Dairy Freestall - Iowa State University

Dairy FreestallHousing and Equipment

MWPS-7 Seventh Edition, 2000

MWPS Headquarters

F.W. Koenig, EngineerJ. Moore, ManagerK. Walker, Graphic DesignerL. Wetterauer, Graphic Designer

MWPS Committee

The MidWest Plan Service prepares publicationsunder the direction of agricultural engineers andconsulting specialists. It is an official activity of thefollowing universities and the U.S. Department ofAgriculture. The MidWest Plan Service Committee isresponsible for the selection and supervisionof all projects:

T.L. Funk; Y. Zhang

University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801

D.D. Jones; D.E. Maier

Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

J.D. Harmon; S.J. Hoff; S.W. Melvin

Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011

J.P. Murphy; J.P. Harner

Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506

W.G. Bickert; H.L. Person

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824

W.F. Wilcke; K.A. Janni; J. M. Shutske

University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108

J.M. Zulovich; W. Casady

University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211

R. Koelsch; D.P. Shelton

University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68701

K.J. Hellevang; J. Lindley; T.F. Scherer

North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105

R. Stowell; R. Reeder

The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

S.H. Pohl; V. Kelley

South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57006

D.W. Kammel; R.T. Schuler

University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706

B.K. Rein

USDA, Washington, DC 20250

Reviewers for Seventh Edition

T. Funk

Extension Ag Engineer, University of Illinois

R. Graves

Extension Ag Engineer, The Pennsylvania StateUniversity

D. Jones

Extension Ag Engineer, Purdue University

S.J. Kenyon

Extension Coordinator Veterinary Medicine, PurdueUniversity

J. Lindley

Assoc. Professor of Ag Engineering, North DakotaState University

D. McFarland

Extension Ag Engineer, The Pennsylvania StateUniversity

R. Palmer

Professor of Dairy Science, University of Wisconsin

T. Scherer

Extension Ag Engineer, North Dakota State University

J.W. Schroeder

Extension Dairy Specialist, North Dakota StateUniversity

B. Steevens

Extension Dairy Specialist, University of Missouri

MWPS-7Seventh Edition, 1st Printing, 5M, 2000© 2000 by MidWest Plan ServiceIowa State University, Ames Iowa 50011-3080Rights negotiable, inquiry invited. (515-294-4337)

For additional copies of this book or otherpublications referred to, write to: ExtensionAgricultural Engineer at any of the listed institutions.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataDairy freestall housing and equipment / W.G. Bickert …[et al.].—7th ed.

p. cm.''MWPS 7.''ISBN 0-89373-095-51. Dairy cattle—Housing—Handbooks, manuals, etc.2. Dairy cattle—Equipment and supplies—Handbooks,manuals, etc. I. Bickert, W.G. II. Midwest PlanService. Dairy Handbook Revision Committee.

SF206 .D35 2000636.2'142 — dc21 00-061665

…And Justice for AllMidWest Plan Service publications are available to all potential clientelewithout regard to race, color, sex, or national origin. Anyone who feelsdiscriminated against should send a complaint within 180 days to theSecretary of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250. We are an equalopportunity employer.

i

Dairy FreestallHousing and EquipmentMWPS-7 Seventh Edition, 2000

William G. BickertBrian HolmesKevin JanniDavid KammelRichard StowellJoe Zulovich

MidWest Plan Service

A Foundation of Knowledge

iii

Contents

Chapter 1

Data SummaryData SummaryData SummaryData SummaryData Summary 1

Chapter 2

TTTTTotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilities 5Management Groups 5Manure Management 6Site Selection 6Remodeling 8Plans, Specifications and Contracts 8Consulting Engineers 9Long-range Planning 9

Long Range PlanningChapter 3

Replacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement Housing 11Management Factors Affecting Design 11Management Groups 12Handling and Treatment Facilities 13Prep Room 14Feed and Bedding Storage 14Cold Housing 14Warm Housing 14Calf Housing (birth to weaning) 14Transition Heifer Housing (3-5 months) 17Heifer Housing (6-24 months) 20

Chapter 4

Milking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd Facilities 27Freestalls 27Feeding Fences, Bunks, Mangers, and

Waterers 35Barn Layout 37Housing for Dry Cows 42

Chapter 5

Milking CenterMilking CenterMilking CenterMilking CenterMilking Center 47Milking Parlors 47Selection 47Holding Area 50Utility Room 52

Storage Room 53Milk Room 53Office 53Employee Areas 53Toilet 53Milking Center Environment 54Milking Equipment 56Water Supply 58Milking Center Construction 58

Chapter 6

Special Handling and TSpecial Handling and TSpecial Handling and TSpecial Handling and TSpecial Handling and TreatmentreatmentreatmentreatmentreatmentFacilitiesFacilitiesFacilitiesFacilitiesFacilities 65

Handling and Observation Groups 65Observation 66Separation 66Treatment Areas 66Headgates and Chutes 71Loading Chutes 72Safety 72Herringbone Palpation Facility 73

Chapter 7

Building EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding Environment 75Ventilating Process 75Types of Ventilating Systems 75Ventilating Dairy Facilities 75Natural Ventilating Systems 76Mechanical Ventilating Systems 84Ventilating System Controls 86Manure Pit Ventilation 87Attic Ventilation 87Supplemental Heaters 87Insulation 87Doors and Windows 90

Chapter 8

Manure and Effluent ManagementManure and Effluent ManagementManure and Effluent ManagementManure and Effluent ManagementManure and Effluent Management 91Manure and Effluent Volumes 92Manure Consistency and Handling

Characteristics 96

iv

Collection and Transfer 97Manure Storage 104Collection and Storage of Milking

Center Effluent 110Managing Lot Runoff 112Land Application and Utilization 114Preparing for Environmental Emergencies 114

Chapter 9

Feeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding Facilities 117Planning the Feeding System 117Forage Storage 118Grain and Concentrate Storage 120Feeding Total Mixed Rations 122Feed Center Design 125Conveying Forage 127Auger Conveyors for Grain 128Feed Carts for Grain 128Electronic Feeders 128

Feeding Dry Hay 129Feed Processing 129Safety 129Sizing Silos 130Sizing Dry Hay and Straw Storages 133Sizing Commodity Storages 134Sizing Grain Storages 134

Chapter 10

UtilitiesUtilitiesUtilitiesUtilitiesUtilities 137Water 137Storage 137Electrical 141Lighting 141Electric Motors 145Standby Power 145Electric Fences 146Lightning Protection 146Heating Devices 147

v

Chapter 2

Figure TTTTTotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilities Page

2-1. Farmstead and main road relationshipfor common wind conditions. 7

Chapter 3

Figure Replacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement Housing Page

3-1. Post and rail feeding fence. 133-2. Calf hutch. 153-3. Protecting calf hutches. 153-4. Individual calf pen. 163-5. Calf barn. 163-6. Super calf hutch, typical 12' x 24'. 183-7. Super calf hutch with paved outside lots. 193-8. Super calf hutches with a fenced dirt

lot area. 193-9. A transition barn. 193-10. Two-row freestall barn (center feed),

36' to 44' by 134'. 203-11. Two-row gated, head-to-head freestall

barn, 38' by 232'. 223-12. Two-row gated, tail-to-tail freestall

barn, 36' by 200'. 233-13. Bedded pack heifer and dry cow barn. 243-14. Heifer housing for heifers older than

6 months. 253-15. Counter-slope youngstock barn. 26

Chapter 4

Figure Milking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd Facilities Page

4-1. Freestall dimensions. 284-2. Location from which to start

measurements for sizing freestall cubicles. 294-3. Forward-lunge freestalls. 304-4. Side-lunge freestalls. 324-5. Stall using a mattress. 344-6. Stall using a sand-based bed. 344-7. Homemade beveled groover. 354-8. Post-and-rail feeding fence for cows. 364-9. Alley types. 37

4-10. A four-row tail-to-tail freestall barnwith drive-through feedingand stalls along the outside walls. 38

4-11. A four-row face-to-face freestall barnwith drive-through feedingand alleys along outside walls. 39

4-12. Two-row barn with drive-by feeding. 404-13. Farmstead layouts for multiple

freestall barns on a single site. 414-14. Six-row barn with drive-through feeding. 424-15. Three-row barn with drive-by feeding. 424-16. Personnel or safety pass. 424-17. Freestall barn for dry cows, bred heifers,

and heifers of breeding age. 434-18. Separate handling/treatment barn. 444-19. Barn with bedded group and individual

pens. 444-20. Barn with head-to-head freestalls and

individual pens. 454-21. Barn with head-to-head freestalls and

individual pens at the end of thebuilding. 45

Chapter 5

Figure Milking CenterMilking CenterMilking CenterMilking CenterMilking Center Page

5-1. Flat-barn parlor. 495-2. Double-2 side-opening parlor. 495-3. Double-8 herringbone parlor. 495-4. A parallel parlor. 495-5. Examples of milking center layouts. 505-6. Rapid exit parlor. 515-7. Parlor with ramp. 515-8. Interior side view of ramp and pit. 515-9. Pit cross-section. 525-10. Compressor ventilation. 525-11. Compressor sheds. 545-12. Parlor forced-air central-heating system. 545-13. Hot water central-heating system. 545-14. Summer air duct. 565-15. Deep-water-seal trap drain. 595-16. Milk room floor slopes. 59

List of Figures

vi

5-17. Milking platform drain system. 605-18. Milking center drainage system. 605-19. Example of stray voltage. 615-20. Construction of an equipotential plane

in a milking parlor. 625-21. Voltage ramp to an equipotential plane. 63

Chapter 6

Figure Special Handling andSpecial Handling andSpecial Handling andSpecial Handling andSpecial Handling and Page

TTTTTreatment Facilitiesreatment Facilitiesreatment Facilitiesreatment Facilitiesreatment Facilities6-1. Treatment pen stanchion and gates. 676-2. Handling and treatment area in a

barn corner. 676-3. Treatment stall. 676-4. Milking center treatment area. 686-5. Milking center treatment area with

treatment stall and headgate. 696-6. Fenceline stanchion. 706-7. Handling and treatment building. 716-8. Separate handling/treatment barn. 726-9. Commercial headgate. 726-10. Herringbone palpation facility. 73

Chapter 7

Figure Building EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding Environment Page

7-1. A basic ventilating process. 757-2. Airflow in naturally ventilated buildings. 767-3. Raised ridge cap. 777-4. Upstand. 777-5. Interior trough with an open ridge. 787-6. Eave openings. 787-7. Split or two-curtain sidewall opening. 797-8. Full wall curtain system. 797-9. Summer openings in endwalls. 807-10. Supplemental cooling fan placement

in the holding pen. 827-11. Supplemental cooling fans in the

cow alley and freestall areas. 837-12. Insulating ceilings. 887-13. Insulating roofs. 887-14. Insulating foundations. 887-15. Insulating walls. 89

Chapter 8

Figure Manure and EffluentManure and EffluentManure and EffluentManure and EffluentManure and Effluent Page

ManagementManagementManagementManagementManagement8-1. Normal annual precipitation, inches. 958-2. Stepped gravity-flow channel. 998-3. Push-off ramp. 1028-4. Manure transfer to storage. 1038-5. Reception pit and pump. 1048-6. Earthen storage basins. 1058-7. Danger sign to be posted around

manure storages. 1078-8. Storage using a picket dam. 1098-9. Roofed above-ground storage. 1098-10. Grass filter strip. 1118-11. Two grass filter strips with alternate

dosing. 1118-12. Lot runoff handling system. 1128-13. Settling basins. 1138-14. Holding pond. 1148-15. Example Emergency Action Plan. 116

Chapter 9

Figure Feeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding Facilities Page

9-1. Filling horizontal silos. 1199-2. Unloading horizontal silos. 1199-3. Horizontal plastic bags. 1199-4. Silage pile. 1219-5. Dry hay storage. 1219-6. Hopper bottom bins. 1219-7. Commodity storage sheds. 1239-8. Mobile TMR flow chart with scattered

feed storages and animal feeding areas. 1239-9. Stationary feeding system. 1249-10. TMR mixers. 1259-11. Feed handling center with mobile

mixer. 1269-12. Cross-section of an adequate roadway. 1279-13. Feed center for stationary mixer system. 127

Chapter 10

Figure UtilitiesUtilitiesUtilitiesUtilitiesUtilities10-1. Unit waterer. 139

vii

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table Data SummaryData SummaryData SummaryData SummaryData Summary Page

1-1. Freestall dimensions. 11-2. Typical freestall alley widths. 11-3. Bedded-pen space needs for calves and

transition heifers. 11-4. Replacement heifer resting area space

requirements per animal. 21-5. Suggested dimensions for post and rail

feeding fences. 21-6. Minimum feed-space requirements. 21-7. Floor and lot slopes. 21-8. Drinking water requirements. 21-9. Cumulative ventilating rates for warm

dairy barns. 31-10. Daily fresh manure production of

dairy cattle. 31-11. Typical management categories

of a herd. 31-12. Recommended floor thickness. 41-13. Concrete strengths. 41-14. Conversions. 41-15. Metric Conversions. 4

Chapter 2

Table TTTTTotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilitiesotal Dairy Facilities Page

2-1. Typical management categories ofa herd. 6

Chapter 3

Replacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement HousingReplacement Housing3-1. Bedded-pen space needs for calves and

transition heifers. 123-2. Replacement heifer resting area space

requirements per animal. 123-3. Heifer freestall dimensions. 133-4. Suggested dimensions for post and

rail feeding fences. 133-5. Minimum feed-space requirements. 133-6. Dairy cumulative ventilating rates for

warm barns. 14

Chapter 4

Table Milking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd FacilitiesMilking Herd Facilities Page

4-1. Freestall dimensions. 294-2. Recommended floor thickness. 364-3. Concrete strengths. 374-4. Drinking water requirements. 37

Chapter 5

Table Milking CenterMilking CenterMilking CenterMilking CenterMilking Center Page

5-1. Floor area required for equipment inthe utility room. 52

5-2. Maximum number of units per slopefor milklines with LIMITED AIRadmission. 57

5-3. Maximum number of units per slopefor parlor milklines admittingEXCESSIVE AIR. 57

Chapter 7

Table Building EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding EnvironmentBuilding Environment Page

7-1. Minimum separation distancebetween naturally ventilatedbuildings (feet). 77

Chapter 8

Table Manure and EffluentManure and EffluentManure and EffluentManure and EffluentManure and Effluent Page

ManagementManagementManagementManagementManagement8-1. Daily fresh manure production

of dairy cattle. 928-2. Bedding requirements for dairy cattle. 938-3. Bulk densities of common bedding

materials. 938-4. Volumes of manure and bedding used

in sizing storages. 948-5. Approximate milking center effluent

and flush volumes. 948-6. Gravity-flow step height. 988-7. Flush parameters. 1008-8. Flowrate for floor heating system for

pipes 18'' o.c. (gpm). 101

viii

8-9. Flowrate for floor heating system forpipes 12'' o.c. (gpm). 101

8-10. Storage using a picket dam. 109

Chapter 9

Table Feeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding FacilitiesFeeding Facilities Page

9-1. Estimate of silage harvesting andstorage losses. 118

9-2. Minimum feed rate for forage. 1199-3. Mixer sizing. 1249-4. Dry matter factor, DMF. 1309-5. Upright silo capacity, ton DM. 1309-6. Upright silo capacity, wet ton. 1319-7. Horizontal silo capacity, ton DM. 1329-8. Horizontal silo capacity, wet ton. 1329-9. Horizontal silo capacity. 1329-10. Silage bag capacities. 1339-11. Silage piles. 1339-12. Hay and straw densities. 1339-13. Hay shed capacities. 1339-14. Commodity storage densities and

storage requirements. 134

9-15. Storage capacity for round grain bins. 1349-16. Upright silo capacity for ground

shelled corn. 1359-17. Upright silo capacity for ground ear

and whole shelled corn. 135

Chapter 10

Table UtilitiesUtilitiesUtilitiesUtilitiesUtilities Page

10-1. Water requirements. 13710-2. Safety characteristics of water sources. 13810-3. Pressure loss in pipes due to friction. 14010-4. Recommended illumination levels . 14110-5. Color characteristic temperature and

color rendition index values forcommon lights. 142

10-6. Typical mounting heights andhorizontal separation distances forselect lights to produce anillumination level of 20 fc. 143

10-7. Indoor lighting design values. 14510-8. Spacing requirements for propane

tanks. 147

1

TTTTThis chapter contains many of the design tables upon which the recommendationsof this book are based. The tables refer to the chapters that discuss the use of the

data. The tables include information about the following topics:

■ Freestall dimensions.■ Freestall alley widths.■ Calf and transition heifer housing.■ Heifer and dry cow resting areas.■ Feeding fences.■ Feed space requirements.■ Floor and lot slopes.■ Water requirements.■ Ventilation rates.■ Manure production.■ Management categories.

