /./S TAT R/ &+M)/T/D
S//&T /M)N+, /./TH)/,STDT/, N/ETPDH(STDT/,ISaturda%I', /NDDT/ - STDT/
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /NDT/ S N+T N#
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+S/ NM/ &+NTNS I))I N :TA,;TA,6TA )+ST+NS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ NSTR(/M)NM/,I))I' :
+R
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S#1STR(/M)NM/,:,3' I))I
+: DS)H /M)N+,NM/,A+DH =//K,=A&A D/)/NDS +N TA/ D/)T S G++=SB D/)TBM+NDH
D/)T2BTA#RSDH +TA/RSBS#NDH
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/,
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D/&+D/(D/)TN+, ,IM+NDHI,2,ITA#RSDHI,IS#NDHI' A+DH
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H TA/ /M)N+,/./TH)/,STDT/ N IDD-MMI G+RMT ND /NDN DT/ G+R TA/ /./S TAT R/
TK/N 1H /M)+H/S =TA N#M1/RS N TA/ RN/ 03-0< ND N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T /M)N+, /./TH)/, T+P&AR(STDT/,IDD-MMI', /NDDT/
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ 1/T=//N 03 ND 0<
ND T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI'
+: TR#N&T/ TM/ )+RT+N N STRTN DT/ +G TA/ /./
#)DT/ /M)P/./S
S/T STDT/ TR#N&(STDT/'
+: DS)H TA/ S#M +G SRH +G /&A D/)T
S//&T D/)TN+, S#M(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
+: DS)H TA/ ./R/ SRH +G /&A D/)T 1H TKN /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T D/)TN+, .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI'
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
+: DS)H /M)N+,T+T N++G /./S TK/N 1H /M)+H//
S//&T /M)N+, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
+: DS)H TA/ T+T N+ +G /./S TK/N G+R /&A /./TH)/
S//&T /./TH)/, S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /./TH)/
+: DS)H /M)N+ =A/R/ /M)+H// AS TK/N M+R/ TAN 0 /./S
S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
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A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 0
+: DS)H TA/ H/R N =A&A M+R/ TAN ; /M)+H//S A./ +N/D
S//&T T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI'
A.N &+#NT(Q' V ;
+: DS)H /M)N+ G+R /M)+H//S =A+ A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 20 /./S N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI'
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 20
+: DS)H TA/ /./TH)/ TAT AS 1//N TK/N G+R M+R/ TAN 0 TM/S
S//&T /./TH)/
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /./TH)/
A.N &+#NT(Q' V 0
+: DS)H D/)T,D/SNT+N,H/R 5 N+ +G /M)+H//S +N/D N TAT H/R N TAT D/)RTM/NT ND
D/SNT+N
S//&T D/)TN+, D/S, T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI', &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+, D/S, T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI'
+: DS)H D/)T N =A&A TA/ ./R/ S +G NH SN/ D/SNT+N S M+R/ TAN 0000
S//&T DSTN&T D/)T
GR+M /M)+H/
R+#) 1H D/)T, D/S
A.N .(S' V 000
+: DS)H D/)TN+,DGG/R/N&/ 1/T=//N MN 5 ME +G SRH +G TA/ D/)T
S//&T D/)TN+, ME(S' - MN(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
;
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+: DS)H /./TH)/ G+R =A&A M+R/ TAN 0 /./S R/ TK/N N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA +R 20 /./S TK/N
S+ GR
S//&T /./TH)/
GR+M /M)P/./S=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI'
R+#) 1H /./TH)/A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 0
#N+NS//&T /./TH)/
GR+M /M)P/./SR+#) 1H /./TH)/A.N S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/' V 20
+: DS)H T+T N++G /./S +G /M)+H/S (&+NSD/RN SHSDT/ S /NDN DT/ G /NDN DT/ S N+T
.1/'
S//&T S#M( N.(/NDDT/,SHSDT/' - STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
+: DS)H /M)N+,/./TH)/ ,STDT/,N+ +G /./S 5 ME N+ +G /./S G+R TAT &T/+RH
S//&T /M)N+, //./TH)/,STDT/, /NDDT/ - STDT/, N+/./S
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /./S
=A/R/ //./TH)/ /./TH)/
+: DS)H D/)TN+,D/)TNM/,/M)NM/,D/SNT+N G+R TAT D/)T =A/R/ STRTN /TT/R S II
S//&T /D/)TN+, D/)TNM/,/M)NM/,D/S
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ D/T)NM/ K/ I_I ND /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+
+: DS)H /M)N+,NM/,D/)TNM/,A+D G+R TA/ /M)+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH /./ S+ GR
S//&T /M)N+,/M)NM/, D/)TNM/,A+D
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ /M)N+ N+T N
(S//&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P/./S'
ND /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+
+: DS)H /M)N+,NM/,D/)TNM/,/./NM/,STDT/,/NDDT/
S//&T //M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TNM/, /./NM/,STDT/,/NDDT/
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D, /M)P/./S /
=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+ ND //M)N+ //M)N+
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)T N =A&A T /ST +N/ /M)+H// AS +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
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( S//&T D/)TN+ GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI' T+P&AR(D,IMMHHHHI' '
+: DS)H /./TH)/,/./NM/,/M)N+ ND STDT/ G+R TA/ /./S N&#DN /./TH)/S TAT A./
N+T 1//N #S/D 1H NH /M)+H//
S//&T /./TH)/,/./NM/, /M)N+ , STDT/
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /./S
=A/R/ /./TH)/ //./TH)/ (C'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /./S =A/R/ TA/ N++G DHS +G /./S S M+R/ TAN TA/ N++GDHS +G /./
TK/N 1H 0 N /./ TAT STRT/D +N ;-MR&A-00
S//&T /Q
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /M)P/./S /2
=A/R/ /2STDT/ I0;-MR-2000I ND /2/M)N+ 0
ND //NDDT/ - /STDT/ V /2/NDDT/ - /2STDT/
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)T N =A&A TA/ ./R/ SRH S V 0000
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N .(S' V 0000'
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)T =A/R/ TA/ D/)T AS M+R/ TAN 3 /M)+H//S DR=N M+R/ TAN ;000
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V ;000
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N &+#NT(Q' V 3'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ AS N+T TK/N S&K /./ N &#RR/NT M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N+T N
( S//&T /M)N+
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GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /./TH)/ ISI
ND T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHHHI'
'
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S DR=N TA/ MES
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S
(S//&T ME(S'
GR+M /M)+H//'
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S DR=N M+R/ SRH TAN TA/ ./R/ S +G /M)+H//S +N/D N TA/&#RR/NT H/R
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V
( S//&T .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI'
'
