Data Collection In Quantitative Research

Prepared by : Abdulaziz T. A. Khader

Instruments Of Research

• Instruments of research :measurements designed to measure the same variables among the participants

• Data collection if often the costliest and most time consuming portion in research study

Dimensions Of Data Collection Approaches

1. Structure: 1. structured plan that indicates what information is to be gathered and how to gather it. 2. unstructured and to provide participants with opportunities to reveal information in a naturalistic way (qualitative).

2. Quantifiability: Data that will be subjected to statistical analysis must be gathered in such a way that they can be quantified.

Dimensions of Data Collection Approaches (cont.)

3. Researcher obtrusiveness (prominent):Data collection methods differ in the degree to which people are aware of their status as participants.

4. Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the degree to which two independent researchers can arrive at similar “scores” or make similar observations regarding the concepts of interest, that is, make judgments regarding participants’ attributes or behavior that are not biased by personal feelings or beliefs.

• Researchers collect data in structured manner thus imposing constraints on the methods so that there is consistency in what is asked and how answers are reported in effort to enhance

1-objectivity. 2-reduce biases. 3-facilitate analysis

• Data collection plans for quantitative studies ideally yield accurate ,valid , meaningful this is challenging goal typically requiring considerable time and effort to achieve

Identifying Data Needs• researchers may need to identify data requirements for

accomplishing the following :1) Testing the hypotheses or addressing the research questions2) Describing sample characteristics3) Controlling confounding (extraneous) variables4) Analyzing potential biases5) Understanding subgroup effects6) Interpreting results7) Assessing treatment fidelity8) Obtaining administrative information

Selecting And Developing Instruments• In reviewing data needs researchers should determine how best

to capture each variable in terms of its conceptual or theoretical definition

criteria that may affect researchers’ decisions in selecting an instrument are as follows:

1. Conceptual relevance.2. Yield high quality data3. Resources.4. Availability and familiarity.5. Norms and comparability.6. Population appropriateness.7. Administration issues.8. Reputation.

On the side of the road

If existing instrument are not suitable for some variables you may be faced with either adapting an instrument or developing a new one but its last choose for novice researchers

If you identifying a suitable instrument the next step likely will be to obtain written permission from the author to use it

The Role Of The Modern Techniques In The Collection Of Data

• Survey researchers are increasingly using sophisticated computer programs to facilitate collecting, recording, and encoding self-report data (CATI, CAPI) .

• The internet is being used to gather data from geographically dispersed populations.

• Personal digital assistants(PDAs) and audio-enhanced PDAs are also beginning to play a role.

Structured Self-Report Instruments

• The most widely used data collection method by nurse researchers.

• The instrument is an : 1-interview schedule: when questions are asked orally in face to face or by telephone

2-questionnaire or SAQ (self-administered questionnaire) when respondents complete the instrument them selves

3-embed an SAQ into interview schedule (mix)

Types Of Structured Questions

Open ended questions : allow people to respond in their own words.

Closed ended questions (fix-alternative) offer response options from which respondents much choose the one that most closely matches the appropriate answer

Strengths And Weaknesses In Closed-End Questions

Good closed-ended items are often difficult to construct but easy to administer and especially to analyze

Researchers need only tabulation the number of responses to each alternative to gain descriptive information

More efficient than open-ended in given amount of time to complete

Preferred if respondents are unable to express themselves well verbally and some questions are less objectionable

Possibility of omitting key responses and lead to inadequate understanding of the issues or the outright bias if respondents choose an alternative that misrepresents the position

Items tend to be superficial

Strength And Weaknesses In open-end questions

The analysis of open-ended items is more difficult and time consuming

Tabulation can be made by procedure is to develop categories and code open-ended responses into the categories. Researchers essentially transform open-ended responses to fix categories in a post hoc fashion

Time consuming to fill it by respondents If the participant cooperation and verbally expressive can give

richer and fuller perspective on a topic The richness can be lost in the tabulate answering in categorized Give freedom to respondents

Mix Open And Closed End Questions

• Considered the : 1-sensitivity of question2-respondents verbal ability 3-amount of time available4-amount of prior research on topic

Types Of Close-Ended Questions1-Dichotomous items: such as yes/no

2-Multiple- choice questions: 3-7 alternatives3-Cafeteria questions: multiple choice questions in which

respondents choose the most closely cross ponds to their view

4-Rank order questions: from the best to the worst or least important alternative

5-Forced choice questions: respondent should choose between 2 alternative statements

6-Rating questions: judge something along an order dimensions which are bipolar in nature

7-Checklist: items encompass several questions on topic and require the same response format, is often two dimensional arrangements

8-Visual analogue scales: it is used to measure subjective experiences such as pain and fatigue.