Chapter 1Data Summary

Table 1-1. Freestall dimensions.Freestall width measured center-to-center of 2" pipe dividers. For wider dividers, increase width accordingly.Freestall length, and neck-rail and brisket-board distances measured from alley side of curb to front of stall.

AnimalAnimalAnimalAnimalAnimal Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall lengthFreestall lengthFreestall lengthFreestall lengthFreestall length Neck railNeck railNeck railNeck railNeck rail Curb to neck rail Curb to neck rail Curb to neck rail Curb to neck rail Curb to neck railweight (lb)weight (lb)weight (lb)weight (lb)weight (lb) width (in) width (in) width (in) width (in) width (in) Side lungeSide lungeSide lungeSide lungeSide lunge Forward lunge Forward lunge Forward lunge Forward lunge Forward lungea a a a a (in)(in)(in)(in)(in) height height height height heightbbbbb and brisket board (in)and brisket board (in)and brisket board (in)and brisket board (in)and brisket board (in)

800-1,200 42 to 44 6'-6" 7'-6" to 8'-0" 41 to 43 62

1,200-1,500 45 to 48 7'-0" 8'-0" to 8'-6" 44 to 46 66

over 1,500 48 to 52 7'-6" 8'-6" to 9'-0" 46 to 48 71aAn additional 12" to 18" in stall length (compared to side lunge stalls) is required to allow the cow to thrust her head forwardduring the lunge process.

bAbove top of curb or top of mattress (Ref. point A in Figure 4-3 and 4-4), in.

Table 1-2. Typical freestall alley widths.See Figure 4-9.

TTTTTypeypeypeypeype Width Width Width Width Width

Feeding and stall access alleyFeeding and stall access alleyFeeding and stall access alleyFeeding and stall access alleyFeeding and stall access alley 12' to 14'

Feeding alleyFeeding alleyFeeding alleyFeeding alleyFeeding alley 10' to 12'

Access alley between 2 stall rowsAccess alley between 2 stall rowsAccess alley between 2 stall rowsAccess alley between 2 stall rowsAccess alley between 2 stall rowsSolid floor 8' to 10'Slotted floor 8' to 10'Cross Alley 8' to 10' Clear of waterer

Table 1-3. Bedded-pen space needs for calves

and transition heifers.See Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, for moreinformation on calf and transition housing.

Housing typeHousing typeHousing typeHousing typeHousing type Pen sizePen sizePen sizePen sizePen size

0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)Calf hutch (plus 4'x6' outdoor run) 4'x8'Bedded pen 4'x7'Tie stall (warm housing only) 2'x4'

3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head) 25 to 30 ft2/hdSuper calf hutch or bedded pen minimum

2


Table 1-6. Minimum feed-space requirements.See Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, andChapter 4, Milking Herd Facilities, for more informationon feed space requirements. Feed always available.

Age, monthsAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, months MatureMatureMatureMatureMatureTTTTTypeypeypeypeype 3-43-43-43-43-4 5-85-85-85-85-8 9-129-129-129-129-12 13-1513-1513-1513-1513-15 16-2416-2416-2416-2416-24 cowcowcowcowcow

- - - - - - - - - inches per animal - - - - - - - - -

Feed always availableFeed always availableFeed always availableFeed always availableFeed always availableHay or silage 4 4 5 6 6 6Mixed ration 12 12 15 18 18 18

or grain only

All animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceOnce a day 12 18 22 26 26 26-30

feeding

Table 1-5. Suggested dimensions for post and

rail feeding fences.Refer to Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, formore information on post and rail feeding fences.

ThroatThroatThroatThroatThroat Neck railNeck railNeck railNeck railNeck railAge, mosAge, mosAge, mosAge, mosAge, mos Weight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hd Height, inHeight, inHeight, inHeight, inHeight, in height, inheight, inheight, inheight, inheight, in

6-8a 350-500 14 28

9-12 500-650 16 30

13-15 650-800 17 34

16-24 800-1,200 19 41

Cows 1,200-1,500 21 48aA diagonal bar feeding fence is recommended for thisgroup to prevent calves from escaping.Manufacturers can provide information aboutavailable panels.

Table 1-7. Floor and lot slopes.

TTTTTypeypeypeypeype SlopeSlopeSlopeSlopeSlopeHandling facilitiesHandling facilitiesHandling facilitiesHandling facilitiesHandling facilities 2% to 4% (1/4" to 1/2"/ft)

LotsLotsLotsLotsLotsPaved 1% (1/8"/ft) minimumEartha 4% to 6% (1/2"-3/4"/ft)Mound sideslope 20% (1'/5')

Bunk apronBunk apronBunk apronBunk apronBunk apron 6% to 8% (3/4" to 1"/ft) nearlyself-cleaning4% (1/2"/ft) minimum

aEarth lots used as managed dry lots for heat detectionshould have a minimum of 150 ft2 per animal.

Table 1-4. Replacement heifer resting area space requirements per animal.See Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, for more information on space requirements.

Self-cleaningSelf-cleaningSelf-cleaningSelf-cleaningSelf-cleaning BeddedBeddedBeddedBeddedBedded SlottedSlottedSlottedSlottedSlotted Paved outsidePaved outsidePaved outsidePaved outsidePaved outsideeeeee

Age, mosAge, mosAge, mosAge, mosAge, mos Weight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hd resting arearesting arearesting arearesting arearesting areaaaaaa, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd resting arearesting arearesting arearesting arearesting areabbbbb, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd floorfloorfloorfloorfloor, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd lot, ftlot, ftlot, ftlot, ftlot, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd 0-2c 100 to 190 Do not use 32 (4'x8' hutch) Do not use Do not use

28 (4'x7' pen)

3-5 190 to 350 Do not use 28 Do not use Do not use

6-8 350 to 500 10 25 12 35

9-12 500 to 650 12 28 13 40

13-15 650 to 800 15 32 17 45

16-24 800 to 1,200 18d 40 25 50

Dry cow, far-off > 1,300 20d 50 35 55

Dry cow, close-up > 1,300 — 10 — —a8% slope (1"/ft).bAssumes access to 10' wide scraped feed alley or paved outside lot.cUse hutch or individual pens. House separately from older animals.dHeifers and dry cows in late pregnancy may have difficulty breathing if they lie facing downhill on self-cleaning floors.Incidence of mastitis may be a problem for this group also.

eProvide proper treatment for concentrated runoff.

Table 1-8. Drinking water requirements.See Chapter 4, Milking Herd Facilities, and Chapter 10,Utilities, for more information on water requirementsfor dairy animals and operations.

AnimalAnimalAnimalAnimalAnimal gal/hd/daygal/hd/daygal/hd/daygal/hd/daygal/hd/day

CalvesCalvesCalvesCalvesCalves(1.0-1.5 gal/100 lb) 6-10

HeifersHeifersHeifersHeifersHeifers 10-15

Dry cowsDry cowsDry cowsDry cowsDry cows 20-30

Milking cowsMilking cowsMilking cowsMilking cowsMilking cows 35-50a

aDesign water supply to deliver 6-7 gpm per cow drinkingsimultaneously.

3


Table 1-9. Cumulative ventilating rates for

warm dairy barns.Size the system based on total building capacity. SeeChapter 3, Replacement Housing, for more informationon ventilating rates for dairy animals.

ColdColdColdColdCold MildMildMildMildMild HotHotHotHotHotAnimalAnimalAnimalAnimalAnimal weatherweatherweatherweatherweatheraaaaa weatherweatherweatherweatherweather weatherweatherweatherweatherweatherbbbbb

- - - - - - - - - - cfm/animal - - - - - - - - - -

Calves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 months 15 50 100

HeifersHeifersHeifersHeifersHeifers2-12 months 20 60 13012-24 months 30 80 180

Cow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lb 50 170 470aAn alternative cold-weather rate can be calculated by dividingthe room or building volume in ft3 by 15.

bMaximum ventilation for hot-weather should provide for at leastone air change per minute. The alternative hot weatherventilating rate can be calculated by dividing the volume by 1.5.

Table 1-10. Daily fresh manure production of dairy cattle.Values are approximate. The actual characteristics of a manure can easily have values 30% or more above orbelow the table values. The volumes of manure that a manure handling system has to handle can be muchlarger than the table values due to the addition of water, bedding, etc. Refer to Chapter 8, Manure and

Effluent Management, for more information on manure production.

Stage ofStage ofStage ofStage ofStage of SizeSizeSizeSizeSize Daily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw Excreted DensityDensityDensityDensityDensity TSTSTSTSTS VSVSVSVSVS BODBODBODBODBOD55555 Nutrient contentNutrient contentNutrient contentNutrient contentNutrient contentProductionProductionProductionProductionProduction (lb)(lb)(lb)(lb)(lb) (lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs) (cu ft) (cu ft) (cu ft) (cu ft) (cu ft) (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal) (gal) WaterWaterWaterWaterWater (lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft) (lb)(lb)(lb)(lb)(lb) (lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs) (lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs) NNNNN PPPPP22222OOOOO55555 KKKKK22222OOOOOHeiferHeiferHeiferHeiferHeifer 150 13 0.20 1.5 88% 65 1.4 1.2 0.20 0.05 0.01 0.04

250 21 0.32 2.4 88% 65 2.3 1.9 0.33 0.08 0.02 0.07750 65 1.00 7.5 88% 65 6.8 5.8 1.00 0.23 0.07 0.22

LactatingLactatingLactatingLactatingLactating 1,000 106 1.70 12.8 88% 62 10.0 8.5 1.60 0.58 0.30 0.311,400 148 2.40 17.9 88% 62 14.0 11.9 2.24 0.82 0.42 0.48

DryDryDryDryDry 1,000 82 1.30 9.7 88% 62 9.5 8.1 1.20 0.36 0.11 0.281,400 115 1.83 13.7 88% 62 13.3 11.3 1.70 0.50 0.20 0.40

TS = total solids; VS = volatile solids; N = total nitrogenBOD5 = the oxygen used in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter in 5 days at 68 F. A standard test to assess wastewater strength.Elemental P (Phosphorus) = 0.44 x P2O5; Elemental K (potassium) = 0.83 x K2O

Table 1-11. Typical management categories of a herd.This table is only a management guideline. SeeChapter 2, Total Dairy Facilities, for additional informationon management categories. If using this table as aplanning guideline, then 15 to 25% more space may berequired. These are categories and not group size. Referto Chapter 3, Replacement Housing, and Chapter 4,Milking Herd Facilities, for proper group sizes.

Herd size = total cowsHerd size = total cowsHerd size = total cowsHerd size = total cowsHerd size = total cowsaaaaa 100100100100100 250250250250250 400400400400400 800800800800800Female calvesFemale calvesFemale calvesFemale calvesFemale calves 100100100100100 250250250250250 400400400400400 800800800800800

0-2 months 8 20 32 643-5 months 12 30 48 96

HeifersHeifersHeifersHeifersHeifers6-8 months 12 30 48 969-12 months 18 45 72 14413-15 months 12 30 48 9616-24 months 38 95 152 304

Dry cows (total)Dry cows (total)Dry cows (total)Dry cows (total)Dry cows (total) 17 43 68 136Transition 1-5 4-9 5-16 9-32

(first 4-14 days)Next 40 days 11-12 28-30 45-48 90-96

(divide in 2 groups)Close-up 4-6 8-14 16-24 32-42

(2-3 weeksprepartum)

MaternityMaternityMaternityMaternityMaternity(no. of individual pens, 4-6 10-15 16-24 32-48

average stay =2 days max.)

Fresh cowsFresh cowsFresh cowsFresh cowsFresh cows 1-4 2-5 4-12 8-20(1-7 days postpartum)

TTTTTwo-yearwo-yearwo-yearwo-yearwo-year-olds-olds-olds-olds-olds 26-30 65-75 104-120 208-240

Three years and olderThree years and olderThree years and olderThree years and olderThree years and older 58 145 232 464High producers 20-24 50-60 80-96 160-192

(120 days or less)Medium producers 15-18 40-45 60-72 120-144Low producers 15-18 40-50 60-72 120-144

Sick cowsSick cowsSick cowsSick cowsSick cows 0-5 0-12 0-20 0-40aNumbers assume uniform calving year-around, 12-monthcalving interval, first calving at 24 months of age, all malessold at birth, a 30% culling rate, 0% mortality, 305-day lactationand a stable herd size.

4


Table 1-12. Recommended floor thickness.Edge thickness is twice the thickness of slab by 2 feet wide.

ApplicationApplicationApplicationApplicationApplication Thickness (inches)Thickness (inches)Thickness (inches)Thickness (inches)Thickness (inches)Feeding aprons, with minimum

vehicle traffic 4

Paved feedlots, building driveways 5

Heavy traffic drives (grain truck,wagons, manure spreaders) 6

Table 1-13. Concrete strengths.Durability (weather and chemical resistance) and strength depend primarily on water-cement ratio. Adding extrawater rapidly lowers durability and strength. Only 1/2 gal/bag (about 3 gal/yd) separates the groups in the table.Follow plans or specifications when available. Materials in this handbook are based on the followingrecommendations. One bag cement = 94 lb; 1 gal water = 8.34 lb.