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)TIS N =A&A N+ /M)+H// +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N+T N
( S//&T D/)TN+ GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
'
+: D//T/ D/TS +G /./S TK/N 1H /M)+H// =A+S/ /M)N+ S TA/ AA/ST /M)N+
D//T/ GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ ( S//&T ME(/M)N+' GR+M /M)+H//'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ R/ 1/+NN T+ )R+D#&T+N D/)T ND A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 20/./S S+ GR
S//&T /Q
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
;
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=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+ ND D/)TNM/ I)R+D#&T+NI
ND /M)N+ N
( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V 20
'
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S =A/R/ TA/ /M)+H// S S M+R/ TAN 0000 ND +N/D N TA/ ST 6 M+NTAS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ N
( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V 0000 ND M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' U 6
'
+: Displa% details "! empl"%ees draing t"p ; salaries
This is d"ne using c"rrelated su8uer% Su8uer% is used t" return
the numer "! empl"%ees h"se salar% is greater than the salar% "! the
current empl"%ee in main 8uer% ! that c"unt is less than ; that means
the empl"%ee is draing "ne "! the t"p !i$e salraies
select Q !r"m empl"%ee e
here ; V
( select c"unt(distinct sal'
!r"m empl"%ee
here sal V esal'
+: #)DT/ TA/ SRH +G /M)+H// 02 =TA TA/ ./R/ SRH +G AS D/)RTM/NT
#)DT/ /M)+H// / S/T S ( S//&T .(S' GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ D/)TN+ /D/)TN+'
=A/R/ /M)N+ 02
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)RTM/NT N =A&A TA/R/ R/ AA/ST N#M1/R +G /./S TK/N
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N
(
S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H// /,/M)P/./S /
=A/R/ //M)N+//M)N+
;
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R+#) 1H D/)TN+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
( S//&T ME(S#M(/NDDT/ - STDT/''
GR+M /M)+H// /, /M)P/./S /
=A/R/ //M)N+ //M)N+
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
'
'
+: R/NM/ &+#MN )J T+ JO()&TE +G /M)+H// T1/
R/NMN &+#MN D+N/ N TAR// ST/)S
&R/T/ N/= T1/ GR+M /M)+H// T1/ ./ S +NDT/ T+ D &+#MN N 7#/RH
2. #$%&'% '&% '%*+,-%%
. &S S%%#' %*+/,0%*+/&*%0S&0 ,3/&'%0 %S40 %+'/,
5. 6$,* %*+,-%%;
; DR+) /M)+H// T1/
7. $,+ '&% %*+,-%%;
< R/NM/ N/= T1/ T+ /M)+H// T1/
8. $%/&*% '%*+,-%% ', %*+,-%%;
+: S=) TA/ SRH +G 0 =TA SRH +G 03
D/&R/
SP03 /M)+H//S_TH)/
1/N
-- /T SRH +G 03
S//&T S NT+ SP03
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ 03
-- #)DT/ SRH +G 03 =TA SRH +G 0
#)DT/ /M)+H//
S/T S (S//&T S GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ /M)N+ 0'
=A/R/ /M)N+ 03
-- #)DT/ SRH +G 0 =TA SRH +G 03
;
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#)DT/ /M)+H//
S/T S SP03
=A/R/ /M)N+ 0
COMMTI
/ND
+: &R/T/ )R+&/D#R/ T+ TK/ /M)N+ ND /./TH)/ ND NS/RT R+= NT+ /M)P/./S T1/ =TA TA/
G++=N &+NDT+NS
• &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)N+ ND /./TH)/ R/ .D
• &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)+H// S R/DH +N /./
• &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)+H// AS R/DH #S/D /./S N TAT TH)/
-- )R+&/D#R/ T+ NS/RT N/= R+= NT+ /M)P/./S T1/
-- TK/S /M)+H// N#M1/R ND /./TH)/
-- STDT/ +G /./ S SHSDT/ ND /NDDT/ S N#
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ )R+&/D#R/ N/=/./()/M)N+ N#M1/R, )T &AR'
S
STT#S N#M1/R('B0 -- NTO/ .R1/
&NT N#M1/R(3'
TN N#M1/R(2'
N N#M1/R(2'
1/N
-- &A/&K =A/TA/R /M)+H// N+ S .D
S//&T 0 NT+ &NT
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ )/M)N+
-- &A/&K =A/TA/R /./TH)/ S .D
-- G /./TH)/ S .D TA/N /T ME N+ +G /./S
-- N TAT /./TH)/
STT#S B
S//&T N+/./S NT+ TN
GR+M /./S
;
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+: &R/T/ G#N&T+N T+ R/T#RN NM/S +G TA/ /M)+H//S DR=N A/ST SRH G TA/R/ S M+R/ TAN +N/M)+H//, /M)+H// NM/S R/ T+ 1/ S/)RT/D 1H &+MM
&R/T/ +R R/)&/ G#N&T+N /TAS/M)NM/S R/T#RN .R&AR2
S
&#RS+R AS/M)P&#RS+R S
S//&T /M)NM/ GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ S (S//&T ME(S' GR+M /M)+H//'
/NM/ .R&AR2(20'
NM/S .R&AR2(200'
1/N
NM/S B II
G+R R/& N AS/M)P&#RS+R
++)
-- G N+T GRST NM/ TA/N DD &+MM
G /NTA(NM/S' 0 TA/N
NM/S B NM/S ^^ I,I
/ND G
NM/S B NM/S ̂ ^ R/&/M)NM/
/ND ++)
R/T#RN NM/S
/ND
+: /T TA/ D/TS +G D/)T =A&A S A/D/D 1H )/RS+N =TA TA/ NM/ TAT &+NTNS /TT/R I&I ND II
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ A+D K/ I_&__I
2<
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+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G D/)TIS =A/R/ TA/ D/)TN+ S V0 ND D/)TNM/ /NDS =TA II
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ V 0 ND D/)TNM/ K/ I_I
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ M+R/ TAN 0000 SRH +R D/S ISI
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V 0000 +R D/S ISI
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,SRH R+#ND/D T+ 00ISD+ ND N++G M+NTAS 1/T=//N T+DH ND DT/ +G
+NN
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, R+#ND(S,-2' S , D, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' N+ M+NTAS
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S TAT =/R/ TK/N N ST 20DHS
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ SHSDT/ -STDT/ U 20
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S N =A&A TA/ N++G DHS +G /./S S M+R/ TAN ;
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ - STDT/ V ;
+: DS)H S&K /./S 1H /M)N+ 0:
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S =A/R/ /M)N+ 0: ND /./TH)/ ISI
+: DS)H /M)N+,/./TH)/,N++G DHS +G /./ G+R /./S TAT =/R/ &+M)/T/D
S//&T /M)N+, /./TH)/, /NDDT/ - STDT/ N+ DHS
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /NDDT/ S N+T N#
+: DS)H /M)+H// =A/R/ /M)NM/ &+NTNS /TT/RS IMI ND II N NH +RD/R
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)NM/ K/ I_M_I ND /M)NM/ K/ I__I
+: DS)H TA/ R+=S +G /M)+H// T1/ =A/R/ /M)+H// +N/D N TA/ ST 6 M+NTAS ND SV;000 NDD/S S N+T )R+RMM/R
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S V ;000 ND M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' U 6 ND D/S UV I)R+I
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S TAT =/R/ TK/N N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHI'
2<
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+: DS)H /M)N+,GRST NM/,SRH ND /E)/R/N&/ N H/RS N TA/ &+M)NH
S//&T /M)N+, S#1STR(/M)NM/, ,D/&+D/(NSTR(/M)NM/,I I',0,/NTA(/M)NM/',NSTR(/M)NM/,I I'''
GRSTNM/, S, M+NTASP1/T=//N(SHSDT/,D' 4 2 /E)N H/RS
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H// =A+ +N/D N TA/ M+NTAS +G #H RR/S)/&T./ +G TA/ H/R
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IMMI' <