Structured Questions

Dichotomous

____Yes

____No

Male Female

Note: Appropriate for gathering factual information

Multiple questions Example: How favorable is it to you to become

pregnant at this time ? ___Very favorable

___ Favorable ___ Not sure

___ Unfavorable ___ Very unfavorable

(http://www.slideshare.net/ludymae/chapter-9methods-of-data-collection)

Note: Graded alternative are preferable to dichotomous items for opinion or attitude questions because researchers get more information (intensity as well as direction of opinion

Cafeteria questions-Example: People have different views on “family planning”

which of the following best represent your views?___ 1 .Family planning is necessary to quality life.

___ 2 .Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned.

___ 3 .Family planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution.

___4 .Family planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice.

___ 5 .Family planning is moral and should be practiced.

(http://www.slideshare.net/ludymae/chapter-9methods-of-data-collection)

Rank-Order questionsExample: Why must family planning be practiced? Rank your answers from the 1-most reasonable

to 5-least reasonable?___Limits maternal disabilities.

___Gives parents more time to meet family needs.___Helps maintain financial viability of the family.

___Affords more working hours for couples. ___Ensures family capability to educate all the children in the future.

(http://www.slideshare.net/ludymae/chapter-9methods-of-data-collection)

Note: Sometime misunderstand them so good instructions and an example may be needed

Forced-Choice

1 .I believe that all happened to me is a faith

2 .I believe that all happen to me is because of my behaviors

Rating

1 10 Very Dissatisfied

Very Satisfied

Checklist

Note: Efficient and easy to understand but because they are difficult to read orally they are used more frequently in SAQs than interviews

Scales (VAS) Visual Analogue

Collecting Historical Data• Researchers collect information about activities and date by :A. Event history calendar :calendar are matrix that plot time on

one dimension (usually the horizontal dimension) and the events or activities on the other. The person recording the data(either the participant or an interviewer)draws lines to indicate the stop and start dates of the specified events or behaviors. Event history calendar are especially useful in collecting information about the occurrence and sequencing of events retrospectively.

B. Diary :ask participants to maintain information in ongoing structured diary over a specified time period. This approach is often used to collect quantitative information about sleeping, eating, exercise behavior.

Composite Scales And Other Structured Self-Reports

Scales used to make fine quantitative discriminations among people with different attitudes, perceptions, traits

*The most important are composite social-psychological scales that are often included in a questionnaire or interview package

1-Likert scales2-Semantic differential scales

Likert Scales

• The most widely used scaling technique consists of several declarative items that express a viewpoint on a topic. Respondents are asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with the opinion expressed by the statement.

• Typically, agreement with positively worded statements and disagreement with negatively worded statements are assigned higher scores.

Note: a high score consistently reflects positive attitudes toward condoms. A person’s total score is determined by adding together individual item scores. Such scales are often called summated rating scales

Semantic Differential Scales-Require ratings of various concepts

-Rating scales involve bipolar adjective pairs, with 7-point ratings.

-Ratings for each dimension are summed to compute a total score for each concept.

flexible and easy to construct. The concept being rated can be virtuallyanything—a person, place, situation, abstract idea, controversial issue, and so forth. higher scores usually associated with the positively worded adjective

Example of a Semantic Differential

Cognitive And Neuropsychological Tests Nurse researchers sometime assess study participants

cognitive skills. There are several different types of cognitive tests for example :

A. Intelligence tests evaluate a persons global ability to perceive relationships and solve problem

B. Aptitude tests measure a persons potential for achievement

Some cognitive tests are specially designed to assess neuropsychological functioning among people with potential cognitive impairments such as the Mini-Mental Status Examination(MMSE) this test capture varying types of competence such as the ability to concentrate and the ability to remember, such test can use in studies of elderly patients and patients with Alzheimer's disease.

Q Sorts-Participants sort a deck of cards into piles (plenty)

according to specific criteria.-Cards contain statements to be sorted on a bipolar

continuum (e.g., most like me/least like me).-Usually 50 to 100 cards; usually 9 or 11 piles

Vignettes

-Brief descriptions of situations to which respondents are asked to react

-Descriptions are usually written “stories”About; Perceptions, opinions or knowledge

-Respondents can be asked open-ended or closed-ended questions about their reactions.

-Aspects of the vignettes can be experimentally manipulated.

Projection techniques

• Are data collection methods that rely on peoples projection of psychological traits in response to vaguely structured stimuli.