MaximumMaximumMaximumMaximumMaximum MinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimum MinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumapproximate strengthapproximate strengthapproximate strengthapproximate strengthapproximate strength Water-cement ratioWater-cement ratioWater-cement ratioWater-cement ratioWater-cement ratio Water-cement ratio Water-cement ratio Water-cement ratio Water-cement ratio Water-cement ratio

ApplicationApplicationApplicationApplicationApplication (psi)(psi)(psi)(psi)(psi) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)Mangers 4,500 5.0 0.44

Feedlots, floors, drives 3,500 6.0 0.53

Footings 3,000 6.5 0.62

Table 1-14. Conversions.Multiply to the right: acres x 43,560 = ft2.Divide to the left: ft2 / 43,560 = acres.

UnitUnitUnitUnitUnit TimesTimesTimesTimesTimes EqualsEqualsEqualsEqualsEqualsAcres 43,560 ft2

4,840 yd2

160 square rods1/640 square mile

Acre-ft 325,851 gallons43,560 ft3

Acre-in 3,630 ft3

Acre-in/hr 453 gpm1 cfs (approximate)

Bushels 1.25 ft3

2.5 ft3 ear corn

ft3 7.48 gallons1,728 in3

62.4 lb water0.4 bu ear corn0.8 bu grain

cfs 448.8 gpm646,317 gal/day

Cubic yard 27 ft3

Concrete 81 ft2 of 4" floor

Concrete 54 ft2 of 6" floor

Gallons 231 in3

0.134 ft3

8.35 lb water

Miles 5,280 ft1,760 yd320 rods

Pressure, psi 2.31 ft of water head27.72 in. of water head

Rods 16.5 ft5.5 yd

Table 1-15. Metric Conversions.Multiply to the right: acres x 0.4047 = hectares.Divide to the left: hectares / 0.4047 = acres.

UnitUnitUnitUnitUnit TimesTimesTimesTimesTimes EqualsEqualsEqualsEqualsEqualsAcres 0.4047 hectares

Bushels 35.24 liters

cubic feet 28.32 liters

cubic feet per minute 0.472 liters per second

cubic yards 0.7646 cubic meter

gallons 3.785 liter

miles 1.609 km

pounds per square inch 6895 Pa

Rods 5.029 meters

5

Management GroupsProvide facilities for different animal groups for

management purposes. When formulating the manage-ment plan, define needs of each group according tonutritional requirements, medical treatments and otherprocedures, and breeding. More than one group can behoused in the same facility—but each group isconsidered separate for management purposes. Allowfor different requirements for sanitation and environ-ment. In large dairies, separate facilities may beprovided for each group. Consider parlor size for themaximum number of cows per group. Limit cows to2 hours per day total in the holding pen.

Table 2-1 gives typical management categories fordairy herds of various sizes. Use this table to helpdetermine housing needs for the different groups in amanagement plan. The numbers in the table areintended as guides and may need adjustment to fit aparticular management plan. The numbers in Table2-1 assume uniform calving year-round, 12-monthcalving interval, first calving at 24 months of age, allmales sold at birth, a 30% culling rate, 0% mortality,305-day lactation, and a stable herd size. See Chapter 3,Replacement Animal Housing, and Chapter 4,Milking Herd Facilities, for further explanation ofTable 2-1.

AAAAAsound management plan is the basis for planning new construction or remodeling of dairy facilities. The plan sets forth all factors related to

nutrition, health, and growth, as well as all other activities of the dairy operation.Among the goals of the management program are these:

■ Increase milk production per cow.■ Increase milk quality (i.e. reduced

somatic cell count, reduced platecount, increased protein, etc.).

■ Lower calf mortality.■ Improve the genetic quality of

the animals.■ Provide quality water and feeds.■ Raise healthy replacement animals.

Buildings and equipment on a dairy farm facilitate the job of caring for theanimals. They are tools that allow essential tasks prescribed by the managementplan to be implemented on a regular basis. Labor requirements, flow of animals andmaterials, pollution control, future expansion, management requirements, andanimal environment are important design considerations.

Creating an environment that meets the needs of the animals is essential. Calves,heifers, and cows require an environment that permits them to grow, mature,reproduce, and maintain health. If the basic needs of the animals are not met, noamount of management can guarantee success.

The ability to group animals and select facility components that relate to theanimals’ environment are important aspects of facility design. However, moreimportant is understanding the concepts of managing groups and the environmentalneeds of the animal.

■ Improve overall herd health.■ Increase labor efficiency.■ Maximize operator safety.■ Improve environmental

protection.■ Increase profitability.■ Improve animal welfare.■ Provide plenty of fresh air.■ Maintain good neighbor relations.

Chapter 2Total Dairy FacilitiesWilliam G. Bickert, Extension Ag Engineer, Michigan State University

6

Chapter 2Total Dairy Facilities

Manure ManagementThe manure management system not only influ-

ences barn design, but also affects the total farmingoperation including fertilizer use, feeds grown, andthe rest of the cropping program. Manure manage-ment is more than scraping manure out of the barnand getting rid of it—manure management is anintegral component of the production system.

The incentives for improving manure facilities andpractices include:

■ Convenience, as when reducing the needfor daily hauling and easier manure management .

■ Increased manure nutrient use in the croppingprogram.

■ Reduced potential for water and air pollution.■ Improved cow cleanliness and health.

■ Labor efficiency.■ Nutrient recycling.■ Better use of storage.■ Treatment for various reasons.

A wide range of manure management facilities andpractices are acceptable, depending upon individualcircumstances. Even daily hauling can be a respon-sible method of managing manure. But, as environ-mental and societal pressures increase, manuremanagement systems based on long-term storage maybecome more desirable.

Site SelectionMany factors affect site selection. Before construc-

tion, consider the space required for buildings, feedcenters, manure storage, and clearance betweenbuildings. Provide at least 40 feet between mostbuildings, 50 feet for snow control, and 75 feet forfire safety considerations. Four-row and six-row barnstypically need a minimum spacing of 75 feet betweenbuildings for adequate ventilation. See Chapter 7,Building Environment, for additional information onspacing buildings for ventilation. Provide space forlots and expansion. Assume the operation will at leastdouble in size and plan accordingly. Consider localzoning, highway set backs, well protection rules andother regulations. Provide lanes for vehicle accessand room for parking. Allow for a feed center andadequate separation from family housing. Thinkabout overall farmstead layout, and consider usingsome of the concepts illustrated in Figure 2-1.

Drainage. Select an elevated building site.Divert runoff away from buildings, livestock yards,and traffic areas. Provide a 2 to 5% (1/4 to 5/8 inchper foot) slope on outside animals lots. Mounds maybe used to provide dry resting areas. Earth moving isinexpensive compared to facility costs. Plan tocapture and field apply or otherwise treat contami-nated runoff.

Wind and snow control. Windbreaks help deflectwinter winds and control snow. Take advantage oftrees, buildings, and hills for winter wind protection,but do not overlook their impact on summertimeventilation. Allow for summer air movement anddrainage when locating windbreaks. Considerprevailing wind directions for reducing odor com-plaints and for controlling snow drifting, insects,noise, and dust.

Water. A year-round supply of potable water isessential for watering animals and sanitation. Water isalso needed for fire protection, manure dilution, andcooling of cows and milk.

Table 2-1. Typical management categories of a herd.a

If using this table as a planning guideline, then 15 to25% more space may be required. These are categoriesand not group size. Refer to Chapter 3, Replacement

Housing, and Chapter 4, Milking Herd Facilities, forproper group sizes.

Herd Size = THerd Size = THerd Size = THerd Size = THerd Size = Total Cowsotal Cowsotal Cowsotal Cowsotal Cows 100100100100100 250250250250250 400400400400400 800800800800800Female calvesFemale calvesFemale calvesFemale calvesFemale calves 100 250 400 800 0-2 months 8 20 32 64 3-5 months 12 31 48 96

HeifersHeifersHeifersHeifersHeifers 6-8 months 12 31 48 96 9-12 months 18 43 72 144 13-15 months 12 30 48 96 16-24 months 38 95 152 304

Dry cowsDry cowsDry cowsDry cowsDry cows 17 42 68 136Transition 1-5 4-9 5-16 9-32

(first 4-14 days)Next 40 days 11-12 28-30 45-48 90-96

(divide in 2 groups)Close-up 4-6 8-14 16-24 32-42

(2-3 weeks prepartum)

MaternityMaternityMaternityMaternityMaternity 4-6 10-15 16-24 32-48(no. of individual

pens, average stay= 2 days max.)

Fresh cowsFresh cowsFresh cowsFresh cowsFresh cows 1-4 2-5 4-12 8-20 (1 to 7 days

postpartum)

TTTTTwo-yearwo-yearwo-yearwo-yearwo-year-olds-olds-olds-olds-olds 26-30 65-75 104-120 208-240

Three years and olderThree years and olderThree years and olderThree years and olderThree years and older 58 145 232 464 High producers 20-24 50-60 80-96 160-192

(120 days or less) Medium producers 15-18 40-45 60-72 120-144 Low producers 15-18 40-45 60-72 120-144

Sick cowsSick cowsSick cowsSick cowsSick cows 0-5 0-12 0-20 0-40aNumbers assume uniform calving year-around, 12-monthscalving interval, first calving at 24 months of age, all malessold at birth, a 30% culling rate, 0% mortality, 305-daylactation and a stable herd size.

7


Figure 2-1. Farmstead and main road relationship for common wind conditions.The direction of the farmstead from the main road affects farmstead layout. Layouts assume prevailing winterwinds are from the north and west, and prevailing summer winds are from the southwest, south, or east.

c. Farmstead south of the road.

A curved drive avoids a straight cutthrough the windbreaks. Moving thehouse farther south and the livestockarea northeast is desirable. If the houseand machine center can be reversed, usethe alternate drive.

d. Farmstead east of the road.

As in Figure 2-1b, a good layout is easy,assuming drainage and other factors permitthis arrangement.

a. Farmstead west of the road.

Some winter winds come from thenorthwest. Locate the house as far westand the livestock area as far north aspractical. South windbreak may interferewith summer ventilation.

b. Farmstead north of the road.

A good relationship between house,windbreak, livestock center, and mainroad is easy with this layout.

Tree Windbreak

WinterWinds

SummerBreezes

FewWinds

SummerWinter Winds

LivestockCenter Grain

and FeedCenter

TreeWindbreak

Shop andMachinery

House

Court

Mai

n Ro

adCenter

Livestock

Grainand Feed

Center

House

Shop andMachinery

House

LivestockCenter

CenterAnd Feed

Grain

Shop andMachinery

Court

House

LivestockCenter

Grainand Feed

Center

MachineryShop and

Alte

rnat

e Dr

ive

Main Road

Road

Mai

n

Tree Windbreak

WindbreakTree Tree Windbreak

E

N

W

S

8


Lactating cows need 35 to 50 gallons per head perday of drinking water depending on milk production.Peak water consumption usually occurs shortly aftermilking. Each cow drinks at a rate of 6 to 7 gpm.Provide a system that can supply peak and total dailyrequirements. Where groundwater supplies are notadequate, use surface sources such as farm ponds orcommunity water systems. Approval of the watersystem may be required by a local milk inspector.

Access. Provide all-weather roads for milk trucks,repair persons, technicians, veterinarians, feed delivery,and manure handling equipment. Provide adequateparking for employees, service people, and visitors.Minimum road width is 12 feet. Minimum turning radiusfor large milk or feed trucks is at least 55 feet. A hay wagoncan turn 180 degrees in about 50 feet. Consider a separateaccess for sick/dead animal removal trucks.

Manure storage, handling, and utilization. Selecta site with sufficient land for applying manure.Minimum acreage required by many state pollutionagencies is based on satisfying the nitrogen andphosphorus requirement of a growing crop. Typically,1 to 2 acres of land are required per cow if manure isapplied to meet nitrogen needs, and 3 to 4 acres ofland are required per cow if manure is applied to meetphosphorus needs. Avoid steep slopes where manurerunoff can cause water pollution, and avoid landadjacent to neighboring residences or public facili-ties. Incorporate manure to reduce odors, runoff, andnutrient losses. Check state and local environmentalregulations.

Feed storage and handling. Feeds can have anoffensive odor and can be unsightly. Typicallystorage and handling of feed is not an overridingconcern, but larger operators should consider theirimplications when selecting a site. The location ofthe feed center to the dairy facilities is anotherimportant consideration when selecting a site.

Electric power. Electricity is needed for heating,lighting, pumps, and motors. A 200-amp, 230-voltentrance is minimum. Thorough grounding reducesstray current problems. Provide standby emergencypower in the event of a power outage. Some produc-ers install three-phase power for larger motors;consult the local power supplier.

Security. Consider theft, vandalism, and firesafety. Limit farm visitor access to control diseaseand to reduce interference with farm work. Whendairy facilities are located on the same farmstead asthe manager’s residence, run the access lane near thehome. If a second access is used for feed, manure, andanimal transport vehicles, provide an alarm system toguard against unauthorized traffic. Facilities remotefrom the manager’s residence pose the most problems.

Install gates at remote accesses with signs warningabout unauthorized entry. When possible, makeaccess roads at remote sites visible from a public roador neighboring residence.

Safety. Locating the residence away from thedairy facilities can reduce the risk of exposure ofchildren to injury or death from equipment andanimals.

RemodelingWhen planning to expand, decide whether to

remodel or abandon an existing building or farm-stead. Carefully consider present and future needs.Evaluate these general factors:

■ Functional final setup.■ Structural integrity.■ Location of existing building.■ Labor efficiency.■ Cost of remodeling vs. cost of new building.

Remodeling is not always the cheaper route,especially when considering future needs. When theestimated remodeling cost is one-half to two-thirdsthe cost of a new building, a new building is usuallybest. Sometimes, using materials from an existingbuilding in a new one is possible.

Plans, Specifications, and ContractsDetailed documents help provide needed commu-

nication and understanding between owner andbuilder. Plans show all necessary dimensions anddetails for construction. Specifications support theplans; they describe the materials to be used, includ-ing size and quality, and often outline procedures forconstruction and quality of workmanship. Thecontract is an agreement between the builder and theowner; it includes price of construction, schedule ofpayments, guarantees, responsibilities, and startingand completion dates.

Several options are available for preparing thismaterial:

Be your own contractor. Draw a final plan,making sure dimensions are correct and constructiondetails and materials are determined. Have theappropriate regulatory agencies check the plans whenrequired. Determine total costs before beginningconstruction.

Hire a consulting engineer. Check the engineer’squalifications and previous work in dairy construction.

Use a design and construction firm. Some firmsmake working drawings and specifications and havestandard contract forms.