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H// =A+ A./ M+R/ TAN 0 &ARS N TA/ NM/ +R A.N /TT/R II ND I&I N
TA/ NM/
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /NTA(/M)NM/' V 0 ND /M)NM/ K/ I__&I
+: &AN/ TA/ NM/ +G /M)+H// 0; T+ #))/R&S/ ND R/M+./ /DN ND TRN S)&/S
#)DT/ /M)+H// S/T /M)NM/ #))/R(TRM(/M)NM/'' =A/R/ /M)N+ 0;
+: DS)H /M)N+,/./TH)/,TA/ M+NTA N =A&A /./ STRT/D ND TA/ M+NTA N =A&A /./ /ND/D G+R/./S =A/R/ TA/S/ T=+ M+NTAS R/ N+T SM/
S//&T /M)N+, /./TH)/, T+P&AR(STDT/,IM+NTAI', T+P&AR(/NDDT/,IM+NTAI'
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMI' T+P&AR(/NDDT/,IMMI'
+: DS)H /./S TAT /ND/D N )R/.+#S M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(/NDDT/,IMMHHI' T+P&AR( DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-', IMMHHI'
+: D//T/ D/TS +G /./S =A/R/ TA/ /./ STRT/D N TA/ GRST =//K +G TA/ )R/.+#S M+NTA
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ STDT/ 1/T=//N STPDH(DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-2''C
ND STPDH(DDPM+NTAS(SHSDT/,-2'' C <
+: DS)H /M)NM/ N #))/R&S/,DH +G +NN ND DT/ +G GRST SRH ND =//K DH +G GRST SRH
S//&T #))/R(/M)NM/', D, STPDH(D' C , T+P&AR( STPDH(D' C , IDHI'
GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H M+NTAS N =A&A /M)+H//S +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T DSTN&T T+P&AR(D,IM+NTAI' M+NTA
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
+: DS)H .SRH +G TA/ /M)+H//S
S//&T .(S'
2<
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GR+M /M)+H//
+: DS)H /./TH)/,N++G TM/S /M)+H//S A./ TK/N TAT /./
S//&T /./TH)/, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /./TH)/
+: DS)H D/)TN+,ND N++G /M)+H//S +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T D/)TN+, &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
+: DS)H M+NTA NM/ ND A+= MNH /./S STRT/D N TAT M+NTA
S//&T T+P&AR(STDT/,IM+NTAI', &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H T+P&AR(STDT/,IM+NTAI'
+: DS)H TA/ /M)+H// =A+ A./ TK/N M+R/ TAN 0 /./S S+ GR
S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V 0
+: DS)H TA/ /M)+H// =A+ AS TK/N M+R/ TAN ; S&K /./S N TA/ &#RR/NT H/R
S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI'
R+#) 1H /M)N+
A.N S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/' V ;
+: DS)H D/)TN+,D/S ND .SRH
S//&T D/)TN+, D/S, .(S'
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+, D/S
2<
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+: DS)H H/R,N++G /M)+H//S +N/D =TA D/S )R+RMM/R
S//&T T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI', &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D/S I)R+I
R+#) 1H T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI'
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TNM/ G+R /M)+H//S =A+ A./ +N/D N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
S//&T /M)N+, /M)NM/, D/)TNM/
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D
=A/R/ T+P&AR(D,IHHHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IHHHHI' ND /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,D/)TN+,D/)TNM/,/./NM/,STDT/ G+R /./S TAT R/ N+T &+M)/T/D
S//&T //M)N+,/M)NM/, /D/)TN+,D/)TNM/, /./NM/, STDT/
GR+M /M)+H// /, D/)T D, /./S , /M)P/./S /
=A/R/ /D/)TN+ DD/)TN+ ND //M)N+ //M)N+ ND /./TH)/ //./TH)/
+: DS)H /M)NM/ ND T+T N++G /./S TK/N(/M)NM/ AS T+ 1/ #N7#/'
S//&T /M)NM/, S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)+H// /, /M)P/./S /
=A/R/ //M)N+ //M)N+
R+#) 1H /M)NM/
+: DS)H /M)N+,/M)NM/,/./TH)/,STDT/N&#D/ /M)+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH /./ ND
DS)H TA/ DT/ N TA/ S&/NDN +RD/R +G /M)N+
S//&T //M)N+, /M)NM/, /./TH)/, STDT/
GR+M /M)+H// /, /M)P/./S /
=A/R/ //M)N+ //M)N+ (C'
+: DS)H TA/ /./S TAT =/R/ TK/N GT/R /M)N+ 06 T++K S&K /./(SS#MMN 06 AS TK/N
+NH +N/ S&K /./'
S//&T /Q
GR+M /M)P/./S /, /M)P/./S /2
=A/R/ /2/M)N+ 06 ND /2/./TH)/ ISI
ND /STDT/ V /2STDT/
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)T N =A&A =/ A./ N /M)+H// =TA TA/ NM/ &+NTNN IK/.NI
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S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N ( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ /M)NM/ K/ I_K/.N_I'
+: DS)H AA/ST T+T N++G /./S TK/N 1H SN/ /M)+H//
S//&T ME(S#M(/NDDT/-STDT/''
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /M)N+
+: DS)H AA/ST N++G DHS N SN/ /./
S//&T ME(/NDDT/-STDT/'
GR+M /M)P/./S
+: DS)H D/TS +G D/)T =A/R/ D/)TN+ AS M+R/ TAN ; /M)+H//S
S//&T Q GR+M D/)T
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N ( S//&T D/)TN+
GR+M /M)+H//
R+#) 1H D/)TN+ A.N &+#NT(Q' V ;'
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H// =A+ S DR=N TA/ MESRH
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ S ( S//&T ME(S' GR+M /M)+H//'
+: DS)H D/TS +G /./S TAT =/R/ TK/N 1H /M)+H//S +G D/)T :
S//&T Q GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ /M)N+ N ( S//&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ D/)TN+ :'
+: DS)H D/)TN+ ND N++G /M)+H// =A+ A./ TK/N /./ N TA/ &#RR/NT M+NTA
S//&T D/)TN+, &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N ( S//&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ T+P&AR(STDT/,IMMHHI' T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IMMHHI'
'
R+#) 1H D/)TN+
+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ A./ N+T TK/N NH /./ S+ GR
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ /M)N+ N+T N ( S//&T /M)N+ GR+M /M)P/./S'
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+: DS)H D/TS +G /M)+H//S =A+ R/ A/D/D 1H 1 +R =A+ A./ TK/N /./ +N )R/.+#S
ITA#RSDHI
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H//
=A/R/ D/)TN+ N (S//&T D/)TN+ GR+M D/)T =A/R/ A+D I1I'
+R /M)N+ N( S//&T /M)N+
GR+M /M)P/./S
=A/R/ TR#N&(STDT/' N/ETPDH(SHSDT/-;,IThursda%I''
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /M)+H//S =TA GRST 2 AA/ST SRH
S//&T Q GR+M /M)+H// /
=A/R/ 2 V ( S//&T &+#NT(Q'
GR+M /M)+H// =A/R/ S V /S'
+: DS)H TA/ D/TS +G /./TH)/S =A/R/ TA/ /./ AS 1//N TK/N G+R M+R/ TAN ;0 TM/S
S//&T Q GR+M /./S
=A/R/ /./TH)/ N ( S//&T /./TH)/
GR+M /M)P/./S
R+#) 1H /./TH)/
A.N &+#NT(Q' V ;0'
+: &AN/ TA/ D/)TN+ +G /M)+H// 0: T+ D/)TN+ +G INT/RN/TI D/)T
#)DT/ /M)+H// S/T D/)TN+ ( S//&T D/)TN+ GR+M D/)T =A/R/ D/)TNM/ INT/RN/TI'
=A/R/ /M)N+ 0:
+: DR+) &+#MN D/S GR+M /M)+H// T1/
ST/) B &R/T/ T1/ N/=/M) S S//&T /M)N+,/M)NM/,S,D/)TN+, D GR+M /M)+H//
ST/)2 B DR+) T1/ /M)+H//
ST/)3 B R/NM/ N/=/M) T+ /M)+H//
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.T2,+ M#.+TANT $U,+,S
0 To find the nth row of a ta$le
S7V Select Q!r"m emp here r"id (select ma9(r"id' !r"m emp here r"num U :'
+r
S7V Select Q!r"m emp here r"num U : minus select Q!r"m emp here r"num U 3