• Pictorial methods: present picture or cartoons and ask participants for their reactions.

• Verbal methods: present people with ambiguous verbal stimulus rather than the picture.

• Expressive methods: take the form of play, drawing, or role play.

Advantages of a Questionnaire

• Cost (less costly than interview)• Anonymity• Interviewer bias (difficult to achieve because

respondents and interviewers interact as humans)• Relatively simple method of obtaining data• Less time is consumed• Researcher is able to gather data from a widely

scattered sample

Disadvantages of a Questionnaire

• Responses to a questionnaire lack depth• Respondent may omit or disregard any item he chooses• Some items may force the subject to select responses

that are not his actual choice• Length of the questionnaire is limited according to the

respondent’s interest• Data are limited to the information that is voluntarily

supplied by the respondents• Some items maybe misunderstood• The sample is limited to those who are literate

(http://www.slideshare.net/ludymae/chapter-9methods-of-data-collection)

Advantages Of Interview• Response rate (people less likely to refuse)• Audience• Clarity• Depth of questioning• Missing information (less likely to give “don’t know”)• Order of questions (different ordering of questions from the

one intended could bias response• Sample control (interviewed the intended respondents)• Supplementary data (additional data through observation)

Disadvantages of Interview1 .Time element

2 .Biases may result3 .Costly

Evaluation Of Structure Self-Report Structure self-report are a powerful data collection method.

Yield information that can be readily analyzed statistically. The questions tend to be much more superficial than questions

in unstructured interviews because most structured questions are closed-ended.

Susceptible to the risk of various response biases. Respondents may give biased answers in reaction to

interviewers behavior or appearance. Social desirability response bias refers to the tendency of some

individuals to misrepresent themselves by giving answers that are congruent with prevailing social value.

Indirect and delicately worded questioning sometimes can help to minimize this response bias and permissive atmosphere and provisions for anonymity also encourage frankness.

cont.• Response set bias are commonly observed in composite scales.• Extreme responses are a bias reflecting consistent selection of

extreme alternative.• Acquiescence response set (yea-sayers)• Nay-sayers to disagree with statements independently of

question content.• Researchers who construct scales should attempt to eliminate

or minimize response set biases.• If scales is being developed for general use by others evidence

should be gathered to demonstrate that scale is sufficiently free from response biases.

Tips for wording questions 1. Clarity 2. Ability of respondents to give information3. Bias4. Sensitivity Some specific suggestions Clarify in your own mind the information you are trying to obtain. Avoid jargon or technical terms (don’t assume that even nurses have

extensive knowledge on all aspects of nursing and medical terminology)

Do not assume that respondents will be aware of or informed about issues in which you are interested

Avoid leading questions that suggest a particular answer. State a range of alternatives within the question itself when possible. For questions that deal with controversial topics or socially

unacceptable behavior closed end-questions may be preferred. Impersonal wording of questions is sometimes useful in encouraging

honesty.

Tips for Preparing Response Alternatives

• Responses options should cover all significant alternatives.

• Alternatives should be mutually exclusive.• There should be a rationale for ordering

alternatives. When options have no “natural” order, alphabetic ordering of the alternatives is less likely to lead respondents to a particular response.

• Response alternatives should not be too lengthy.

Tips for Formatting an Instrument The format is especially important in questionnaires

because respondents cannot usually ask for help. Do not compress too many questions into too small a

space. Set off the response options from the question or stem

itself. Response alternative are usually aligned vertically.

Give special care to formatting filter questions, which are designed to route respondents through different sets of questions depending on their responses.

ADMINISTERING STRUCTURED SELF-REPORT INSTRUMENTS

• Collecting Interview Data : The quality of interview data depends heavily on interviewer proficiency.

1. A primary task of interviewers is to put respondents at ease so that they will feel comfortable in expressing opinions honestly.

2. Interviewers should always be punctual, courteous, and friendly.3. Interviewers should strive to appear unbiased.4. All opinions of respondents should be accepted as natural.5. interviewers should follow question wording precisely.6. Repetitions of the questions are usually adequate to dispel

misunderstandings.7. Interviewers should not read questions mechanically.8. Give respondents show card to remember complex alternatives or length

closed-ended questions.9. the interviewers’ job is to probe. The purpose of a probe is to elicit more

useful information than respondents volunteered during their initial reply.

Collecting Questionnaire Data Through In-person Distribution

The most convenient procedure is to distribute questionnaires to a group of people who complete the instrument together at the same time.

Individual distribution of questionnaires in clinical settings is often inexpensive and efficient and can yield a relatively high rate of response.