9


Consulting EngineersConsulting engineers can provide the following

services:■ Direct personal service (technical advice, etc.).■ Preliminary investigations, feasibility

studies, and economic comparison ofalternatives.

■ Complete state permits.■ Assist in public hearings related to zoning

and environment.■ Planning studies.■ Design and plans.■ Cost estimates.■ Engineering appraisals.■ Bid letting.■ Construction monitoring and inspection.

Consulting engineers usually do a project in threephases: preliminary planning, engineering design,and construction monitoring. They may be retainedto help with one or more of these phases.

When looking for a consulting engineer, considerthe engineer’s qualifications and experience. Checkthe engineer’s educational background and ask for a

list of previous clients and projects. Determine theavailability of the engineer. Engineers with manyon-going projects may have difficulty in meetingdeadlines and may have trouble completing projectson time.

Long-range PlanningDecisions regarding facilities are difficult.

Buildings and equipment are expensive. Theconsequences of major investments must be livedwith for a long time. Construction disrupts farm andmanagement activities. Among other consequences,expanding facilities often will produce these results:

■ Purchasing additional animals.■ Hiring and training new labor.■ Changing management practices.

Before new construction, develop a long-range planfor the operation. Include the following in the plan:

■ Production goals for the next 5 to 10 years.■ Management goals.■ Environmental needs of the animals.■ Future alternatives for the operation.■ A drawing of the future farmstead.

10


11

�

Management FactorsAffecting Design

House replacement animals in separate facilitiesaway from the milking herd to foster a healthyenvironment for each group. Well designed andproperly managed replacement animal housingprovides the ability to adopt the best managementpractices currently recommended. Plan space,equipment, environment, rations, and care to meet theneeds of each group. Manage replacements in groupsaccording to their specific requirements. Facilitydesign should allow for easy implementation of themanagement plan for each group. When planningreplacement animal housing, provide:

■ Adequate resting and exercise space.■ Covered, dry resting areas.■ Absence of excessive drafts.■ Good quality fresh air.■ Adequate space to access feed and water.■ Space to group animals by size or age.■ Clean lots to maintain sanitary conditions.■ An isolation area for sick animals.■ An area from which to observe the animals.■ Treatment breeding facilities.■ Space for handling and restraining animals.

Poorly planned or improperly managed animalhousing increases the risk of disease or injury. Highhumidity levels and large daily temperature changes

are especially detrimental to animal health. Calvesand heifers raised in a poor environment may neverreach their full genetic potential for milk production.Pneumonia, scours, and other diseases can perma-nently damage vital body organs and reduce a cow’smilk producing potential.

Facility ManagementFor healthy, high producing replacement animals,

provide high quality housing and a management planthat addresses the animals’ needs. Good management,understanding what to do and then doing it onschedule, is important to the success of any housingsystem. Sanitation, stall maintenance, bedding,ventilation control, feeding, treatment, and closeobservation are all important management practices.Young animals may need training and/or time to getaccustomed to using freestalls. Daily or routinechores such as feeding, stall maintenance, or manureremoval should be made as convenient as possible toensure they are accomplished in a timely manner.

Herd Size and MakeupHerd size can mean either the number of cows

actually milking or mature cows, both dry andmilking. In this publication, herd size refers to thenumber of mature cows, both dry and milking.

Table 2-1 shows typical herd makeup, assuminguniform calving year-round. The numbers in the tablereflect no culling of heifers or calves. Use this table

AAAAAs replacement heifers grow, their needs change, including the physical environment. When a heifer is young, she is physically separated from other

animals to minimize the risk of disease. As she grows, she is grouped with otheranimals to improve labor and facility efficiency and to prepare the animal for thebreeding herd. Eventually the animal enters the breeding herd and finally themilking herd. This chapter describes recommendations and options for housingreplacement heifers.

Each stage of production requires housing to meet the animal’s physicalneeds. While using or constructing facilities for replacement animals on the farmmight seem like the natural way to go, consider custom calf- and heifer-raisingoptions before making major investments in facilities. Facility and labor costscan be weighed against custom charges, biosecurity concerns, etc.

Chapter 3Replacement HousingBrian Holmes, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Wisconsin

12

Chapter 3ReplacementHousing

to determine housing needed for each managementgroup.

■ Calf housing (0-2 months).■ Transition heifer housing (3-5 months).■ Heifer housing

6-8 months.9-12 months.13-15 months (breeding age).16-24 months.

The number of replacement animals to be houseddepends on the number of mature cows and bredheifers, and can be larger at times than the averagevalues in Table 2-1. As herd size increases, so doesthe number of replacements. Increasing herd sizewithout expanding facilities for replacements resultsin crowding, which can increase injury and diseasetransmission and can lower growth rates.

Management GroupsSeparating replacement animals into groups

according to age, size, or special management needsallows each group to be treated according to itsneeds. Plan building space and layout for thesegroups of animals using Tables 3-1 and 3-2. Morethan one group can be housed in the same building,but allow for managing each group separately. Inlarger herds, separate facilities may be provided foreach group. Some of the benefits of managinganimals in groups are:

■ Healthier animals by minimizing the risk oftransmitting disease to younger animals.

■ Good feed efficiency by reducing competitionfor feed.

■ Calving at proper weight and size at 24 months.■ Feed handling ease and proper diets

according to age.■ Manure handling ease.■ Animal observation and handling ease for

breeding, treatment, and grouping.■ Proper ventilation and environment.■ Proper resting space or freestall size.

Space requirements for a particular operationdepend on the housing system chosen and howreplacements move from the resting area to feed andto water and back again. Herd size and makeup areguides to estimating the space needed for resting, butalley size, water space, and bunk space also must beincluded to accommodate the animals and provide ananimal-friendly environment.

Provide separate areas for resting and feeding.Feeding in resting areas increases manure accumula-tion, and more bedding is required to keep animalsclean and dry.

Table 3-2. Replacement heifer resting area space requirements per animal.

Self-cleaningSelf-cleaningSelf-cleaningSelf-cleaningSelf-cleaning BeddedBeddedBeddedBeddedBedded SlottedSlottedSlottedSlottedSlotted Paved outsidePaved outsidePaved outsidePaved outsidePaved outsideeeeee

Age, mosAge, mosAge, mosAge, mosAge, mos Weight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hd resting arearesting arearesting arearesting arearesting areaaaaaa, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd resting arearesting arearesting arearesting arearesting areabbbbb, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd floorfloorfloorfloorfloor, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd lot, ftlot, ftlot, ftlot, ftlot, ft22222/hd/hd/hd/hd/hd 0-2c 100-190 Do not use 32 (4'x8' hutch) Do not use Do not use

28 (4'x7' pen)

3-5 190-350 Do not use 28 Do not use Do not use

6-8 350-500 10 25 12 35

9-12 500-650 12 28 13 40

13-15 650-800 15 32 17 45

16-24 800-1,200 18d 40 25 50

Dry cow, far-off > 1,300 20d 50 35 55

Dry cow, close-up > 1,300 — 10 — —a8% slope (1"/ft).bAssumes access to 10' wide scraped feed alley or paved outside lot.cUse hutch or individual pens. House separately from older animals.dHeifers and dry cows in late pregnancy may have difficulty breathing if they lie facing downhill on self-cleaning floors. Incidence of mastitis may be a problem for this group also.eProvide proper treatment for concentrated runoff.

Table 3-1. Bedded-pen space needs for calves

and transition heifers.

Housing type Pen size0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)0-2 months (individual pens)

Calf hutch (plus 4'x6' outdoor run) 4'x8'Bedded pen 4'x7'Tie stall (warm housing only) 2'x4'

3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head)3-5 months (groups up to 6 head) 25-30 ft2/hdSuper calf hutch or bedded penSuper calf hutch or bedded penSuper calf hutch or bedded penSuper calf hutch or bedded penSuper calf hutch or bedded pen minimum

13

Chapter 3Replacement

Housing

Resting SpaceAdequate resting space for management groups is

a key factor in efficient growth. Tables 3-2 and 3-3show the space required for different housingalternatives, including bedded resting areas, self-cleaning resting areas (solid, sloped floors), andfreestalls.

Feeding and Watering SpaceProvide adequate feeding space, so young stock

do not have to compete for feed. Optimum feedingspace varies with type of feed, feeding schedule, andanimal size, Figure 3-1 and Tables 3-4 and 3-5.

Water is essential at all times. Provide at least onewaterer per 20 animals. Dairy heifers need 1 to 1.5gallons of water daily per 100 pounds of body weight.Select waterers that are easy to clean; protect them fromfreezing and equipment. Locate waterers on elevatedcurbs and in a location that allows easy manure removalaround them. Adjust waterer height to allow smallanimals access. Provide for easy draining and clean-out.Avoid electrically heated waterers because of thepotential of stray voltage.

Handling and Treatment FacilitiesAnimal treatment areas are a necessary part of the

replacement housing system. Vaccinations, artificialinsemination, checking for pregnancy, deworming,dehorning, and examinations are done easily andsafely for animals and workers when animals can beseparated and restrained easily. A list of some equip-ment that eases labor and saves time in handlinganimals follows:

■ Scales.■ Self-locking feed stanchions.■ Gating/fencing.■ Squeeze chute/breeding chute.■ Treatment/palpation rail.■ Hoof trimming table.

Table 3-3. Heifer freestall dimensions.Stall width measured o.c. of 2" pipe stall dividers. Stall length measured from alley side of curb to front of stall.

Neck railNeck railNeck railNeck railNeck railAge,Age,Age,Age,Age, Freestall sizeFreestall sizeFreestall sizeFreestall sizeFreestall size Height aboveHeight aboveHeight aboveHeight aboveHeight above Distance fromDistance fromDistance fromDistance fromDistance from

monthsmonthsmonthsmonthsmonths Weight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hd Width, inWidth, inWidth, inWidth, inWidth, in LengthLengthLengthLengthLengthaaaaa, in, in, in, in, in curb, incurb, incurb, incurb, incurb, in back curb, inback curb, inback curb, inback curb, inback curb, in6-8 350-500 30 60 31 46

9-12 500-650 33 64 33 4913-15 650-800 37 72 37 5716-24 800-1,200 42 78 40 62

aLength for side lunge stalls. Add 12-18 inches for front lunge stalls.

Figure 3-1. Post and rail feeding fence.Refer to Table 3-4 for neck rail and throat heights.Note: Each rise in bunk elevation from 3'' to 6'' decreasesfeed volume and may encourage feed wastage.

Nec

k Ra

il H

eigh

t

Thro

at H

eigh

t3" to 6"

8"

2" dia Rail,bolt to post

Block at Post

Post or PipeSupports, 8 o.c.

Feed Manger

Manger Wall

Table 3-4. Suggested dimensions for post and

rail feeding fences.

ThroatThroatThroatThroatThroat Neck railNeck railNeck railNeck railNeck railAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, months Weight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hdWeight, lb/hd height, inheight, inheight, inheight, inheight, in height, inheight, inheight, inheight, inheight, in

6-8a 350-500 14 289-12 500-650 16 30

13-15 650-800 17 3416-24 800-1,200 19 41

Cows 1,200-1,500 21 48aA diagonal bar feeding fence is recommended for this groupto prevent calves from escaping. Manufacturers canprovide information about available panels.

Table 3-5. Minimum feed-space requirements.

Age, monthsAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, monthsAge, months MatureMatureMatureMatureMature T T T T Typeypeypeypeype 3-43-43-43-43-4 5-85-85-85-85-8 9-129-129-129-129-12 13-1513-1513-1513-1513-15 16-2416-2416-2416-2416-24 cowcowcowcowcow

- - - - - - inches per animal - - - - - -

Feed always availableFeed always availableFeed always availableFeed always availableFeed always availableHay or silage 4 4 5 6 6 6Mixed ration 12 12 15 18 18 18

or grain

All animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceAll animals eat at onceHay, silage, 12 18 22 26 26 26-30

or ration

14


Prep RoomLocate a work room near calf housing for feed

storage, a refrigerator/freezer, water heater, cleaningsink, health records, and supplies. This area can beused to prepare milk replacer and to clean feedingequipment.

Feed and Bedding StorageReduce daily hauling and feeding time by storing

a one- to two-week supply of bedding and feed in ornear the building. Storage space depends on numberof animals, animal density, feeding frequency,bedding density, and frequency of restocking.

Cold HousingCold housing is the recommended system for

raising replacement animals. Cold-housing systemsprovide a dry environment free of excessive drafts inwinter, and wind ventilation and shade in summer.The building is usually uninsulated and has naturalventilation designed as an integral part of thebuilding. Indoor temperature follows outsidetemperature very closely.

Advantages of cold housing over warm housing are:■ Less expensive to build.■ Less expensive to ventilate.■ Better disease control.

During cold weather, disadvantages of coldhousing are:

■ Freezing can make manure handling difficult.■ Waterers must be protected from freezing.■ Frostbite of calves’ ears may be a problem.■ Increased feed is required to maintain body heat.

Warm HousingA warm housing system is less desirable for raising

replacements. Environmentally controlled systemsare often improperly managed, resulting in health andgrowth problems. The building must be insulatedheavily and supplementally heated, and a controlledmechanical ventilation system delivers fresh outsideair. Properly designed inlets allow fresh outside air tobe evenly distributed throughout the entire structure.

Design mechanical ventilation systems in calfbarns to provide minimum continuous exchange ofair, Table 3-6. Do not cut back on the minimumventilating rate. Small animals do not generatesufficient heat to warm the ventilation air enough tokeep the room warm; therefore, supplemental heatmust be used.

Animal health is generally better with larger ratesof cold-weather ventilation. Since the number ofcalves and young heifers in a facility varies, designmechanical ventilation systems for a range ofstocking rates.

Calf Housing (birth to weaning)Calves and young heifers are very susceptible to

respiratory illness and other diseases. Keep calvesless than two months old in clean, dry, draft-freefacilities with adequate space, bedding, and fresh air.Separate calves to reduce disease transfer from nose-to-nose contact. Separate calf groups from olderanimals to minimize exposure to disease organisms.Keep calves in individual pens in an enclosedbuilding or outside in individual hutches untilweaning. After weaning they can be moved to smallgroup pens.

Hutches in Cold HousingCalf hutches have proved to be an excellent way

to house calves. Only one calf occupies each hutch.Typical hutches are 4 x 8 x 4 feet, Figure 3-2. Leaveone end of the hutch open, and provide a wire fenceenclosure so the calf can move outside. Optionaltethers are used where predators are not a problem.Seal tightly all sections of the hutch, except for thefront and bottom, to reduce the wind blowingthrough the hutch in winter. During summer, the rearof the hutch can be blocked open (up to 6 inches) toallow for cross ventilation. An alternative is to designan opening in the rear of the hutch with a tightlyfitting door.

Many types of prefabricated plastic/fiberglasshutches are available. Hutches made of a translucentmaterial require shade in summer. Summer shade

Table 3-6. Dairy cumulative ventilating

rates for warm barns.Size the system based on total building capacity.

