APPLICATION OF APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE LEARNING COGNITIVE LEARNING

THEORIESTHEORIES

by ccsby ccs

Theories of learningTheories of learning

LEARNING CONCEPT

HUMANISTSOCIALIST COGNITIVIST BEHAVIORIST

LEARNING CONCEPTLEARNING CONCEPT BEHAVIORISTBEHAVIORIST- Pavlov, Thorndike, SkinnerPavlov, Thorndike, Skinner- Stimuli and reactionStimuli and reaction COGNITIVISTCOGNITIVIST- Kohler, Bruner, Gagne,AusubelKohler, Bruner, Gagne,Ausubel- Learning is a process inside human mindLearning is a process inside human mind- Gestalt theory (meaningful learning, problem solving,observation, learning category, Gestalt theory (meaningful learning, problem solving,observation, learning category,

reseption)reseption) SOCIALISTSOCIALIST- BanduraBandura- Neobehaviorist (behavior+cognitive), learning model, learning by observation and copyNeobehaviorist (behavior+cognitive), learning model, learning by observation and copy HUMANISTHUMANIST- Carl RogersCarl Rogers- Learning are effected by emotion and feelingLearning are effected by emotion and feeling- Every individual has potential to get successEvery individual has potential to get success- Teacher guide them to follow the right pathTeacher guide them to follow the right path

Cognitive theories of learningCognitive theories of learning

Cognitive theories first appeared last century, but were Cognitive theories first appeared last century, but were usurped by behavioural theories earlier this century, only to re-usurped by behavioural theories earlier this century, only to re-emerge as the dominant force again. emerge as the dominant force again.

They are concerned with the things that happen inside our They are concerned with the things that happen inside our heads as we learn. heads as we learn.

They take the perspective that students actively process They take the perspective that students actively process information and learning takes place through the efforts of the information and learning takes place through the efforts of the student as they organise, store and then find relationships student as they organise, store and then find relationships between information, linking new to old knowledge, schema between information, linking new to old knowledge, schema and scripts. and scripts.

Cognitive approaches emphasise how information is Cognitive approaches emphasise how information is processed. processed.

Similarities of three cognitive Similarities of three cognitive theorists theorists

These three cognitive theorists, Jerome Bruner, David Ausubel These three cognitive theorists, Jerome Bruner, David Ausubel and Robert Gagné have not adopted a developmental and Robert Gagné have not adopted a developmental perspective perspective

different theoretical positions, they share the following different theoretical positions, they share the following features in common. features in common.

they all put forward their ideas initially in the 1960s. At that they all put forward their ideas initially in the 1960s. At that time all three were established in their careers and recognised time all three were established in their careers and recognised as authorities in their own right. as authorities in their own right.

all three attempted to define cognitive theories of instruction. all three attempted to define cognitive theories of instruction. The advent of these theories coincided with a period in which The advent of these theories coincided with a period in which Western educators were, for the first time since the 1920s, Western educators were, for the first time since the 1920s, seriously pausing to consider their educational policies; the seriously pausing to consider their educational policies; the depression and the second World War had made such depression and the second World War had made such evaluations impossible for almost thirty years. evaluations impossible for almost thirty years.

Of equal importance was the fact that this Of equal importance was the fact that this period of questioning in the 1960s coincided period of questioning in the 1960s coincided with periods of tremendous growth in with periods of tremendous growth in scientific knowledge and expansion of, what scientific knowledge and expansion of, what was now in these Western countries, universal was now in these Western countries, universal secondary education secondary education

DAVID AUSUBEL’S DAVID AUSUBEL’S VERBAL LEARNING VERBAL LEARNING

MODELMODEL

Ausubel’s TheoryAusubel’s Theory

David Ausubel is a psychologist who advanced a theory which contrasted David Ausubel is a psychologist who advanced a theory which contrasted meaningful learning from rote learning.meaningful learning from rote learning.

Ausubel’s theory is involved with how individuals learn large amounts of Ausubel’s theory is involved with how individuals learn large amounts of “meaningful” material from verbal/textual lessons in school, as opposed to “meaningful” material from verbal/textual lessons in school, as opposed to theories of learning developed in laboratories.theories of learning developed in laboratories.

Ausubel’s Ausubel’s subsumption theorysubsumption theory contends that “the most important single contends that “the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows” (Ausubel, factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows” (Ausubel, 1968).1968).

According to Ausubel, a primary process in learning is subsumption in According to Ausubel, a primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structures.structures.