Collecting Questionnaire Data through the mail• For surveys of a broad population questionnaires are often

mailed• This approach is cost-effective for reaching geographically

dispersed respondents but is tend to yield low response rates.• When only a subsample of respondents return their

questionnaires the risk of bias is high.• With low response rate researchers face the possibility that

people who did not complete a questionnaire would have answered questions differently from those who did return it.

• With response rate greater than 65% the risk of bias may be relatively small.

• Response rate can be affected by the manner in which the questionnaire are designed and mailed.

• The standard procedure for distributing mailed questionnaires its to include a stamped, addressed return envelope.

Follow-up reminders• are effective in achieving higher response rates for mailed (and Internet)

questionnaires.• This procedure involves additional mailings urging nonrespondents to

complete and return their forms.• Follow-up reminders are typically sent about 10 to 14 days after the initial

mailing.• Sometimes reminders simply involve a letter or postcard of

encouragement to nonrespondents.• It is preferable, however, to send a second copy of the questionnaire with

the reminder letter because many nonrespondents will have misplaced or discarded the original.

• Telephone follow-ups can be even more successful, but are costly and time-consuming.

• With anonymous questionnaires, researchers may be unable to distinguish between respondents and nonrespondents for the purpose of sending follow-up letters. In such a situation, the simplest procedure is to send out a follow-up letter to the entire sample, thanking those who have already answered and asking others to cooperate.

Collecting Questionnaire via the internet

• Internet distribution requires appropriate equipment and some technical skills.

• Surveys can be administered through the internet in several ways one method is to design a questionnaire in a word processing program.

• The file with the questionnaire is then attached to an email massage and distributed to an potential respondents.

• Respondents can complete the questionnaire and return it as email attachment or print it and return it by mail or fax.

• This method may be problematic if respondents have trouble opening attachments or if they use a different word-processing program .

• The risk of not getting delivered to the intended party either because email addresses have change or because the email massage are blocked by internet security filters

Collecting Questionnaire via the internet

• Researchers are collecting data through web-based surveys.• This approach requires researchers to have a website on

which the survey is placed or to use a service such as survey monkey (http://www.surveymonkey.com/) .

• Respondents typically access the website by clicking on hypertext link.

• Web-based forms are designed for online response.• A major advantage of web-based survey is that the data are

directly amenable to analysis• Internet surveys will undoubtedly abound in the years ahead.• Sample are almost never representative and response rates

tend to be low

Evaluation Of Structure Self-Report Structure self-report are a powerful data collection method.

Yield information that can be readily analyzed statistically. The questions tend to be much more superficial than

questions in unstructured interviews because most structured questions are closed-ended.

Susceptible to the risk of various response biases. Respondents may give biased answers in reaction to

interviewers behavior or appearance. Social desirability response bias refers to the tendency of

some individuals to misrepresent themselves by giving answers that are congruent with prevailing social value.

Indirect and delicately worded questioning sometimes can help to minimize this response bias and permissive atmosphere and provisions for anonymity also encourage frankness.

• Response set bias are commonly observed in composite scales.• Extreme responses are a bias reflecting consistent selection of

extreme alternative.• Acquiescence response set (yea-sayers)• Nay-sayers to disagree with statements independently of

question content.• Researchers who construct scales should attempt to eliminate

or minimize response set biases.• If scales is being developed for general use by others evidence

should be gathered to demonstrate that scale is sufficiently free from response biases.

cont.

SUMMARY• Self-report data usually are collected by an oral interview or

written questionnaire.• Structured self-report instruments may include open- or closed-

ended questions. Open-ended questions permit respondents to reply in narrative fashion, whereas closed-ended (or fixed-alternative) questions offer response options from which respondents must choose.

• Questionnaires are less costly and time-consuming than interviews, offer the possibility of anonymity, and run no risk of interviewer bias; however, interviews tend to yield higher response rates, to be suitable for a wider variety of people, and to yield richer data than questionnaires.

• Data quality in interviews depends heavily on interviewers’ interpersonal skills.

SUMMARY• Types of closed-ended questions include dichotomous

questions, multiple-choice questions, cafeteria questions, rank order questions, forced-choice questions, rating questions, checklists, calendar questions, visual analogue scales (VAS).

• Composite psychosocial scales are Likert scales and Semantic differentials (SDs).

• Self-reports are vulnerable to the risk of reporting biases, which are often called response set biases

• Group administration is the most convenient and economical way to distribute questionnaires.

• A number of techniques, such as the use of follow-up reminders and good cover letters, are designed to increase response rates.