Cold Mild Hot

Animal weathera weather weatherb

- - - - - - - cfm/animal - - - - - - -

Calves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 monthsCalves 0-2 months 15 50 100

HeifersHeifersHeifersHeifersHeifers 2-12 months 20 60 130 12-24 months 30 80 180

Cow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lbCow 1,400 lb 50 170 470aAn alternative cold-weather rate can be calculated bydividing the room or building volume in ft3 by 15.

bMaximum ventilation for hot-weather should provide for at leastone air change per minute. The alternative hot weatherventilating rate can be calculated by dividing the volume by 1.5.

15


Housing

Figure 3-2. Calf hutch.

reduces heat stress on all types of hutches. Provideenough space to allow hutches to be moved.

Face hutch fronts south or east to provide draftprotection during winter and sun exposure during theday. Provide enough hutches to allow a minimumtwo-week idle period between calves to reducedisease transmission. Locate hutches on a welldrained area. Crushed rock or sand provides a solidbase for bedding and lessens the possibility the hutchwill freeze to the ground in winter. After removing thecalf, wash and disinfect the hutch and move it to aclean site to break disease cycles. Use enough

bedding to keep calves clean and dry and to insulatecalves from the ground. A properly designed, wellmanaged calf hutch provides the perfect environmentfor the calf. In harsh environments, operators may beuncomfortable managing calves in outside hutches.Locating calves inside a structure improves operatorcomfort but compromises the design features of anoutside hutch. As design and management features ofa calf housing unit stray from those of a properlydesigned and managed hutch, the risk to calf healthand well-being increases.

To provide operator comfort, hutches may be placedinside a well-ventilated shed or structure, Figure 3-3.Putting hutches in sheds provides a cold housingenvironment in winter and shade in the summer.

Individual Pens in Cold HousingIndividual calf pens, Figure 3-4, can be used inside

cold housing, Figure 3-5. Pens are typically 4 x 7 feetand removable. Solid partitions between pens andbeyond the front of the pen prevent nose-to-nosecontact and draft control. They provide isolation foreach calf. A hover or cover on the back half of the pen

Figure 3-3. Protecting calf hutches.

8'6'

4' x 6' Fenced Yard

4' x 8' Hutch2'

2'

40' 8'

2'

24'

60'

North

6'8'

10' m

in.

10' m

in.

Concrete or Macadam Concrete or Macadam

Plan View Plan View

Cross Section Cross Section

Open Ridge2"/10' of building width

Opening2"/10' ofbuilding width

Eave Opening1"/10' of building width Optional

WinterClosure

Plan View Plan View

Cross-section Cross-section

16


Figure 3-4. Individual calf pen.

gives the calf additional protection, especially in colddrafty locations. Pens use building space moreefficiently than do calf hutches, although increasinganimal density increases ventilation requirements.Place pens on crushed rock or concrete to provide abase for bedding. Individual pens require the sametype of management as calf hutches. Leave enoughspace within the building to allow a rest periodbetween calf occupancy. Usually increasing thebuilding size by 50% will provide enough area toallow a rest period between calf occupancy. Cleanpens promptly and allow the surface to dry to helpcontrol flies and kill pathogens.

Figure 3-5. Calf barn.

Locate older calves downwind.

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17


Housing

Individual Stalls in Warm HousingUse individual 2 x 4 foot stalls only in warm

housing. This system requires the least space per calf,but must be used in insulated, environmentallycontrolled buildings with mechanical ventilation andsupplemental heat. Air distribution systems whichproduce good air mixing can cause drafts on calves.Solid pen dividers and floors help to reduce drafts.Avoid unbedded wire-mesh floors that allow air move-ment through the pen and are uncomfortable wherecalves contact the mesh. Urine and/or floor washdownwater contribute significant quantities of moisture to theroom air. Urine and manure stored within the building orin a pit below the building can contribute noxious gasesto the room air inhaled by calves.

Drafts, which occur in elevated stalls with openfloors for drainage, are detrimental to calf health. Theincidence of calf disorders increases in warm housingfacilities after several years, due in part to warmtemperatures. Warm temperatures increase theviability of disease organisms and allow ventilationrates for moisture control to be reduced. The combi-nation of desirable growing conditions for pathogensand low air-exchange rates presents a serious healthrisk for calves. The facility must be adequatelyventilated and sanitized routinely. To reduce disease,good ventilation, proper sanitation, and carefulobservation of calves are especially essential in warmhousing systems. Periodic depopulation and buildingwashdown/disinfection of these buildings may beneeded to break disease cycles. Consider the all-in,all-out technique for managing disease cycles.

Calf Group Housing for CalvesSome producers raise unweaned calves in groups

in bedded pens where calves are given access to acommon feeder. This system is fraught with potentialrisks which can have devastating results on animalhealth and survivability. A common unsanitizedfeeding system can cause rapid spread of diseasewithin the group. Sucking behavior within a groupcan spread disease from face-to-face and face-to-navelcontact. Draft control within a group pen must beaccomplished with draft barriers, not by reducing theventilation rate. Reduced ventilation rates contributeto spreading disease by allowing accumulation ofmoisture, noxious gases, pathogens, dust, and otherrespiratory system irritants.

Transition Heifer Housing (3-5 months)Moving a newly weaned calf from an individual

pen to a small group environment is an abrupt changeor transition. The combination of stresses due to new

social interactions with other calves, competition forfeed and water, and a new housing system canseriously affect calf growth and performance.

Giving special consideration to the calf’s environ-ment can make this transition less stressful as the calfadjusts to group living and learns to compete.Monitor calves for adequate feed and water intake,and make sure calves are disease free before movingthem into a group pen.

Provide transition housing for calves fromweaning until 5 months old. For smaller herdsmaintain 4 or 5 calves per group with a small range insize or age (1 month maximum). Provide well-beddedpens that allow 25 to 30 square feet of resting spaceper calf. Have fresh water available at all times.Transition housing should provide an environmentsimilar to that which calf hutches provide, only in agroup setting. To maintain the ability to observe anindividual calf for larger herds, limit group size to 20calves.

Calf Shelter or Super HutchPortable shelters or super hutches provide cold

transition housing for calves. A calf shelter is de-signed for up to six calves, Figure 3-6. An optionalpaved lot and addition of a fenced area can be usedwith the shelter, Figure 3-7. Keep the shelter wellbedded, and alternate the shelter site between groupsof calves. In a pasture system, the calf shelter can berotated on the pasture, Figure 3-8. Waterers can belocated centrally or moved with the shelter site.

Transition Heifer BarnFor herds greater than 100 milking cows, a series

of 10 x 24 foot pens can be used in a transition heiferbarn for calves up to 6 months old, Figure 3-9.Capacity for each pen in this arrangement is 6animals if the feed alley is scraped and 8 animals ifthe entire pen is bedded.

Transition barns commonly have a 3:12 singleslope roof with no insulation. The barns should opento the south or east to take advantage of the sunlightand provide protection from winter winds. The eavein the back wall is open to aid in moisture control inwinter. During summer, remove fabric or other coveringson the back and endwalls for natural ventilation.Locate waterers in the feed manger line to minimizesplashed water in the bedded area. Protect the mangerfrom splashed water by use of a plastic or sheet metalshield.

To minimize excessive drafts in long barns, attachplywood to gates, and hang fabric from the undersideof the roof down to the gate between alternate pens.During cold weather, place straw bales along the

18


Figure 3-6. Super calf hutch, typical 12' x 24'.

2x6 Rafters, 2’ o.c. 2x6 2x6 Nailing Supports 2x6 Knee Brace

8’ minimum

6’ minimum

Curtain

6x6 Post4x6 Skid8’ T-shaped Anchor Plates,

10’

20’

both sides

2x6 Shoe

Front View

Rear View

2x6 Stud High Tensile Wire Fencing

WaterFeedbunk

2-2 ½12

Curtain

Front View

Rear View

19


Housing

Figure 3-8. Super calf hutches with a fenced

dirt lot area.Rotate lot and move super calf hutch as required.Locate on well-drained sites to maintain sod cover.Capacity for up to 6 heifers, 6 months old.

Figure 3-7. Super calf hutch with paved outside lots.Alternate lots between groups of calves. Capacity forup to six calves, six months old.

ww

PortableBunk

Calf Shelteror Super

Calf Hutch

Prevailing Winter Wind

12' 10'

20'

Figure 3-9. A transition barn.

Site B

Site A

24 Building’

2 high wall’

10’ 14’

4Overhang

' 3’Overhang

10

10

Curtain forSevere WinterWeather(optional)

6’ MinimumOpeningif a Curtainis Used.

OpenEave

FeedManger

Bedding,

123

Full Curtain

Bedded Pens

Feed Alley

Feed

Man

ger

Driv

e

Bedding

optional

Bedding,optional

ConcreteCurb

Waterer Gate

Door

Gate

a

aCurb is 12" to 15" wide, 5" high. Capacity for6 to 8 calves, up to 5 months old.3:12 minimum roof slope.

20


bottom edge of the gates to stop drafts. Remove balesand draft barriers during warm weather.

Calf and Transition Heifer BarnCalf barns combine individual pens, Figure 3-4,

and transition heifer group pens in one buildingdesign, Figure 3-5. A full-open sidewall with curtainprovides cross ventilation in summer and draftprotection in winter. The upper half of the buildingwall can be a pivot door or curtain for draft protec-tion in winter. The lower part of the wall can haveremovable panels for better summer ventilation. Airmovement through the building should be sufficientto maintain inside temperature only slightly aboveoutside temperature in winter and slightly belowoutside temperature in summer.

Heifer Housing (6-24 months)Several options are available for housing heifers

after transition housing. Regardless of housing type,group animals according to a management plan,considering the nutritional, health, and reproductiveneeds of each group. At a minimum, a logical break ingrouping is a breeding-age group and a bred-heifergroup.

Heifer housing has these primary managementfunctions:

■ Allows convenient animal handling for treatment.■ Allows for animal breeding.■ Allows for animal observation.■ Allows convenient feeding, bedding, and

manure handling.

Even though heifers can tolerate more stress asthey grow older, they still must be protected from wet

conditions, drafts, and poor environment. In open-front housing, provide group pens of sufficient depthto protect heifers from winter winds. Solid penpartitions help reduce drafts.

Freestall HousingYoung heifers are grouped in freestall housing

with stalls sized according to the age or size of theheifer, Table 3-3. Freestall housing requires a stableherd size to match the number of freestalls in a penwith the number of animals in a group. There is littleflexibility in the system. Freestall housing requiresconsiderably less bedding than bedded-pack hous-ing. Frequent manure removal is required (once ortwice a week) unless floors are slotted. Frozen manurecan be a problem in cold barns, but it is manageableby cleaning more frequently.

Several different layouts are used in freestallhousing. Each alternative is suited to particularfeeding and manure handling situations. Eachalternative has adequate feedbunk space, Table 3-5.Freestalls can be inside with outside lots for exerciseand feeding. The trend is towards freestalls andfeeding included under the building roof or confinedarea. Outside exercise lots still may be provided foruse during periods of good weather. Lot runoff mustbe handled properly to prevent pollution.

Two-row Freestall BarnTwo-row freestall barns as illustrated in Figure 3-10

are used for up to 100 heifers. Freestall length foreach group in Table 3-3 is sized to provide maximumcomfort for the size of the animals in the group.Heifers are grouped in pens around the perimeter ofthe building.

Manure is scraped automatically; the alley is

Figure 3-10. Two-row freestall barn (center feed), 36' to 44' by 134'.Note: Dimensions are for building interior and do not include wall thicknesses.

21


Housing

flushed or the floor is slotted because it is notpossible to move animals during tractor scraping.When animals have access to outside runs, tractorscraping can be accomplished. Build an 8-foot alleywhen a feed cart is used. For drive-through feeding, a16- to 18-foot alley is required.

Two-row Graduated Freestall BarnA two-row graduated freestall barn changes the

length of the freestall in the pen by placing the curb atan angle to the side of the building. Stalls at one endof the building are shorter than stalls at the other end.The alley floor is sloped toward the freestalls, where agrated gutter is used to remove manure. The floor slopeprovides a self-cleaning floor. Stalls are bedded withchopped bedding to allow movement of the manureand bedding through the grate. A gravity gutter, flushgutter, or barn cleaner can be used to remove manure.Building temperatures must remain above freezingmost of the time to prevent frozen manure in thegutters. This type of building requires insulation and acontrolled natural ventilation system.

Two-row Gated FreestallA two-row gated freestall barn can provide good

housing, Figures 3-11 and 3-12. Having two rows offreestalls along one side of a single bunk, all underroof, provides flexibility in feeding system design.Depending on the layout, feeding may be accom-plished with a feed cart, mechanical bunk, or mobilescale mixer. In three-row barns, there is limited bunkspace. When feed is always available, competition forfeed can be managed.

An alternative layout for a two-row gated freestallbarn is shown in Figure 3-12. Manure in the gatedfreestall system is easily removed by a tractor-mounted scraper. Animals are fenced in one alleywhile the other alley is cleaned. When the feed bunkis located on the south or east side in a cold barn, thebunk side of the building may be left open.

Four-row Gated FreestallTwo-row gated freestall barns can be expanded for

larger herds by using a common center feed alley.Stall rows are located on both sides of the feed alley.Feeding can be accomplished with drive-throughfeeding alleys sized for a feed wagon or feed cart.

Bedded PackBedded-pack housing, Figure 3-13 and 3-14, is

commonly used in conjunction with an outsidefeeding area. However, roofing the entire areaincluding the scrape and feeding alley has advan-tages. Providing a roof over the bedded area keeps

precipitation off animals while animals rest andkeeps bedding dry. A roof also eliminates contami-nated runoff from the alley. Provide enough space,for each group of animals in the bedded resting areaTable 3-2. The bedded area is roofed and provides awarm, draft-free resting surface. Additional heatdevelops from the decomposing manure in thebedded pack. Bedded-pack barns are often sized toallow installation of a scrape alley and freestalls at alater date. Use a shed (single slope) roof if anexpansion will occur on the other side of the drive-by feed alley. A macadam or crushed rock surfacecan be used under the resting area pack. Macadam isa built-up rock base (see Using All-WeatherGeotextile Lanes and Pads, AED-45) which distrib-utes concentrated surface loads over the originalsoil. Macadam also provides a slip-resistant surfaceand is porous enough to allow good drainage. Takemeasures to avoid groundwater contamination. Ifconcrete is used rather than macadam, slope thefloor to the scraped manure alley. Add bedding tothe upper end of the pack as needed. Removemanure and bedding as a solid two to four times ayear. A substantial amount of bedding is required tokeep animals clean and dry.

Paved feeding alleys are typically scraped two orthree times a week. Extending the roof over this areareduces runoff. To provide for a system with anoutside lot, the feeding alley is extended away fromthe building and generally is not roofed. Runoff mustbe controlled to prevent surface water and groundwa-ter contamination.