<0 To find d#2licate row"
S7V Select Q!r"m emp here r"id in (select ma9(r"id' !r"m emp gr"up % empn",ename, mgr, @", hiredate,
c"mm, deptn", sal'
+r
S7V Select empn",ename,sal,@",hiredate,c"mm , c"unt(Q' !r"m emp gr"up % empn",ename,sal,@", hiredate,
c"mm ha$ing c"unt(Q' V
=0 To delete d#2licate row"
S7V Delete emp here r"id in (select ma9(r"id' !r"m emp gr"up % empn",ename,mgr,@", hiredate, sal, c"mm
deptn"'
>0 To find the co#nt of d#2licate row"
S7V Select ename, c"unt(Q' !r"m emp gr"up % ename ha$ing c"unt(Q' V
?0 How to di"2la alternati5e row" in a ta$le
S7V select Q!r"m emp here (r"id,0' in (select r"id,m"d(r"num,2' !r"m emp'
@0 6ettin- em2loee detail" of each de2artment who i" drawin- ma1im#m "al
S7V select Q!r"m emp here (deptn",sal' in ( select deptn",ma9(sal' !r"m emp gr"up % deptn"'
A0 How to -et n#m$er of em2loee" in each de2artment ' in which de2artment i" ha5in- more than <?DD
em2loee"
S7V Select deptn",c"unt(Q' !r"m emp gr"up % deptn" ha$ing c"unt(Q' V2;00
0 To re"et the time to the $e-innin- of the da
S7V Select t"Pchar(trunc(s%sdate',dd-m"n-%%%% hhBmiBss am' !r"m dual
0 To find nth ma1im#m "al
S7V Select Q!r"m emp here sal in (select ma9(sal' !r"m (select Q!r"m emp "rder % sal' here r"num U ;'
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F%(CTO(S
Guncti"ns can e categ"riFed as !"ll"s
• Single r" !uncti"ns
• r"up !uncti"ns
S(6,E RO9 F%(CTO(S
Single r" !uncti"ns can e categ"riFed int" !i$e These ill e applied !"r each r" and
pr"duces indi$idual "utput !"r each r"
•
Numeric !uncti"ns• String !uncti"ns
• Date !uncti"ns
• Miscellane"us !uncti"ns
• &"n$ersi"n !uncti"ns
(%MERC F%(CTO(S
• s
• Sign
• S8rt
• M"d
• N$l
• )"er
• /9p
• n
• "g
• &eil
• Gl""r
• R"und
• Trunk
• 1itand
• reatest
• east
• &"alesce
a0 &BS
• s"lute $alue is the measure "! the magnitude "! $alue
• s"lute $alue is ala%s a p"siti$e numer
Snta1: as (value'E1:
S7V select as(;', as(-;', as(0', as(null' !r"m dual
1S(;' 1S(-;' 1S(0' 1S(N#'
---------- ---------- ---------- -------------
; -; 0
$0 S6(
Sign gi$es the sign "! a $alue
Snta1: sign (value'
E1:S7V select sign(;', sign(-;', sign(0', sign(null' !r"m dual
SN(;' SN(-;' SN(0' SN(N#'
---------- ---------- ---------- --------------
- 0
c0 S+RT
This ill gi$e the s8uare r""t "! the gi$en $alue
Snta1: s8rt (value' -- here $alue must e p"siti$e
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E1:
S7V select s8rt(:', s8rt(0', s8rt(null', s8rt(' !r"m dual
S7RT(:' S7RT(0' S7RT(N#' S7RT('
---------- ------------- ----------------- ---------------
2 0
d0 MO)
This ill gi$e the remainder
Snta1: m"d (value0 divisor '
E1:
S7V select m"d(<,:', m"d(,;', m"d(null,null', m"d(0,0', m"d(-<,:' !r"m dual
M+D(<,:' M+D(,;' M+D(N#,N#' M+D(0,0' M+D(-<,:'
------------ ---------- --------------------- ----------- -- -----------
3 0 -3
e0 (!,
This ill sustitutes the speci!ied $alue in the place "! null $alues
Snta1: n$l (null_col0 replacement_value'
E1:
S7V select Q !r"m student -- here !"r 3rd r" marks $alue is null
N+ NM/ MRKS
--- ------- ---------
a 00
2 200
3 c
S7V select n", name, n$l(marks,300' !r"m student
N+ NM/ N.(MRKS,300'
--- ------- ---------------------
a 00
2 200
3 c 300
S7V select n$l(,2', n$l(2,3', n$l(:,3', n$l(;,:' !r"m dual
N.(,2' N.(2,3' N.(:,3' N.(;,:'---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
2 : ;
S7V select n$l(0,0', n$l(,', n$l(null,null', n$l(:,:' !r"m dual
N.(0,0' N.(,' N.(null,null' N.(:,:'
---------- ---------- ----------------- ----------
0 :
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f0 PO9ER
)"er is the ailit% t" raise a $alue t" a gi$en e9p"nent
Snta1: p"er (value0 exponent '
E1:
S7V select p"er(2,;', p"er(0,0', p"er(,', p"er(null,null', p"er(2,-;' !r"m dual
)+=/R(2,;' )+=/R(0,0' )+=/R(,' )+=/R(N#,N#' )+=/R(2,-;'
-------------- -------------- ----- --------- --------------- -------- ---------------32 032;
-0 E7P
This ill raise e $alue t" the gi$e p"er
Snta1: e9p (value'
E1:
S7V select e9p(', e9p(2', e9p(0', e9p(null', e9p(-2' !r"m dual
/E)(' /E)(2' /E)(0' /E)(N#' /E)(-2'
-------- --------- - ------- ------------- - ---------
2<>2>>3 <3>?0;6 3;33;2>3
h0 ,(
This is ased "n natural "r ase e l"garithm
Snta1: ln (value' -- here $alue must e greater than Fer" hich is p"siti$e "nl%
E1:
S7V select ln(', ln(2', ln(null' !r"m dual
N(' N(2' N(N#'
------- ------- ------------
0 6?3:<>
n and /9p are recipr"cal t" each "ther
/E) (3' 200>;;36?
N (200>;;36?' 3
i0 ,O6
This is ased "n 0 ased l"garithm
Snta1: l"g (0, value'-- here $alue must e greater than Fer" hich is p"siti$e "nl%
E1:
S7V select l"g(0,00', l"g(0,2', l"g(0,', l"g(0,null' !r"m dual
+(0,00' +(0,2' +(0,' +(0,N#'
--------------- ----------- ------------ -----------------
2 3002???6 0
N ($alue' + (/E)(', $alue'
S7V select ln(3', l"g(e9p(',3' !r"m dual
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N(3' +(/E)(',3'
------- -----------------
0?>622? 0?>622?
0 CE,
This ill pr"duce a h"le numer that is greater than "r e8ual t" the speci!ied $alue
Snta1: ceil (value'
E1:
S7V select ceil(;', ceil(;', ceil(-;', ceil( -;', ceil(0', ceil(null' !r"m dual
&/(;' &/(;' &/(-;' &/(-;' &/(0' &/(N#'
--------- ----------- ---------- ------------ -------- --------------
; 6 -; -; 0
k0 F,OOR This ill pr"duce a h"le numer that is less than "r e8ual t" the speci!ied $alue
Snta1: !l""r (value'
E1:
S7V select !l""r(;', !l""r(;', !l""r(-;', !l""r( -;', !l""r(0', !l""r(null' !r"m dual
G++R(;' G++R(;' G++R(-;' G++R(-;' G++R(0' G++R(N#'
----------- ------------- ------------ -------------- ----------- ----------------; ; -; -6 0
l0 RO%()
This ill r"unds numers t" a gi$en numer "! digits "! precisi"nSnta1: r"und (value0 precision'
E1:
S7V select r"und(2323:;', r"und(2323:;,2', r"und(2323;:,2' !r"m dual
R+#ND(2323:;' R+#ND(2323:;,0' R+#ND(2323:;,2' R+#ND(2323;:,2'
--------------------- ------------------------ ----------------------- -----------------------23 23 2323 232:
S7V select r"und(2323:;,-', r"und(2323:;,-2', r"und(2323:;,-3',
r"und(2323:;,-:' !r"m dualR+#ND(2323:;,-' R+#ND(2323:;,-2' R+#ND(2323:;,-3' R+#ND(2323:;,-:'
------------------------ ------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------------
20 00 0 0
S7V select r"und(23,0', r"und(23,', r"und(23,2' !r"m dual
R+#ND(23,0' R+#ND(23,' R+#ND(23,2'
----------------- ----------------- ----------------23 23 23
S7V select r"und(-23,0', r"und(-23,', r"und(-23,2' !r"m dual
R+#ND(-23,0' R+#ND(-23,' R+#ND(-23,2'
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------------------ ----------------- -------------------
-23 -23 -23
S7V select r"und(23,-', r"und(23,-2', r"und(23,-3', r"und(-23,-', r"und(-23,-
2', r"und(-23,-3' !r"m dual