Ausubel proposes an instructional mode using advance organizers. He Ausubel proposes an instructional mode using advance organizers. He emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and details in an arbitrary summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and details in an arbitrary manner. Organizers act as a “subsuming bridge” (Ausubel, 1963) between manner. Organizers act as a “subsuming bridge” (Ausubel, 1963) between new learning material and existing related ideas.new learning material and existing related ideas.

Meaningful Learning Contrasted with Meaningful Learning Contrasted with Rote LearningRote Learning

Rote LearningRote Learning Arbitrary, verbatim, non-substantive incorporation of new Arbitrary, verbatim, non-substantive incorporation of new

knowledge into cognitive structure. knowledge into cognitive structure. No effort to integrate new knowledge with existing No effort to integrate new knowledge with existing

concepts in cognitive structure. concepts in cognitive structure. Learning not related to experience with events or objects. Learning not related to experience with events or objects. No affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior No affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior

learning. learning.

Meaningful LearningMeaningful Learning Non-arbitrary, non-verbatim, substantive incorporation of Non-arbitrary, non-verbatim, substantive incorporation of

new knowledge into cognitive structure. new knowledge into cognitive structure. Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with higher order Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with higher order

concepts in cognitive structure concepts in cognitive structure Learning related to experiences with events or objects. Learning related to experiences with events or objects. Affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior Affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior

learning.learning.

Ausubel's Model of Learning Ausubel's Model of Learning Phase One: Advance Organizer

Phase Two: Presentation of Learning Task or Material

Phase three: Strengthening Cognitive Organization

 Clarify aim of the lesson

Present the organizer

Relate organizer to students' knowledge

 Make the organization of the new material explicit.

Make logical order of learning material explicit.

Present material and engage students in meaningful learning activities.

 Relate new information to advance organizer

Promote active reception learning.

Novak’s Concept Mapping TechniqueNovak’s Concept Mapping Technique

The concept mapping technique was developed by The concept mapping technique was developed by Joseph D. Novak at Cornell University.Joseph D. Novak at Cornell University.

Novak concluded that Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning involves "Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures"into existing cognitive structures"..

Novak’s work was based on the theories of Ausubel.Novak’s work was based on the theories of Ausubel. Novak and Gowan (1984) have developed a theory of Novak and Gowan (1984) have developed a theory of

instruction that is based on Ausubel's meaningful instruction that is based on Ausubel's meaningful learning principles that incorporates "concept maps" learning principles that incorporates "concept maps" to represent meaningful relationships between to represent meaningful relationships between concepts and propositions.concepts and propositions.

A cognitive map is a “A cognitive map is a “kind of visual road map kind of visual road map showing some of the pathways we may take to showing some of the pathways we may take to connect meanings of concepts.”connect meanings of concepts.”

According to Novak and Gowan, concept maps According to Novak and Gowan, concept maps should be hierarchical.should be hierarchical.

The more general, more inclusive concepts should be The more general, more inclusive concepts should be at the top of the map, and the more specific, less at the top of the map, and the more specific, less inclusive concepts at the bottom of the map.inclusive concepts at the bottom of the map.

What is concept mapping?What is concept mapping?

Concept mapping is a technique for Concept mapping is a technique for representing knowledge in graphs.representing knowledge in graphs.

Knowledge graphs are networks of concepts.Knowledge graphs are networks of concepts. Networks consist of nodes and links.Networks consist of nodes and links. Nodes represent concepts and links represent Nodes represent concepts and links represent

the relations between concepts. the relations between concepts.

Concepts and links are labeled.Concepts and links are labeled. Links can be non-, uni- or bi-directional.Links can be non-, uni- or bi-directional. Concepts and links may be categorized. They Concepts and links may be categorized. They

can becan be simply associative,simply associative, Specified, orSpecified, or divided in categories such as causal or temporal divided in categories such as causal or temporal

relations. relations.

Purposes of Concept MappingPurposes of Concept Mapping

to generate ideas (brain storming, etc.)to generate ideas (brain storming, etc.) to design a complex structure (long texts, to design a complex structure (long texts,

hypermedia, large web sites, etc.)hypermedia, large web sites, etc.) to communicate complex ideasto communicate complex ideas to aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old to aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old

knowledgeknowledge to assess understanding or diagnose misunderstandingto assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding

Concept mapping as a student learning Concept mapping as a student learning tooltool

To learn course materialTo learn course material Students can use concept maps to take class notes. Students can use concept maps to take class notes. Students can use concept maps to organize class notes or course Students can use concept maps to organize class notes or course

material. material. To integrate course contentTo integrate course content

Students can use concept maps to connect material learned throughout Students can use concept maps to connect material learned throughout the semester. the semester.