Counter-sloped BarnThe counter-sloped barn, a relatively low-cost

facility, is based on a sloped resting and feeding floorseparated by a tractor-scraped alley, Figure 3-15.The resting floor and feeding floor are sloped 8%(1 in/ft) toward the center scrape alley and are self-cleaning. Size the resting area of the pens to allow fora self-cleaning resting area, Table 3-2. Runoff fromuncovered alleys must be controlled to preventstream and groundwater pollution. The building alsocan be designed to be completely under roof tocontrol water entry. This system is not recommendedfor heifers younger than six months or bred heifersduring the last three months of pregnancy because oflack of cleanliness.

Optional Outside LotsOptional outside lots sometimes can be incorpo-

rated into building design when desired. Outside lotshelp reduce manure accumulation in the building butmust be cleaned and managed properly. Outside lots

22


77

30

6 6 66 8 8 8 85 5

34 34 86 48

12

min

with

opt

iona

l raf

tere

ddr

ive

thro

ugh

Open Ridge,2"/10 of building width

10 16 Stalls6 to 8 months

16 Stalls9 to 12 months



16 StallsDry Cows

Feed AlleyWaterer

Locking Headgates, optional

Drive-by Feeding, lane

Feed Bunk

Freestalls

Eave Opening1"/10 of BuildingWidth

Curtain (optional)for Cold Climates

Precipitation Gutterdischarge fromBarn or to Alley

412

W W W W W

12 12

Curtain forCold Climates(optional)



Truss designedfor CanteleverOverhang

Manger

Rafter

Clear Span Drive Through Raftered Drive ThroughCantelevered Manger Overhang

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

14’ m

in

Figure 3-11. Two-row gated, head-to-head freestall barn, 38' by 232'.A freestall barn for four groups of heifers and a group of dry cows.Note: Dimensions are for building interior and do not include wall thicknesses.

23


Housing

Figure 3-12. Two-row gated, tail-to-tail freestall barn, 36' by 200'.A freestall barn for four groups of heifers and a group of dry cows.Note: Dimensions are for building interior and do not include wall thicknesses.

40

10 11

77

12 12

7 7

28 30

36

25

Solid Fencefor WinterDraft Control(optional)




Truss Designedfor CanteleverOverhang

Manger

Rafter

Clear span Drive Through Raftered Drive ThroughCantelevered Manger Overhang

PrecipitationDiverter

117

107

10m

in

14m

in.

with

opt

iona

l raf

tere

ddr

ive

thro

ugh

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

Open Ridge,2"/10 of Building Width

17 Stalls,Dry Cows

40 Stalls,16 to 24 months Alley

13 Stalls,13 to 15 months



Feeding Alley

Feed Bunk

Waterer


Locking Headgates (optional)

412

Eave Opening1"/10 of Building WidthBoth Walls

Curtain for ColdClimates (optional)

WWW

Wal

l Hei

ght

See

Deta

iled

Cros

s Se

ctio

ns B

elow

14’ m

in

24


Figure 3-13. Bedded pack heifer and dry cow barn.Bedded pack barn for four groups of heifers and a group of dry cows. Gatesacross the feeding alley are used to hold animals in bedded pens during alleyscraping.

24' t

o 26

'10

' to

12'

68' 20' 24'

10’ o

r 14 ’

min

.w

ith o

ptio

nal r

afte

red

driv

e th

roug

h

Open Ridge,2"/10' of building width

6 '3 20'

Dry Cows 16 to 24 months

Bedded Resting Area

Fence

13 to 15months

9 to 12 months 6 to 8 months

Bedded Pens Scraped Feeding Alley Waterer

Open Front


Curtain Sidewall

Locking Headgates, optional

412

Curb

Feed Bunk

Eave Opening1"/10' of building width

Curtain for ColdClimates (optional)

12’ 12’




Truss designedfor CanteleverOverhang

Manger

Rafter

Clear Span Drive Through Raftered Drive ThroughCantelevered Manger Overhang

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

eede

dfo

r equ

ipm

ent c

lear

ance

10’ m

ingr

eate

r if n

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dfo

r equ

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ent c

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ance

10’ m

ingr

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r if n

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dfo

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14’ m

in

25


Housing

Figure 3-14. Heifer housing for heifers older than 6 months.

8�

Manger

14�3�

1�12�8�

18� to 24�

Scrape Alley

Gate

Floor Slope(see note)

Pressure treated plankor concrete wall

Cattle panel

Curtain

Partition

123

10�

4�

Open ridge 2�� per 10�

Gable roof (optional)

412

Feed Driveway(slope / % - 1%)1 2

72�6 pens @ 12�-0"

Optio

nal L

oadi

ng C

hute

Sloped Resting Platform

Gate

Feed Barrier

Manger

Feed Driveway (Roof optional)

Slope ( / to 1%)

Waterer

30��t

o 36�

18� t

o 24�

12�

14�

1�Fence

Tall wallfor windcontrol

1 2

Scrape Alley( / to 2%)1 2

a. Building cross-section.

Note: For bedded pack rest area, use a 2% slope. For a self-cleaning floor rest area, use a8% slope. Solid partition for self-cleaning sloped floors or 4' tubular steel gate for beddedpack with adjustable height hinges or attach 4' x 8' plywood to gates. Extend every otherpartition to ceiling to reduce wind swirl. Face open front away from prevailing winter winds.Open front facing SE will provide afternoon shading in hot weather.

b. Building plan view.

Notes: Maximum number of animals per pen:5 per pen when 12 to 24 months7 per pen when 6 to 12 months

26


may be of some benefit in reducing foot and legproblems in dry cows.

Pasture sometimes is used as part of the feed ration.When this is the case, animal density must be keptlow to allow the pasture to recover after grazing.Pasture can be rotated to provide rest and recovery ofvegetation. Pasture that is too heavily grazed becomesa dirt lot over time and can cause problems when notmanaged properly.

Dirt exercise lots tend to have a high animaldensity and typically have little or no vegetativecover. They become muddy in wet weather and cancause environmental mastitis in heifers before they

w w w w w w

Scrape Alley2% Slope,

12 GateToManureandRunoffStorage

FeedingSlab

Feed Bunk

6 Pens

Optional Roof over Bunk and Litter Alley

2½12

(For Monoslope Roof)

4' HighSolid Partition

8“ StepHeightCurtain

10" Overhang12

10'

1

8% Slope,1"/ft

8% Slope,1"/ft

123'

-8"

4"

10'

79

20

4" 6"4'

3'-9"13'

912"19'

36'12'

5'

5'

7'

¼"/ft

Open Ridge,2"/10' of building width

(For Gable Roof)

124

Figure 3-15. Counter-slope youngstock barn.Sample barn layout for 72 to 90 animals with outdoor feeding and scraped manure alley.

enter the milking herd. Use dirt lots only whenweather permits. Cattle mounds can improve drainageof a dirt lot to help keep the surface dryer.

Concrete paved exercise lots can be incorporatedinto building designs either as exercise areas or asintegral parts of the building design. Runoff fromlots must be controlled and handled as part of themanure handling and storage system. Additionallabor is required to scrape lots and field applymanure. Consider the cost of a runoff controlsystem in the total system cost. Also consider waterquality issues in the overall design of the housingoption.

27

TTTTThe most common housing type being built in the Midwest is a freestall barn.Freestall barns allow cows to be housed and managed as groups. There are

various barn layouts and stall designs. Before deciding on a barn layout or selectinga stall design, weight the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative. Whenmaking this decision, consider labor, cow comfort, and personal preference.

FreestallsThe freestall is a vital element of the cow’s

environment, affecting cow comfort, cleanliness, andhealth. There is more to freestall comfort than toproperly size the stall and to properly locate thefreestall equipment. How cows use freestalls is alsoimportant. Cows should want to use the stalls. If cowsare standing in the alleys more often than lying in thefreestalls, then there may be a problem with thedesign of the freestall. Take time to observe howcows are using freestalls.

Freestalls must provide a clean, comfortableresting space for cows. In addition, cows should beable to enter and leave stalls easily, and lie down andrise without interference. Additional considerationsare freedom from injury, stall cleanliness, beddingrequirements, labor, durability, and ease of removingdowned cows.

Proper stall conditions must be maintained if cowsare to use stalls and potential benefits are to berealized. Improperly designed or maintained stallsmay lead to cows lying in alleys or elsewhere. Wet,contaminated stall beds increase the incidence ofenvironmental mastitis. While attention to design andmaintenance of the stall is indeed important in eachof these situations, the willingness of cows to usestalls and the dryness of stall beds are directly linkedto other elements such as poor ventilation and lack ofshade.

Freestall DesignA freestall is an individual resting place that

provides the cow a reasonably clean, dry, resilientbed. The cow is free to enter and leave at will. Thestall must be wide enough for the cow to lie comfort-ably, but narrow enough to keep the cow from turning

around. The stall must be long enough to allow thecow to rest comfortably on the platform withoutinjury, yet short enough so manure and urine fall intothe alley. The stall bed must have a surface that isresilient and that remains relatively dry.

In addition, the stall should accommodate thenatural reclining and rising behavior of the cow. Thecow should not touch the stall partition in a mannerthat can injure her. In particular, the body of the cowmust not strike any portion of the partition while sheis in the act of lying down, the last portion of thismovement being uncontrolled.

As a cow rises from a lying position in the pasture,she lunges forward, transferring her weight forward tohelp raise her hindquarters, much like a springboardaction. To achieve this natural movement, a cowthrusts her head forward as she lunges. When shecannot lunge forward, she has difficulty rising on herhind legs. When restricted too much, she rises frontlegs first, like a horse, which is an unnatural behaviorfor a cow.

The cow’s lying and rising space needs consist ofthree elements:

■ Body space — the space from the rear of a cowto the front of her knees.

■ Head space — the space ahead of a cow’s bodyoccupied by her head.

■ Lunge space — the additional space necessaryfor the thrust of a cow’s head as she lungesforward during rising.

In an ideal freestall, the partitions:■ Define the cow’s lying position.■ Have minimum contact with her body.■ Accommodate the cow’s natural lying and rising

behavior.

Chapter 4Milking Herd FacilitiesWilliam G. Bickert, Extension Ag Engineer, Michigan State University

28

Chapter 4Milking HerdFacilities

Limited length can reduce defecation in the rear ofthe stall, important to good udder health. But iflimited length restricts the forward thrust of the headthen rising will be more difficult for the cow.

Freestall TypesThere are two types of freestalls identified by

where the cow places her head during rising:■ Forward-lunge.■ Side-lunge.

The two freestalls differ in partition and stall basedesign to account for the cow’s lunge during rising.To reduce injury, both types of freestalls shouldprovide space beneath the lower rail at the rear tominimize contact with the cow’s hip and pelvic area.

In a forward-lunge freestall, additional stall lengthis needed to allow the cow to lunge forward. A brisketboard, Figure 4-1, is required to position the cow in

the freestall. See Figure 4-3a. In head-to-headfreestall arrangements, the cow is able to lunge intothe opposite freestall. See Figure 4-3b. In a head-to-head freestall arrangement provide as much openlunge space as possible with a minimum of 24 inchesof open vertical space. This arrangement also requiresa brisket board, Figure 4-1.

In a side-lunge freestall, the cow thrusts her headinto an adjacent stall space as she rises. The lower railof the partition is either high enough in the front toallow the cow to thrust her head under the lower rail,or low enough to allow the cow to thrust her headover the lower rail without interference. If the cowthrusts her head under the partition rail, the bottompartition rail should be a minimum of 32 inchesabove the back curb, Figure 4-4a. If the cow thrustsher head above the bottom rail, the bottom partitionrail should be a maximum of 11 inches above theback curb, Figure 4-4b. Side lunge stall dividers are a

Figure 4-1. Freestall dimensions.aLocation of reference point may vary. See Figure 4-2 for more details.

Body Space (Table 4-1)

4 - 6" Maxabove bedding

"

Reference Point

Slope 4% (½ per foot)"

Depends on Stall Length

2 x 8 or 2 x 10Brisket Board

Lag Screw

2 x 8 Support Board

ConnectSupport Board toPartition Post

a

a. Location in stall.

b. Construction.

45° to 60°(60° recommended)

29

Chapter 4Milking Herd

Facilities

good choice for replacement dividers on shorter stallplatforms.

Freestall DimensionsDimensions chosen for freestalls represent a

compromise between cow comfort and cow cleanli-ness. Stalls must enable cows to lie down and get upnaturally and comfortably. Stalls should be wideenough that cows normally do not contact stallpartitions in any way that could cause injury or thatcould damage the partitions. But, stalls that are toowide may allow cows to turn around in them or liediagonally. Stalls that are too long or have the brisketboards improperly placed allow cows to lie too farforward. All of these conditions increase the possibil-ity of manure being deposited on the stall bed.

The lower values of the ranges in Table 4-1represent a livable compromise between comfort(high rate of stall usage) and cleanliness. The upper

values, which provide for wider and longer stalls,favor cow comfort over cleanliness and result in morestall maintenance. When animals in a group aredifferent size, design stalls based on the average sizeanimal in the largest 25% of the herd.

It is important that stall measurements be takenfrom the same reference location as shown inFigure 4-2. Some producers and designers incor-rectly mix and match the information in Figures4-3 and 4-4 with information in Table 4-1 and aredisappointed in the results. The reference locationis taken according to Figure 4-2. This is thereference location for most stalls bedded with sand.When the freestall has an elevated bed, such aswhen bedding mattresses are used, then thereference location is taken at a point directlyabove the corner of the curb. The distance abovethe curb is equal to the mattress thickness oradditional bed depth.

a. Measurement when stall bed is

level with curb.

b. Measurement when bedding extends

above stall base.

Figure 4-2. Location from which to start measurements for sizing freestall cubicles.

Stall Length

8"to

12"

To T

op o

f Sta

ll

(A)

Reference Point:Stall measurementsbegin from this location.

Stall Length

8"to

12"

2"2"

To T

op o

f Sta

ll

(A)

Reference Point:Stall measurementsbegin from this location.

Mattress

Bedding

Table 4-1. Freestall dimensions.Freestall width measured center-to-center of 2" pipe dividers. For wider dividers, increase width accordingly.Freestall length, and neck-rail and brisket-board distances measured from alley side of curb to front of stall.