R+#ND(23,-' R+#ND(23,-2' R+#ND(23,-3' R+#ND(-23,-' R+#ND(-23,-2'R+#ND(-23,-3'
------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
20 00 0 -20 -00 0
S7V select r"und(null,null', r"und(0,0', r"und(,', r"und(-,-', r"und(-2,-2' !r"m
dual
R+#ND(N#,N#' R+#ND(0,0' R+#ND(,' R+#ND(-,-' R+#ND(-2,-2'----------------------- -------------- -------------- ---------------- ----------------
0 0 0
m0 TR%(C
This ill truncates "r ch"ps "!! digits "! precisi"n !r"m a numer
Snta1: trunc (value0 precision'
E1:
S7V select trunc(2323:;', trunc(2323:;,2', trunc(2323;:,2' !r"m dual
TR#N&(2323:;' TR#N&(2323:;,2' TR#N&(2323;:,2'
--------------------- ----------------------- -----------------------
23 2323 2323
S7V select trunc(2323:;,-', trunc(2323:;,-2', trunc(2323:;,-3',
trunc(2323:;,-:' !r"m dual
TR#N&(2323:;,-' TR#N&(2323:;,-2' TR#N&(2323:;,-3' TR#N&(2323:;,-:'
------------------------ ------------------------ ----------------------- ------------------------
20 00 0 0
S7V select trunc(23,0', trunc(23,', trunc(23,2' !r"m dual
TR#N&(23,0' TR#N&(23,' TR#N&(23,2'
---------------- ---------------- -----------------
23 23 23
S7V select trunc(-23,0', trunc(-23,', trunc(-23,2' !r"m dual
TR#N&(-23,0' TR#N&(-23,' TR#N&(-23,2'
----------------- ----------------- -----------------
-23 -23 -23
S7V select trunc(23,-', trunc(23,-2', trunc(23,-3', trunc(-23,-', trunc(-23,2',
trunc(-23,-3' !r"m dual
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TR#N&(23,-' TR#N&(23,-2' TR#N&(23,-3' TR#N&(-23,-' TR#N&(-23,2' TR#N&(-
23,-3'
------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- ------------- --------------
20 00 0 -20 -23 0
S7V select trunc(null,null', trunc(0,0', trunc(,', trunc(-,-', trunc(-2,-2' !r"m dualTR#N&(N#,N#' TR#N&(0,0' TR#N&(,' TR#N&(-,-' TR#N&(-2,-2'
----------------------- ------------- ------------- --------------- ----------------
0 0 0
n0 BT&()
This ill per!"rm itise and "perati"n
Snta1: itand (value10 value2'
E1:
S7V select itand(2,3', itand(0,0', itand(,', itand(null,null', itand(-2,-3' !r"m
dual
1TND(2,3' 1TND(0,0' 1TND(,' 1TND(N#,N#' 1TND(-2,-3'
-------------- --------------- -------------- ------------------------ -----------------
2 0 -:
o0 6RE&TEST
This ill gi$e the greatest numer
Snta1: greatest (value10 value20 value 9 valuen'
E1:
S7V select greatest(, 2, 3', greatest(-, -2, -3' !r"m dual
R/T/ST(,2,3' R/T/ST(-,-2,-3'
-------------------- -----------------------
3 -
• ! all the $alues are Fer"s then it ill displa% Fer"
• ! all the parameters are nulls then it ill displa% n"thing
• ! an% "! the parameters is null it ill displa% n"thing
20 ,E&ST
This ill gi$e the least numer
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Snta1: least (value10 value20 value 9 valuen'
E1:
S7V select least(, 2, 3', least(-, -2, -3' !r"m dual
/ST(,2,3' /ST(-,-2,-3'
-------------------- -----------------------
-3
• ! all the $alues are Fer"s then it ill displa% Fer"
• ! all the parameters are nulls then it ill displa% n"thing
• ! an% "! the parameters is null it ill displa% n"thing
;0 CO&,ESCE
This ill return !irst n"n-null $alue
Snta1: c"alesce (value10 value20 value 9 valuen'
E1:
S7V select c"alesce(,2,3', c"alesce(null,2,null,;' !r"m dual
&+/S&/(,2,3' &+/S&/(N#,2,N#,;'
------------------- -------------------------------
2
STR(6 F%(CTO(S
• nitcap
• #pper
• "er
• ength
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• Rpad
• pad
• trim
• Rtrim
• Trim
•Translate
• Replace
• S"unde9
• &"ncat ( L ^^ L &"ncatenati"n "perat"r'
• scii
• &hr
• Sustr
• nstr
• Dec"de
•reatest
• east
• &"alesce
a0 (TC&P
This ill capitaliFe the initial letter "! the string
Snta1: initcap ( strin! '
E1:
S7V select initcap(Ic"mputerI' !r"m dual
NT&)
-----------
&"mputer
$0 %PPER
This ill c"n$ert the string int" uppercase
Snta1: upper ( strin! '
E1:S7V select upper(Ic"mputerI' !r"m dual
#))/R
-----------
&+M)#T/R
c0 ,O9ER
This ill c"n$ert the string int" l"ercase
Snta1: l"er ( strin! '
E1:S7V select l"er(I&+M)#T/RI' !r"m dual
+=/R
-----------
c"mputer
d0 ,E(6TH
This ill gi$e length "! the string
Snta1: length ( strin! '
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E1:
S7V select length(Ic"mputerI' !r"m dual
/NTA
-----------
>
e0 RP&)This ill all"s %"u t" pad the right side "! a c"lumn ith an% set "! characters
Snta1: rpad ( strin!0 len!t :0 paddin!_car'
E1:
S7V select rpad(Ic"mputerI,;,IQI', rpad(Ic"mputerI,;,IQ`I' !r"m dual
R)D(I&+M)#T/RI R)D(I&+M)#T/RI
---------------------- ----------------------
c"mputerQQQQQQQ c"mputerQ`Q`Q`Q
-- De!ault padding character as lank space
f0 ,P&)
This ill all"s %"u t" pad the le!t side "! a c"lumn ith an% set "! characters
Snta1: lpad ( strin!0 len!t :0 paddin!_car'
E1:
S7V select lpad(Ic"mputerI,;,IQI', lpad(Ic"mputerI,;,IQ`I' !r"m dual
)D(I&+M)#T/RI )D(I&+M)#T/RI
--------------------- ---------------------
QQQQQQQc"mputer Q`Q`Q`Qc"mputer
• De!ault padding character as lank space
-0 ,TRM
This ill trim "!! unanted characters !r"m the le!t end "! string
Snta1: ltrim ( strin! :0unwanted_cars'
E1:
S7V select ltrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"I', ltrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"mI' !r"m dual
TRM( TRM
-------- ---------
mputer puter
S7V select ltrim(Ic"mputerI,IputerI', ltrim(Ic"mputerI,I"mputerI' !r"m dual
TRM(I& TRM(I&
---------- ----------
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c"mputer c"mputer
• ! %"u ha$ent speci!% an% unanted characters it ill displa% entire string
h0 RTRM
This ill trim "!! unanted characters !r"m the right end "! string
Snta1: rtrim ( strin! :0 unwanted_cars'
E1:
S7V select rtrim(Ic"mputerI,IerI', rtrim(Ic"mputerI,IterI' !r"m dual
RTRM( RTRM
-------- ---------
c"mput c"mpu
S7V select rtrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"mput', rtrim(Ic"mputerI,Ic"mputeI' !r"m dual
RTRM(I& RTRM(I&
---------- ----------
c"mputer c"mputer
• ! %"u ha$ent speci!% an% unanted characters it ill displa% entire string
i0 TRM
This ill trim "!! unanted characters !r"m the "th sides "! string
Snta1: trim (unwanted_cars !r"m strin! '
E1:
S7V select trim( IiI !r"m IindianiI' !r"m dual
TRM(
-----
ndian
S7V select trim( leadingIiI !r"m IindianiI' !r"m dual -- this ill "rk as TRM
TRM(
------
ndiani
S7V select trim( trailingIiI !r"m IindianiI' !r"m dual -- this ill "rk as RTRM
TRM(T
------
ndian
0 TR&(S,&TE
This ill replace the set "! characters, character % character
Snta1: translate ( strin!0 old_cars0 new_cars'
E1:
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S7V select translate(IindiaI,IinI,I9%I' !r"m dual
TRNS
--------
9%d9a
k0 REP,&CE
This ill replace the set "! characters, string % stringSnta1: replace ( strin!0 old_cars :0 new_cars'
E1:
S7V select replace(IindiaI,IinI,I9%I', replace(Lindia,in' !r"m dual
R/)&/ R/)&/
----------- -----------
E%dia dia
l0 SO%()E7
This ill e used t" !ind "rds that s"und like "ther "rds, e9clusi$el% used in here clause
Snta1: s"unde9 ( strin! '
E1:
S7V select Q !r"m emp here s"unde9(ename' s"unde9(ISMTI'
/M)N+ /NM/ +1 MR AR/DT/ S D/)TN+
-------- -------- ----- ----- ------------ --------- ----------
<36? SMTA &/RK <?02 <-D/&->0 ;00 20
m0 CO(C&T
This ill e used t" c"mine t" strings "nl%
Snta1: c"ncat ( strin!10 strin!2'
E1:
S7V select c"ncat(Ic"mputerI,I "perat"rI' !r"m dual
&+N&T(I&+M)#T/RI
-------------------------
c"mputer "perat"r
• ! %"u ant t" c"mine m"re than t" strings %"u ha$e t" use c"ncatenati"n "perat"r (^^'
S7V select Ih"I ^^ I areI ^^ I %"uI !r"m dual
IA+=I^^IR/---------------
h" are %"u
n0 &SC
This ill return the decimal representati"n in the dataase character set "! the !irst character "! the string
Snta1: ascii ( strin! '
E1:
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S7V select ascii(IaI', ascii(IappleI' !r"m dual
S&(II' S&(I))/I'
------------ ------------------
?< ?<
o0 CHR
This ill return the character ha$ing the inar% e8ui$alent t" the string in either the dataase character set "r
the nati"nal character set
Snta1: chr (number '
E1:
S7V select chr(?<' !r"m dual
&AR
-----
a
20 S%BSTR
This ill e used t" e9tract sustrings
Snta1: sustr ( strin!0 start_cr_count :0 no_of_cars'
E1:
S7V select sustr(Ic"mputerI,2', sustr(Ic"mputerI,2,;', sustr(Ic"mputerI,3,<' !r"m
dual
S#1STR( S#1ST S#1STR
---------- ------- --------
"mputer "mput mputer
• ! no_of_cars parameter is negati$e then it ill displa% n"thing
• ! "th parameters e9cept strin! are null "r Fer"s then it ill displa% n"thing
• ! no_of_cars parameter is greater than the length "! the string then it ign"res and calculates ased "n the
"rginal string length
• ! start_cr_count is negati$e then it ill e9tract the sustring !r"m right end
2 3 : ; 6 < >
& + M ) # T / R
-> -< -6 -; -: -3 -2 -
;0 (STR
This ill all"s %"u !"r searching thr"ugh a string !"r set "! characters
Snta1: instr ( strin!0 searc_str :0 start_cr_count :0 occurrence '
E1:
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S7V select instr(Iin!"rmati"nI,I"I,:,', instr(Iin!"rmati"nI,I"I,:,2' !r"m dual
NSTR(ING+RMT+NI,I+I,:,' NSTR(ING+RMT+NI,I+I,:,2'
------------------------------------ -------------------------------------
: 0
• ! %"u are n"t speci!%ing start_cr_count and occurrence then it ill start search !r"m the eginning and !ind
!irst "ccurrence "nl%
• ! "th parameters start_cr_count and occurrence are null, it ill displa% n"thing
r0 )ECO)E
• Dec"de ill act as $alue % $alue sustituti"n
• G"r e$er% $alue "! !ield, it ill checks !"r a match in a series "! i!4then tests
Snta1: dec"de (value0 if10 ten10 if20 ten20 99. else'
E1:
S7V select sal, dec"de(sal,;00,I"I,;000,IAighI,IMediumI' !r"m emp
S D/&+D/
----- ---------
;00 "
2;00 Medium
2000 Medium
3;00 Medium
3000 Medium
;000 Aigh
:000 Medium
;000 Aigh
>00 Medium
200 Medium
2000 Medium
2<00 Medium
2200 Medium
3200 Medium
S7V select dec"de(,,3', dec"de(,2,3,:,:,6' !r"m dual
D/&+D/(,,3' D/&+D/(,2,3,:,:,6'
----------------- ------------------------3 6
• ! the numer "! parameters are "dd and di!!erent then dec"de ill displa% n"thing
• ! the numer "! parameters are e$en and di!!erent then dec"de ill displa% last $alue
• ! all the parameters are null then dec"de ill displa% n"thing
• ! all the parameters are Fer"s then dec"de ill displa% Fer"
"0 6RE&TEST
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This ill gi$e the greatest string
Snta1: greatest ( strn!10 strin!20 strin! 9 strin!n'
E1:
S7V select greatest(IaI, II, IcI', greatest(IsatishI,IsrinuI,IsakethI' !r"m dual
R/T R/T
------- -------
c srinu
• ! all the parameters are nulls then it ill displa% n"thing
• ! an% "! the parameters is null it ill displa% n"thing
t0 ,E&ST
This ill gi$e the least string
Snta1: greatest ( strn!10 strin!20 strin! 9 strin!n'
E1:
S7V select least(IaI, II, IcI', least(IsatishI,IsrinuI,IsakethI' !r"m dual
/ST /ST
------- -------
a saketh
• ! all the parameters are nulls then it ill displa% n"thing
• ! an% "! the parameters is null it ill displa% n"thing
#0 CO&,ESCE
This ill gi$es the !irst n"n-null string
Snta1: c"alesce ( strn!10 strin!20 strin! 9 strin!n'
E1:
S7V select c"alesce(IaI,II,IcI', c"alesce(null,IaI,null,II' !r"m dual
&+/S&/ &+/S&/
----------- -----------
a a
)&TE F%(CTO(S
S%sdate
&urrentPdate
&urrentPtimestamp
S%stimestamp
"caltimestamp
DtimeF"ne
Sessi"ntimeF"ne
T"Pchar
T"Pdate
ddPm"nths
M"nthsPeteen
Ne9tPda%
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astPda%
/9tract
reatest
east
R"und
Trunc
NePtime
&"alesce
+racle de!ault date !"rmat is DD-M+N-HH
=e can change the de!ault !"rmat t" "ur desired !"rmat % using the !"ll"ing c"mmand
S7V alter sessi"n set nlsPdateP!"rmat LDD-M+NTA-HHHH
1ut this ill e9pire "nce the sessi"n as cl"sed
a0 SS)&TE
This ill gi$e the current date and time
E1:
S7V select s%sdate !r"m dual
SHSDT/-----------
2:-D/&-06
$0 C%RRE(T)&TE
This ill returns the current date in the sessi"ns timeF"ne
E1:
S7V select currentPdate !r"m dual
&#RR/NTPDT/
------------------
2:-D/&-06
c0 C%RRE(TTMEST&MP
This ill returns the current timestamp ith the acti$e time F"ne in!"rmati"n
E1:
S7V select currentPtimestamp !r"m dual
&#RR/NTPTM/STM)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------2:-D/&-06 03:2:3>336? M C0;B30
d0 SSTMEST&MP
This ill returns the s%stem date, including !racti"nal sec"nds and time F"ne "! the dataase
E1:
S7V select s%stimestamp !r"m dual
SHSTM/STM)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2:-D/&-06 03:?3>300?? M C0;B30
e0 ,OC&,TMEST&MP
This ill returns l"cal timestamp in the acti$e time F"ne in!"rmati"n, ith n" time F"ne in!"rmati"n sh"n
E1:
S7V select l"caltimestamp !r"m dual
+&TM/STM)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
2:-D/&-06 03::>;02><: M
f0 )BTMEWO(E
This ill returns the current dataase time F"ne in #T& !"rmat (&""rdinated #ni$ersal Time'
E1:
S7V select dtimeF"ne !r"m dual
D1TM/O+N/
---------------
-0<B00
-0 SESSO(TMEWO(E
This ill returns the $alue "! the current sessi"ns time F"ne
E1:
S7V select sessi"ntimeF"ne !r"m dual
S/SS+NTM/O+N/
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
C0;B30
h0 TOCH&R
This ill e used t" e9tract $ari"us date !"rmats
The a$ailale date !"rmats as !"ll"s
Snta1: t"Pchar (date, format '
)&TE FORM&TS
D -- N" "! da%s in eek
DD -- N" "! da%s in m"nth
DDD -- N" "! da%s in %ear
MM -- N" "! m"nth
M+N -- Three letter are$iati"n "! m"nth
M+NTA -- Gull% spelled "ut m"nth
RM -- R"man numeral m"nth
DH -- Three letter are$iated da%