To integrate material across different coursesTo integrate material across different courses Often students fail to see the relationship between different classes that Often students fail to see the relationship between different classes that

they have taken.they have taken. Concept mapping can foster a student's understanding of how different Concept mapping can foster a student's understanding of how different

courses relate if they map the prominent concepts from different courses relate if they map the prominent concepts from different courses that they have taken (e.g. compose one map of terms from a courses that they have taken (e.g. compose one map of terms from a statistics class and a research design class). statistics class and a research design class).

To assess their own learning. To assess their own learning. Concept maps can be Concept maps can be used to assess changes and growth in the students' used to assess changes and growth in the students' conceptual understanding as a result of instruction conceptual understanding as a result of instruction received in the course. received in the course. Learning can be evaluated before a course begins (to Learning can be evaluated before a course begins (to

evaluate students' prior knowledge), during the semester (to evaluate students' prior knowledge), during the semester (to evaluate changes in the students' knowledge), and/or at the evaluate changes in the students' knowledge), and/or at the end of the semester (to evaluate the students' knowledge end of the semester (to evaluate the students' knowledge after all course material has been covered). after all course material has been covered).

Concept maps can be used to evaluate changes in learning Concept maps can be used to evaluate changes in learning over time and to evaluate end of course knowledge. over time and to evaluate end of course knowledge.

A concept map can A concept map can provide feedbackprovide feedback to the student so to the student so that s/he can check her/his understanding of the that s/he can check her/his understanding of the material to see if any connections are missing.material to see if any connections are missing.

1. Identify the important terms or concepts that 1. Identify the important terms or concepts that you want to include on your mapyou want to include on your map

There are three strategies to identify important There are three strategies to identify important concepts to include concepts on a concept map: concepts to include concepts on a concept map: An instructor generated list and students are not permitted An instructor generated list and students are not permitted

to add their own concepts to add their own concepts An instructor generated list but the students are allowed to An instructor generated list but the students are allowed to

add their own concepts to the list add their own concepts to the list An entirely student-generated list of concepts on a An entirely student-generated list of concepts on a

particular subject particular subject For novice concept mappers, it is probably best to For novice concept mappers, it is probably best to

have the terms provided.have the terms provided.

2. Arrange concepts in a pattern that best represents the 2. Arrange concepts in a pattern that best represents the informationinformation

One can choose to use a hierarchical or non-One can choose to use a hierarchical or non-hierarchical structure. hierarchical structure.

The use of hierarchical or non-hierarchical maps may The use of hierarchical or non-hierarchical maps may have different benefits in terms of pedagogy and have different benefits in terms of pedagogy and assessment. assessment.

Novice mappers may want to create their concept Novice mappers may want to create their concept maps using post-it notes so that they can easily maps using post-it notes so that they can easily change the location of any concept before a final change the location of any concept before a final version is constructed.version is constructed.

3. Use circles or ovals to enclose an important 3. Use circles or ovals to enclose an important term or concept within the topicterm or concept within the topic

Each circle or oval should enclose only one term or Each circle or oval should enclose only one term or concept. However, terms can be more than one word.concept. However, terms can be more than one word.

4. Use straight lines with arrows (single or 4. Use straight lines with arrows (single or double-headed) to link terms that are relateddouble-headed) to link terms that are related

Each line should link only two concepts. Each line should link only two concepts. However, there is no limit to the number of links However, there is no limit to the number of links

stemming from any one term. stemming from any one term. Pay close attention to the direction of the arrowheads Pay close attention to the direction of the arrowheads

on the linking lines when labeling them. on the linking lines when labeling them. Each concept is defined by its relation to other Each concept is defined by its relation to other

concepts within the topic. Relations include: superset, concepts within the topic. Relations include: superset, subset, attribute, part-whole.subset, attribute, part-whole.

5. Use a word or phrase of words as labels along the 5. Use a word or phrase of words as labels along the lines to designate the relationship between two lines to designate the relationship between two

connected termsconnected terms Each line should have a label that describes the Each line should have a label that describes the

relationship between the two terms it connects. relationship between the two terms it connects. Example:Example:

Important term

Important term

Important term

Important term

relationship link

relationship link

mutual relationship

link

mutual relationship

link

feedback loop link

Examples of concept mapsExamples of concept maps