AnimalAnimalAnimalAnimalAnimal Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall lengthFreestall lengthFreestall lengthFreestall lengthFreestall length Neck railNeck railNeck railNeck railNeck rail Curb to neck railCurb to neck railCurb to neck railCurb to neck railCurb to neck railweight (lb)weight (lb)weight (lb)weight (lb)weight (lb) width (in) width (in) width (in) width (in) width (in) Side lungeSide lungeSide lungeSide lungeSide lunge Forward lungeForward lungeForward lungeForward lungeForward lungeaaaaa heightheightheightheightheightbbbbb and brisket board and brisket board and brisket board and brisket board and brisket board (in)

800-1,200 42 to 44 6'-6" 7'-6" to 8'-0" 41 to 43 62

1,200-1,500 45 to 48 7'-0" 8'-0" to 8'-6" 44 to 46 66

over 1,500 48 to 52 7'-6" 8'-6" to 9'-0" 46 to 48 71a An additional 12" to 18" in stall length (compared to side lunge stalls) is required to allow the cow to thrust her head forwardduring the lunge process.

b Above top of curb or top of mattress (Ref. point A in Figure 4-3 and 4-4), in.

30

Chapter 4Milking HerdFacilitiesaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Body

SpaceHeadSpace

LungeSpace

HipSpace

HipSpace

(A)*

(A)*

Brisket Board

Body Space

Stall Length

Body SpaceStall Length

Brisket Board

Post neededforeach divider

Nec

k Ra

il an

dPa

rtitio

n He

ight Opening for

Air Movement

Open

Spa

ce fo

rFo

rwar

d Lu

nge

Nec

k Ra

il an

dPa

rtitio

n He

ight

14''

Slope 4% (1/2” per foot)

Slope 4% (1/2'' per foot) 4-6''max

8'' to

12''

curb

8'' to

12''

curb

11''

max

14''

4-6''maxa. Single loop

partition.

b. Head-to-head

partition

Figure 4-3. Forward-lunge freestalls.* Note: Top of curb on the alley side is used as the primary reference point for measurements except when the

stall bed is elevated. When the stall bed is elevated, the apparent top of the stall bed at the curb is thereference point (See Figure 4-2). Dimensions are for a 1,400 lb cow. Refer to Table 4-1 for proper freestall size.

31


Facilities

c. Lunge into

“doghouse”.

d. Lunge into

alley.

Figure 4-3. (Continued)

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa BodySpace

HeadSpace

LungeSpace

HipSpace

Slope 4% (1/2” per foot)

Slope 4% (1/2'' per foot)

Nec

k Ra

il an

dPa

rtitio

n He

ight

14''

Nec

k Ra

il an

dPa

rtitio

n He

ight

Open

ing

for

Forw

ard

Lung

e

8'' to

12''

curb

Brisket Board

Body Space

Stall Length

4-6''max(A)*

Curtain

8'' to

12''

curb

4-6''max(A)*

Brisket Board

Body Space

Stall Length

Alley

Open

ing

for

Forw

ard

Lung

e

HipSpace

11''

max

11''

max

14''

10'-12'

32


BodySpace

HeadSpace

SideLungeSpace

14''

Nec

k Ra

il an

dPa

rtiti

on H

eigh

t

HipSpace

Slope 4% (1/2'' per foot) 4''-6'' max

8'' t

o 12

''cu

rb

(A)*

Brisket Board (optional)

Body SpaceStall Length

11''

max

14''

Neck Rail

Neck Rail

Nec

k Ra

il an

dPa

rtiti

on H

eigh

t8'

' to

12''

curb

(A)* Slope 4% (1/2'' per foot) 4''-6'' max

Body Space

Stall Length

SideLungeSpaceHip Space

Brisket Board (optional)aaaaaaaaaaaaFigure 4-4. Side-lunge freestalls.* Note: Top of curb on the alley side is used as the primary reference point for measurements except when the

stall bed is elevated. When the stall bed is elevated, the apparent top of the stall bed at the curb is thereference point (See Figure 4-2). Dimensions are for a 1,400 lb cow. Refer to Table 4-1 for proper freestall size.

a. Side lunge partition

b. Wide loop partition

33


Facilities

PartitionExtend the stall partition horizontally toward the

rear of the stall to within 14 inches or less of the alleyto prevent cows from walking from stall to stall. Formost mature cows, install the top rail of partitions 44to 48 inches above the reference point to discourageturning around. The bottom rail should be highenough at the rear to avoid injury to hips and ribs,yet low enough at the shoulder to prevent cows fromlying under the partition. See Figures 4-3 and 4-4.

Neck RailPlace a neck rail across the top rail of the stall

partition to prevent cows from defecating in thestall. Without being a nuisance to them, a neck railstops cows from moving too far forward whenstanding and encourages cows to back up whenrising. A neck rail that is too low may hinder thelying and rising movement. Rigid neck rails may bean integral support component for partitions with norear posts. Unshielded cable used as a neck rail cancause severe injury to a cow’s neck and vertebrae.Cover cable with 2 inch or larger PVC pipe orsimilar shield.

Position the neck rail approximately 66 inchesahead of the alley side of the curb and 44 to 48inches above the top edge of the curb for a 1,400-pound cow. Neck rail placement may cause cows thatare new to freestalls to use the stalls improperly. Ifthis is a problem, move the neck rail forward tempo-rarily. When the cow becomes accustomed to usingthe stalls, move the neck rail back to improve cowpositioning.

Stall Base and BeddingThe stall base and bedding should provide a

resilient bed for cow comfort and provide a clean, drysurface to reduce the incidence of mastitis.

Use an 8- to 12-inch high curb to elevate the stallbase above the alley. Height and construction shouldhelp keep manure and scraping equipment or flushwater in the cow alley and out of the stall. An elevatedcurb discourages a cow from lying part way out of thestall, but a curb that is too high may discourage useand cause udder injury when a cow enters and leavesthe stall. Long alleys may require a higher curb tokeep manure from overflowing into the stalls duringcleaning.

For sand-based stalls, bevel the cow-side of thecurb. See Figure 4-2a. Otherwise, the top of the curbshould be flat and at a right angle to the alley-side ofthe curb.

Slope the stall base downward 2 to 4% (1/2 inchper foot) from front to rear. Commonly used materials

for the base include concrete, clay, sand, and stonedust. Hardwood planks tend to rot. Rubber tires, ifnot firmly embedded, tend to come loose.

Bedding material added on top of the base:■ Absorbs moisture and collects manure tracked

into the stall.■ Adds resilience.■ Makes the stall more comfortable.■ Reduces the potential for injuries.■ Provides traction.

Possible bedding materials include straw, sawdust,wood chips, sand, ground limestone, separatedmanure solids, shredded newspaper, corn stalks, bark,peanut hulls, sunflower hulls, and rice hulls. Choiceof bedding material influences selection of a manurehandling and storage system. Excessive use of strawor other organic material builds up a substantial crustin a storage, creating problems with agitation at timeof emptying. But a crust can help reduce odors fromthe manure storage. The use of short, fine beddingmaterial reduces the amount of bedding materialdragged into the manure alley.

Resilient mattresses over hard stall bases such asconcrete or well-compacted earth can provide asatisfactory cushion. See Figure 4-5. A mattressconsists of loose filler material sandwiched in afabric—heavyweight polypropylene or othermaterial. Shredded rubber is frequently used asmattress filler. Use small amounts of bedding(chopped straw) on top of the mattress to keep thesurface dry and the cows clean. To prevent leginjuries, 3 to 4 inches of bedding is recommended.

Rubber mats, plastic mats, carpeting materials andother compressed products are less satisfactorycushioning materials.

Relying upon an earthen base with only beddingfor the cushion requires substantial amounts ofbedding. In addition, pockets develop in the earthenbase as cows struggle while standing and lying.Without periodic maintenance, these pockets deepen.Deep pockets at the front of the stall bed make it verydifficult for cows to rise. Pockets near the rear trapmoisture and manure, contributing to udder healthproblems.

A sand bed (6-inch minimum depth maintained inthe stall area) can act as both freestall base andbedding. See Figure 4-6. Sand contributes to cowcomfort, good udder health, and clean cows. Inaddition, sand kicked into the alleys improves cowfooting. Every one to two weeks, add sand to thefront of the stall bed; the cows work it toward the rearof the stall. Replenish sand before the front of thestall bed becomes lower than the rear, a condition

34


that makes it difficult for cows to rise and causesthem to lie diagonally. Cows lying diagonally aremore likely to defecate in the stall, leading to dirtiercows. If the sand level is not maintained, the inside ofthe rear curb determines body length available.Moving the brisket board ahead about 6 inches or thethickness of the curb can help.

Sand accumulation in the manure can be as highas 75 pounds per stall per day. Sand-laden manure isheavier than manure without any bedding (75 to 80lbs /cu ft vs. 62 lbs /cu ft). Besides being abrasive toequipment, the sand in the manure inevitably settlesout during an extended storage period, makingpumping difficult. Alternatives for handling sand-laden manure differ primarily in length of storage,level of dilution, and requirements for labor andequipment.

Freestall ManagementProper stall management includes a minimum

twice-daily inspection and removal of wet beddingand manure, as well as additions of dry bedding onceor twice a week. At least twice-a-day removal ofmanure from alleys is essential as well. If stalls areneglected and contain excessive moisture or manure,bacterial populations may exceed critical values,markedly increasing the rate of udder infections.

With stall bases of less permanent materials suchas clay, holes created by the action of the hoovesmust be filled periodically. Maintaining the stall bedhigher in front discourages cows from lying diago-nally in the stall. A relatively flat surface sloping uptowards the front allows the cow to lie down and risemore easily and to lie more comfortably. Keep stallpartitions and other hardware in good repair.

Ventilation of livestock facilities is essential tomaintaining a proper environment for the animalsbeing housed. Desirable conditions in stalls dependon proper ventilation as well. With adequate airexchange, the moisture produced by the animals isremoved, and the inside air retains its potential totake on additional moisture. The greater evaporationrate associated with drier air results in drier alleysurfaces and drier bedding.

In hot weather, cows show a preference for stallswith good air movement. Thus, barns should be well-ventilated in summer, and stall fronts and partitionsshould be open to allow ventilating air to movethrough the stall space.

Hot weather combined with inadequate airmovement through stalls may cause cows to lieelsewhere. Most often they seek a wet alley surface orother highly contaminated area in an effort toincrease the rate of heat dissipation from their bodies.Again, attention to summer ventilation is essential.

FloorsConcrete floors (3,500 psi) must have adequate

texture for good footing. Secure footing reducesinjuries from slipping and falling, enhances cowmovement to feed, water, and stalls, and improvesheat detection.

In livestock housing, wood-float and broom-finished surfaces become smooth in time due totractor scraping and constant animal traffic. Selectthe degree of floor roughness based on the intendeduse and animal type.

New floors can be scored or grooved with ahomemade tool as they are placed, Figure 4-7. Makegrooves up to 3/8 inch deep, up to 1/2 inch to 1 inchwide, spaced up to 4 to 5 inches on center withparallel grooves in a single direction, up to 6 inches

Bedding Mattresswith Bedding on Top

Concrete orCompacted Sand Base

Figure 4-5. Stall using a mattress.

Figure 4-6. Stall using a sand-based bed.

Sand Base,6" min.

35


Facilities

on center in a diamond pattern. Make groovesparallel to alley length when flush or alley scrapemanure removal is used. Grooves are typically in adiamond pattern. Grooving should be done shortlyafter concrete is placed and before it sets up toomuch. The finished grooving should leave the areabetween the grooves flat, and the edge of the grooveshould not have a ridge. Wide grooves makecleaning and disinfecting more difficult and cancause foot and leg problems in smaller animals.

With new floors, where disinfection is required andgrooves present a problem, aluminum oxide can beadded to the surface when the floor is poured. Applyaluminum oxide grit (as in sandpaper) at 1/4 to 1/2pounds per square foot before the concrete sets.Coarse grit (four to six meshes per inch) isrecommended.

Existing slick floors can be grooved with amechanical saw (similar to ones used for sawingconcrete) or painted with chlorinated rubber paint orexterior latex. For additional traction, sprinkle withsawdust or coarse ground cornmeal while paint is wet.Repaint annually.

Badly worn but sound floors can be resurfacedwith a concrete overlay. Bonding a thick overlay toan existing floor requires special cleaning andconcrete mixes.

Several tasks should be completed prior to usingthe new flooring for livestock. First, any stalagmitetype roughness or sharp, very rough surfaces shouldbe removed from the surface of the concrete. Thesestalagmites can be removed by scraping the new

concrete with a steel blade before the concrete fullycures. Dragging a concrete slab or block over theconcrete surface several times can also be used tosmooth down the rough surface. Second, the entirefloor should be cleaned with a power broom toremove all loose concrete and any gravel. Looseconcrete or gravel can cause injury to feet and mustbe removed before use. Finally, the concrete shouldhave cured for at least 7 days to minimize adversereaction of livestock to the new concrete.

A machine called a scabbler pounds the concretesurface with a series of hammers, providing analternative roughening treatment.

Alley SlopeThe design slope of alleys in freestall barns may

vary from 0 to 4%, depending upon circumstances.Usually, some slope is desirable to control drainagein the event of an unexpected leak from a waterer.This helps to ensure the leaking water flows to acertain location where it can be managed (perhaps tothe manure storage). A small elevation differencebetween the two ends of an alley (6 inches or so)accomplishes this goal.

To drain concrete floor surfaces and avoidpuddling of water, a minimum slope of 1.5 to 2% isrecommended. This amount of slope is generallyrequired in order to overcome the birdbaths left inconcrete floor surfaces as a result of the inability tofinish the surface as a perfect plane. Therefore, aslope of at least 1.5% drains the majority of liquids(urine, for example) from a freestall alley, resultingin drier alley surfaces.

For manure flushing systems, slope may vary from1 to 4% depending upon the method of releasingwater onto alleys and related barn constructionfeatures. A sloped alley also places freestalls on aslight slope across the stall width. This encouragescows to lie with their legs in a down-slope direction,which may reduce the likelihood of stepped-on teats.

If the waterers in the barn are gravity fed, allwaterers on a particular line must be at the samelevel. Thus, there can be no elevation differencebetween sections of the barn where these waterers arelocated.

Feeding Fences, Bunks, Mangers,and Waterers

A post-and-rail feeding fence is usually used forfence-line feeding, as in a drive-through freestallbarn. The animal reaches over a short concrete wallfor feed. Elevate the feed surface 3 to 6 inches abovethe cow alley. The rail, which defines the upper limit

2

3" 6" 6" 6" 3"

½"

1"¾" Exterior Plywood

Figure 4-7. Homemade beveled groover.

36


of this space, is made of pipe, plank or cable and ispositioned as shown in Figure 4-8.

Design feeding spaces using Table 3-5. Thesespace requirements can be met in open dry-lotsystems and are still recommended for situationswhere mature cows are all expected to eat at once.However, freestall barns in colder climates typicallyallow less feeding space per cow. While 18 to 24inches feed space per cow appear adequate when aTMR is available most of the day, these spacerecommendations must be continually reevaluated asbarns are designed for the higher producing cows ofthe future, or as over stocking in a group occurs.

Provide sufficient volume to hold the amount offeed delivered at a feeding, especially when feedingonly once per day.