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DH -- Gull% spelled "ut da%
H -- ast "ne digit "! the %ear
HH -- ast t" digits "! the %ear
HHH -- ast three digits "! the %ear
HHHH -- Gull !"ur digit %ear
SHHHH -- Signed %ear
-- +ne digit %ear !r"m S+ standard
H -- T" digit %ear !r"m S+ standard
HH -- Three digit %ear !r"m S+ standard
HHH -- G"ur digit %ear !r"m S+ standard
H, HHH -- Hear ith c"mma
H/R -- Gull% spelled "ut %ear
&& -- &entur%
7 -- N" "! 8uarters
= -- N" "! eeks in m"nth
== -- N" "! eeks in %ear
= -- N" "! eeks in %ear !r"m S+ standard
AA -- A"urs
M -- MinutesSS -- Sec"nds
GG -- Gracti"nal sec"nds
M "r )M -- Displa%s M "r )M depending up"n time "! da%
M "r )M -- Displa%s M "r )M depending up"n time "! da%
D "r 1& -- Displa%s D "r 1& depending up"n the date
D "r 1& -- Displa%s D "r 1& depending up"n the date
GM -- )re!i9 t" m"nth "r da%, suppresses padding "! m"nth "r da%
TA -- Su!!i9 t" a numer
S) -- su!!i9 t" a numer t" e spelled "ut
S)TA -- Su!!i9 c"minati"n "! TA and S) t" e "th spelled "ut
TAS) -- same as S)TA
E1:
S7V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Idd m"nth %%%% hhBmiBss am d%I' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDD M+NTA HHHHAABM
----------------------------------------------------
2: decemer 2006 02B03B23 pm sun
S7V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Idd m"nth %earI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDDM+NTAH/RI'
-------------------------------------------------------
2: decemer t" th"usand si9
S7V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Idd !mm"nth %earI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDD GMM+NTA H/RI'
-------------------------------------------------------
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S7V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Iddth DDTAI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(S
------------
2:th 2:TA
S7V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Iddspth DDS)TAI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDDS)TADDS)TA
------------------------------------------
tent%-!"urth T=/NTH-G+#RTA
S7V select t"Pchar(s%sdate,Iddsp Ddsp DDS) I' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(SHSDT/,IDDS)DDS)DDS)I'
------------------------------------------------
tent%-!"ur Tent%-G"ur T=/NTH-G+#R
i0 TO)&TE
This ill e used t" c"n$ert the string int" data !"rmat
Snta1: t"Pdate (date'
E1:
S7V select t"Pchar(t"Pdate(I2:4dec42006I,Idd4m"n4%%%%I', Idd Q m"nth Q da%I' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(T+PDT/(I2:4D/&420
--------------------------
2: Q decemer Q Sunda%
-- ! %"u are n"t using t"Pchar "racle ill displa% "utput in de!ault date !"rmat
0 &))MO(THS
This ill add the speci!ied m"nths t" the gi$en dateSnta1: addPm"nths (date0 no_of_monts'
E1:
S7V select addPm"nths(t"Pdate(I-@an-??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', ;' !r"m dual
DDPM+NTAS
----------------
-#N-?0
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S7V select addPm"nths(t"Pdate(I-@an-??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', -;' !r"m dual
DDPM+NTA
---------------
-#->?
• ! no_of_monts is Fer" then it ill displa% the same date
• ! no_of_monts is null then it ill displa% n"thing
k0 MO(THSBET9EE(
This ill gi$e di!!erence "! m"nths eteen t" dates
Snta1: m"nthsPeteen (date10 date2'
E1:
S7V select m"nthsPeteen(t"Pdate(I-aug-??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', t"Pdate(I-@an-??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I'' !r"m dual
M+NTASP1/T=//N(T+PDT/(I-#-??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI',T+PDT/(I-N-
??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI''
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
<
S7V select m"nthsPeteen(t"Pdate(I-@an-??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I', t"Pdate(I-aug-
??0I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I'' !r"m dual
M+NTASP1/T=//N(T+PDT/(I-N-??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI',T+PDT/(I-#-
??0I,IDD-M+N-HHHHI''
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-<
l0 (E7T)&
This ill pr"duce ne9t da% "! the gi$en da% !r"m the speci!ied date
Snta1: ne9tPda% (date0 day'
E1B
S7V select ne9tPda%(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-2006I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I',IsunI' !r"m dual
N/ETPDH(
-------------
3-D/&-06
-- ! the da% parameter is null then it ill displa% n"thing
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m0 ,&ST)&
This ill pr"duce last da% "! the gi$en date
Snta1: lastPda% (date'
E1:
S7V select lastPda%(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-2006I,Idd-m"n-%%%%I',IsunI' !r"m dual
STPDH(
-------------
3-D/&-06
n0 E7TR&CT
This is used t" e9tract a p"rti"n "! the date $alue
Snta1: e9tract ((%ear ^ m"nth ^ da% ^ h"ur ^ minute ^ sec"nd', date'
E1:
S7V select e9tract(%ear !r"m s%sdate' !r"m dual
/ETR&T(H/RGR+MSHSDT/'
------------------------------------2006
-- H"u can e9tract "nl% "ne $alue at a time
o0 6RE&TEST
This ill gi$e the greatest date
Snta1: greatest (date10 date20 date 9 daten'
E1:
S7V select greatest(t"Pdate(I-@an-?0I,Idd-m"n-%%I',t"Pdate(I-mar-?0I,Idd-m"n%%I',t"Pdate(I-apr-
?0I,Idd-m"n-%%I'' !r"m dual
R/T/ST(
-------------
-)R-?0
20 ,E&ST
This ill gi$e the least date
Snta1: least (date10 date20 date 9 daten'
E1:
S7V select least(t"Pdate(I-@an-?0I,Idd-m"n-%%I',t"Pdate(I-mar-?0I,Idd-m"n%%I', t"Pdate(I-apr-?0I,Idd-
m"n-%%I'' !r"m dual
/ST(
-------------
-N-?0
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;0 RO%()
R"und ill r"unds the date t" hich it as e8ual t" "r greater than the gi$en date
Snta1: r"und (date0 ( da% ^ m"nth ^ %ear )'
! the sec"nd parameter as year then r"und ill checks the m"nth "! the gi$en date in the !"ll"ing range
N -- #N
# -- D/&
! the m"nth !alls eteen N and #N then it returns the !irst da% "! the current %ear
! the m"nth !alls eteen # and D/& then it returns the !irst da% "! the ne9t %ear
! the sec"nd parameter as mont then r"und ill checks the da% "! the gi$en date in the !"ll"ing ranges
-- ;
6 -- 3
! the da% !alls eteen and ; then it returns the !irst da% "! the current m"nth
! the da% !alls eteen 6 and 3 then it returns the !irst da% "! the ne9t m"nth
! the sec"nd parameter as day then r"und ill checks the eek da% "! the gi$en date in the !"ll"ing
ranges
S#N -- =/D
TA# -- S#N
! the eek da% !alls eteen S#N and =/D then it returns the pre$i"us sunda%
! the eekda% !alls eteen TA# and S#N then it returns the ne9t sunda%
• ! the sec"nd parameter as null then it returns n"thing
• ! the %"u are n"t speci!%ing the sec"nd parameter then r"und ill resets the time t" the egining "!
the current da% in case "! user speci!ied date
• ! the %"u are n"t speci!%ing the sec"nd parameter then r"und ill resets the time t" the egining "!
the ne9t da% in case "! s%sdate
E1:
S7V select r"und(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI', r"und(t"Pdate(I-mar- 06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI'
!r"m dual
R+#ND(T+P R+#ND(T+P ------------ ---------------
0-N-0; 0-N-06
S7V select r"und(t"Pdate(I-@an-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Im"nthI', r"und(t"Pdate(I>-@an- 0:I,Idd-m"n-
%%I',Im"nthI' !r"m dual
R+#ND(T+P R+#ND(T+P
------------- ---------------
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0-N-0: 0-G/1-0:
S7V select r"und(t"Pdate(I26-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Ida%I', r"und(t"Pdate(I2?-dec-
06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Ida%I' !r"m dual
R+#ND(T+P R+#ND(T+P
-------------- --------------
2:-D/&-06 3-D/&-06
S7V select t"Pchar(r"und(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I'', Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI'!r"m dual
T+P&AR(R+#ND(T+PDT/(I
---------------------------------
2: dec 2006 2B00B00 am
r0 TR%(C
Trunc ill ch"ps "!! the date t" hich it as e8ual t" "r less than the gi$en date
Snta1: trunc (date0 ( da% ^ m"nth ^ %ear )'
• ! the sec"nd parameter as year then it ala%s returns the !irst da% "! the current %ear
• ! the sec"nd parameter as mont then it ala%s returns the !irst da% "! the current m"nth
• ! the sec"nd parameter as day then it ala%s returns the pre$i"us sunda%
• ! the sec"nd parameter as null then it returns n"thing
• ! the %"u are n"t speci!%ing the sec"nd parameter then trunk ill resets the time t" the egining "!
the current da%
E1:
S7V select trunc(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI', trunc(t"Pdate(I-mar-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',I%earI'
!r"m dual
TR#N&(T+P TR#N&(T+P
------------- --------------
0-N-0: 0-N-06
S7V select trunc(t"Pdate(I-@an-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Im"nthI', trunc(t"Pdate(I>-@an-0:I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Im"nthI
!r"m dual
TR#N&(T+P TR#N&(T+P
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------------- -------------
0-N-0: 0-N-0:
S7V select trunc(t"Pdate(I26-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I',Ida%I', trunc(t"Pdate(I2?-dec-06I,Iddm"n- %%I',Ida%I' !r"m
dual
TR#N&(T+P TR#N&(T+P
------------- --------------
2:-D/&-06 2:-D/&-06
S7V select t"Pchar(trunc(t"Pdate(I2:-dec-06I,Idd-m"n-%%I'', Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(TR#N&(T+PDT/(I
---------------------------------
2: dec 2006 2B00B00 am
"0 (E9TME
This ill gi$e the desired timeF"nes date and time
Snta1: nePtime (date0 current_time<one0 desired_time<one'
$ailale timeF"nes are as !"ll"s
TMEWO(ES
ST4DT -- tlantic standard4da% light time
1ST41DT -- 1ering standard4da% light time
&ST4&DT -- &entral standard4da% light time
/ST4/DT -- /astern standard4da% light time
MT -- reenich mean time
AST4ADT -- laska-Aaaii standard4da% light time
MST4MDT -- M"untain standard4da% light time
NST -- Ne!"undland standard time
)ST4)DT -- )aci!ic standard4da% light time
HST4HDT -- Huk"n standard4da% light time
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E1:
S7V select t"Pchar(nePtime(s%sdate,IgmtI,I%stI',Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(N/=PTM/(SHSDT
-----------------------------------
2: dec 2006 02B;B20 pm
S7V select t"Pchar(nePtime(s%sdate,IgmtI,IestI',Idd m"n %%%% hhBmiBss amI' !r"m dual
T+P&AR(N/=PTM/(SHSDT
-----------------------
2: dec 2006 06B;B26 pm
t0 CO&,ESCE
This ill gi$e the !irst n"n-null date
Snta1: c"alesce (date10 date20 date 9 daten'
E1:
S7V select c"alesce(I2-@an-?0I,I3-@an-??I', c"alesce(null,I2-@an-?0I,I23-mar-?>I,null'
!r"m dual
&+/S&/( &+/S&/(
------------- ------------2-@an-?0 2-@an-?0
MSCE,,&(EO%S F%(CTO(S
• #id
• #ser
• .siFe
• Rank
• DensePrank
a0 %)
This ill returns the integer $alue c"rresp"nding t" the user currentl% l"gged in
E1:
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S7V select uid !r"m dual
#D
----------
3?
$0 %SER
This ill returns the l"gins user name
E1:
S7V select user !r"m dual
#S/R
----------------
SK/TA
c0 !SWE
This ill returns the numer "! %tes in the e9pressi"n
E1:
S7V select $siFe(23', $siFe(Ic"mputerI', $siFe(I2-@an-?0I' !r"m dual
.SO/(23' .SO/(I&+M)#T/RI' .SO/(I2-N-?0I'
------------- ----------------------- ----------------------3 > ?
d0 R&(8
This ill gi$e the n"n-se8uential ranking
E1:
S7V select r"num,sal !r"m (select sal !r"m emp "rder % sal desc'
R+=N#M S
---------- ----------
;000
2 3000
3 3000
: 2?<;
; 2>;0
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6 2:;0
< 600
> ;00
? 300
0 2;0
2;0
2 00
3 000: ?;0
; >00
S7V select rank(2?<;' ithin gr"up("rder % sal desc' !r"m emp
RNK(2?<;'=TANR+#)(+RD/R1HSD/S&'
---------------------------------------------------------
:
d0 )E(SER&(8
This ill gi$e the se8uential ranking
E1:
S7V select densePrank(2?<;' ithin gr"up("rder % sal desc' !r"m emp
D/NS/PRNK(2?<;'=TANR+#)(+RD/R1HSD/S&'
-----------------------------------------------------------------
3
CO(!ERSO( F%(CTO(S
• 1inPt"Pnum
• &hart"r"id
• R"idt"char
• T"Pnumer
• T"Pchar
• T"Pdate
a0 B(TO(%M
This ill c"n$ert the inar% $alue t" its numerical e8ui$alent
Snta1: inPt"Pnum( binary_bits'
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E1:
S7V select inPt"Pnum(,,0' !r"m dual
1NPT+PN#M(,,0'
------------------------
6
•
! all the its are Fer" then it pr"duces Fer"• ! all the its are null then it pr"duces an err"r
$0 CH&RTORO9)
This ill c"n$ert a character string t" act like an internal "racle r" identi!ier "r r"id
c0 RO9)TOCH&R
This ill c"n$ert an internal "racle r" identi!ier "r r"id t" character string
d0 TO(%MBER This ill c"n$ert a char "r $archar t" numer
e0 TOCH&R
This ill c"n$ert a numer "r date t" character string
f0 TO)&TE
This ill c"n$ert a numer, char "r $archar t" a date
6RO%P F%(CTO(S
• Sum
• $g
• Ma9
• Min
• &"unt
r"up !uncti"ns ill e applied "n all the r"s ut pr"duces single "utput
a0 S%M
This ill gi$e the sum "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn
Snta1: sum (column'
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E1:
S7V select sum(sal' !r"m emp
S#M(S'
----------
3>600
$0 &!6
This ill gi$e the a$erage "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn
Snta1: a$g (column'
E1:
S7V select a$g(sal' !r"m emp
.(S'
---------------
2<;<:2>6
c0 M&7
This ill gi$e the ma9imum "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn
Snta1: ma9 (column'
E1:
S7V select ma9(sal' !r"m emp
ME(S'
----------
;000
d0 M(
This ill gi$e the minimum "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn
Snta1: min (column'
E1:
S7V select min(sal' !r"m empMN(S'
----------
;00
e0 CO%(T
This ill gi$e the c"unt "! the $alues "! the speci!ied c"lumn
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Snta1: c"unt (column'
E1:
S7V select c"unt(sal',c"unt(Q' !r"m emp
&+#NT(S' &+#NT(Q'
-------------- ------------
: :