Self-locking gang stanchions, a variation on thedivided feeding fence, can restrain animals andpermit selective feeding. A lever mechanism opens orcloses all stanchions simultaneously. Desirablefeatures are individual or group cow release, self-locking stanchion as a cow lowers her head afterentering, and a quick release for downed cows. Feedspace for self-locking stanchions is either 24 or 30inches per opening.

Additional planning is needed if designing a post-and-rail feeding fence with the possibility of convert-ing to self-locking gang stanchions in the future. Themanger wall in a post and rail feeding fence manger ishigher than the manger wall used for self-locking gangstanchions. The key to the design of the manger wall isto provide for the proper throat height. Becausedesigns of self-locking stanchions vary, request

accurate dimensions from the manufacturer of the typeof self-locking stanchions being considered.

Manger SurfacesConcrete used in dairy facilities must be resistant

to manure, freezing and thawing, expansion andcontraction, feed acids, and abrasion from animalsand equipment. To be strong and resistant, concretemust be properly mixed, handled and cured. Concretemust withstand forces from livestock, vehicles, soil,and manure, Table 4-2.

In concrete, cement and water form a paste thathardens and glues the aggregates together. Concretequality depends on the binding qualities of thiscement paste. The strength and durability of concretedepend primarily on the water-cement paste. Thestrength and durability of concrete depend primarilyon the water-cement ratio. Enough water is needed forfull curing, but excess water leaves voids when itevaporates, which weakens the concrete. Strengthwill likely be adequate when durability is adequate.

When a mix is too stiff to handle well, use a superplasticizer or add both cement and water to the mixer,then reduce the amount of aggregates in subsequentbatches. Do not just add water, which weakensconcrete, Table 4-3. Adding one gallon of water to acubic yard of concrete can:

■ Decrease strength by 200 to 300 psi.■ Increase shrinkage potential by approximately 10%.■ Waste as much as a bag of concrete.

Eating surfaces must be smooth, clean, and freefrom leftover feed and other debris to encourage feedintake and help control disease. In new construction,use high-strength concrete (4,500 psi) to prolong theuseful life of the manger surface used for feedingsilage and other feeds that tend to etch the concrete,Table 4-3. Or, line the manger with a resistantmaterial such as ceramic tile. Inspect manger surfacesfor etched conditions, exposed aggregate, or worn,splintered wood; repair as needed.

Table 4-2. Recommended floor thickness.Edge thickness is twice the thickness of slab for 2 foot width.

Application Thickness (inches)Feeding aprons, with minimum 4

vehicle traffic

Paved feedlots, building driveways 5

Heavy traffic drives (grain trucks, 6wagons, manure spreaders)

Figure 4-8. Post-and-rail feeding fence for cows.*Reduce throat height for heifers and if using headlocks.

37


Facilities

WaterersProvide at least one watering space or 2 feet of

tank perimeter for every 15 to 20 cows, Table 4-4. Atleast two waterer locations are needed for each groupof cows. Provide more space and more locations whentwo-year-olds are housed with older cows. Limitwater depth to 6 to 8 inches for fresher water and lessdebris accumulation. Provide drains in tanks or usetip troughs for ease of cleaning.

Access to adequate fresh water becomes moreimportant in summer as consumption per cowincreases. Provide space for extra water tanks in thebarn for use during hot weather. (See Cross Alleys,page 40). Heaters will not be required as these tanksare removed for cold weather.

Barn LayoutBarn layout evolves from a management plan that

views the animals not as a herd but as a logicalassembly of management groups. Actually, a barn is amanagement tool used to implement the managementplan, rather than as a place intended strictly to houseanimals. Barn layout design evolves as:

■ Management groups are defined.■ Needs of animals are established.■ Essential tasks prescribed by the management

plan are outlined.■ Future expansion is considered.

Freestall barn layout depends on the relationshipbetween the feed and stall alleys, Figure 4-9. With thetrend toward feeding complete mixed rations and theuse of scale mixers for assembling these rations,feeding systems can be classified as stationary,Figure 9-8, or as mobile, Figure 9-9, according to useof the scale mixer. See Chapter 9, Feeding Facilities,for additional information on mixers.

In a mobile feeding system, the scale-mixer ismounted either on a tractor-drawn trailer or a truck.Horizontal silos for corn silage and possibly grasssilage and bulk storage for dry grains and supplementare compatible with this system. A tractor with afront-end loader loads feed components into themobile scale-mixer. The scale-mixer itself is used todeliver the mixed ration to the bunk.

Mobile mixers are more flexible than stationaryones; feed storage location is less critical and animalscan be fed at remote sites. Mobile feeding systems aretime and cost efficient for herds of 100 cows or more.

Table 4-4. Drinking water requirements.

AnimalAnimalAnimalAnimalAnimal gal/hd/daygal/hd/daygal/hd/daygal/hd/daygal/hd/dayCalves

(1-1.5 gal/100 lb) 6-10

Heifers 10-15

Dry cows 20-30

Milking cows 35-50a

a Design water supply to deliver 6 to 7 gpm per cow with cowsdrinking simultaneously.

Table 4-3. Concrete strengths.Durability (weather and chemical resistance) and strength depend primarily on water-cement ratio. Adding extrawater rapidly lowers durability and strength. Only 1/2 gal/bag (about 3 gal/yd) separates the groups in the table.Follow plans or specifications when available. Materials in this handbook are based on the followingrecommendations. One bag cement = 94 lb; 1 gal water = 8.34 lb.

MaximumMaximumMaximumMaximumMaximum MinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimum MinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumMinimumapproximate strengthapproximate strengthapproximate strengthapproximate strengthapproximate strength Water-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratio Water-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratioWater-Cement ratio

ApplicationApplicationApplicationApplicationApplication (psi)(psi)(psi)(psi)(psi) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (Gallons water per bag cement) (lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)(lb water per lb cement)Mangers 4,500 5.0 0.44

Feedlots, floors, drives 3,500 6.0 0.53

Footings 3,000 6.5 0.62

12 to 14

10 to 12

Stall Alley Feed Alley

Feed and Stall Alley

8 to 10

Figure 4-9. Alley types.

38


Figure 4-10. A four-row tail-to-tail freestall barn with drive-through feeding and stalls along the outside walls.Based on double-8 milking parlor. Dotted extensions indicate opportunities for expansion from 200 toapproximately 400 stalls. If this option is planned then size holding area to accommodate about 100 cows.aStall length depends on type of partition used.

Barn Layouts for Mobile FeedingSeveral different freestall barn layouts, based on

mobile feeding systems, are shown for illustrationpurposes. These layouts are not presented as ultimateplans. Rather, each barn layout applies to a particularset of requirements associated with a managementplan developed for a particular situation. But,collectively, these layouts illustrate concepts relatedto barn management groups, flexibility, futureexpansion, and ventilation as related to barn layout.

Figure 4-10 shows a four-row, drive-throughfreestall barn with approximately 200 freestalls and amilking center. There are four cow groups, but thebarn can be built to accommodate groups of differentsizes. For example, all stalls might be occupied bymilking cows—67 in a high production group, 33 in

a medium production group, 33 in a low productiongroup, and 67 in their first lactation. Or, there mightbe three groups of milking cows (67 high, 33 low,and 67 first lactation) along with a group of 33 drycows. Other combinations are possible as well. Futureexpansion occurs as additions are made to each endof the barn. For example, based on a double-8milking parlor the future expansion would be limitedto 400 to 500 stalls. See Chapter 9, Feeding Facili-ties, for more information on feeding systems.

A variation on the freestall arrangement in a four-row drive-through freestall barn is shown in Figure4-11. Freestall rows are placed head-to-head to betterutilize wind forces for ventilation in barns where wallsare removed in summertime. The amount of open wallarea is increased because no stalls are mounted on the

39


Facilities

outside wall. High-tensile-wire, corral-type fence canbe used in the walls. Further, moving the freestallsaway from outside walls reduces problems withincoming rain and sun in barns with full-wallventilation for summer. A disadvantage is that cowsmay not be locked away from all freestalls as is thecase when all cows are confined to the feeding alley,Figure 4-10.

The barn in Figure 4-11 has additional cross alleysin two of the quadrants, which enhances the ability tomanage animals in groups. When desired, each ofthese quadrants may be subdivided for two groups byplacing temporary gates across the alleys. Forexample, a larger group of milking cows may befurther subdivided for feeding purposes. The groupfarthest from the milking center will travel through

Figure 4-11. A four-row face-to-face freestall barn with drive-through feeding and alleys along outside walls.Additional crossover areas allow for subdividing groups.aStall length depends on type of partition used.

the larger group’s area to get to the milking center. Asection of freestalls may be devoted to close-up drycows where they may be fed a special ration and willlikely be observed more often; or to a group of cowsnewly-freshened. When subdividing groups, theresultant dead-end alleys are acceptable only for verysmall groups.

The barn layout in Figure 4-12 is suitable for60- to 300-cow dairies with wings extended in bothdirections. For larger herds, similar barns may beconstructed parallel with the first. Separationdistances of at least 75 feet are recommended (more ifsummertime prevailing winds are marginal orrestricted).

Figure 4-13 shows layout options for sites withmultiple buildings.

12 to 14 16 to 188 to 10

48

88

228 16

8610

2

140

approx

appr

oxap

prox

86 to 10215 to 17 a

52

CenterDrive-through

Alley

Cross Alley

Open Ridge, 2"/10 of building width

3 Overhang

40


3215 to 17 12 to 148 to 10

104

Cross Alley

Feed AlleyManger

16

36

Milking Parlor

Holding Area

28

32to

40

a

approx

appr

oxap

prox

32 to 40

Open Ridge, 8" min

Feeding Floor Manger

number of cows is less. Shorter alley length may be ofadvantage if mechanical alley scrapers are installed.Because manure accumulation per unit length ofalley will be greater because of the higher animaldensity scraping frequency may need to be increased.The same applies to a three-row barn.

Feed bunk space in six-row and three-row barns isabout 1-1/2 foot per cow. Research has shownreduced bunk space to be of no problem if a totalmixed ration is fed. However, the most recent researchon reduced bunk space (1 foot vs. 2 feet) was donewith cows averaging about 82 pounds of milk perday. The effect on groups of cows averaging 100pounds of milk or more has not been studied. Highstocking density (more than one cow per stall)reduces bunk space per animal even further.

When headlock stanchions are installed along thefeed manger line in a six-row barn, the resultingnumber of stanchions is less than the number ofstalls. This reduces the effectiveness of the stan-chions when restraining cows for treatment purposes.

Ventilation is another concern with a six-rowarrangement. With a given sidewall height and windspeed in the summer, 50% more cows share the totalventilation rate in the six-row barn compared to afour-row barn. The resulting higher temperatures andrelative humidities that result may cause additionalanimal stress, particularly with high-yielding cows.

Examine carefully the added costs of changesrecommended for a six-row barn intended to correctdeficiencies compared to a four-row. The added costsof features such as additional sidewall height, morefrequent crossover alleys and wider freestall spacingmay exceed the initial cost savings of the six-rowbarn.

Cross AlleysA cross alley at each end of an interior freestall

row increases accessibility to feed, water andfreestalls and allows escape from aggressive cows.See Figure 4-12. Also, a cross alley is a convenientlocation for a waterer. Provide additional cross alleysfor groups larger than 60 to 80 cows or to allowsubdividing a group, Figure 4-10. Cows should notwalk more than 15 to 20 stall widths to a cross alley.Therefore, locate cross alleys every 30 to 40 stalls.

If a waterer is located in crossover, the minimumclear width should be 12 feet with 15 feet preferred.Elevate cross alleys above the cow alleys to reducemanure flowing into the cross alley during scraping.Crown the cross alley to promote self-cleaning byanimal hoof action. In most arrangements, a properlyelevated and crowned cross alley eliminates the needto navigate the area with equipment.

Figure 4-12. Two-row barn with drive-by feeding.Alleys along outside walls.

a. Two-row barn cross-section.a Stall length depends on type ofpartition used.

b. Two-row barn layout.

Layouts with Reduced Bunk Space Per CowA six-row drive-through freestall barn has a center

drive alley for feeding with a mobile scale-mixer, butwith three rows of freestalls on either side, Figure 4-14.This barn is typically 104 to 116 feet wide. Avariation on this arrangement is a three-row freestallbarn with fenceline feeding, Figure 4-15. A three-rowbarn is typically 44 to 48 feet wide.

The six-row arrangement results in lower buildingcost, about 20% less per stall than a four-row barn.However, costs for freestalls, waterers, and doorsremain essentially the same. Also, in a six-row barn,building length (same as alley length) for a given

41


Facilities

Figure 4-13. Farmstead layouts for multiple freestall barns on single site.Ventilation and the movement of animals, feed, and manure are important considerations.

��

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a. Barns in a separate row to the Milking Center. b. Milking Center and barns in the same row.

c. End-to-end barns perpendicular to the

Milking Center.

d. End-to-end barns parallel to the

Milking Center.

42


Personnel PassesPersonnel passes are narrow vertical openings in

gates or fences that allow a person to pass through.Personnel passes are typically 12 to 14 incheswide, Figure 4-16. Locate personnel passes wher-ever it is anticipated that workers would otherwiseneed to climb over a fence or open a gate on aregular basis.

Housing for Dry CowsHousing needs for dry cows change as the cows

get closer to calving.

Early DryThe early-dry-cow category begins with a success-

ful transition from a lactating state to a non-lactating(dry) state. Early dry cows are housed as one groupfor approximately 40 days. Early dry cows may behoused on pasture, on a bedded pack, in freestalls, orin comfort stalls.

Figure 4-14. Six-row barn with drive-through feeding. Figure 4-15. Three-row barn with drive-by feeding.

104�

�116

�

228�

Alley

Alley

Alley

Alley

Drive Through

44��4

8�

228�

Alley

Alley

Drive-by

TransitionApproximately two to three weeks prior to

expected calving date, move dry cows and heifers tothe pre-calving group. The pre-calving managementprogram calls for more careful attention to nutritionand sanitation since cows and heifers near, during,and after giving birth to offspring are at greater riskfor infectious diseases and non-infectious disorders.Housing for pre-calving cows and heifers shouldallow for frequent observation and be convenient tothe maternity area. Freestall housing is recom-mended to reduce exposure of the udder to mastitis-causing organisms. Restricting access to outside dirtlots reduces risk of mastitis.

CalvingImmediately prior to calving time, move cows

and heifers to individual pens that are separate fromother animals, especially younger calves. Thelocation of this area and assignment of responsibili-ties to personnel should encourage frequent observa-tion. Then, the animal that has just calved should beobserved frequently for problems before moving herto the milking herd. The newborn calf, havingreceived about 2 to 4 quarts of high-quality colos-trum, a dry haircoat, a disinfected naval, and othermedical treatments, should be moved to a calf hutchor individual pen until weaning.

Design ConsiderationsFreestalls must provide a clean, comfortable lying

space for cows and heifers. Also, animals should be ableto enter and leave stalls easily and to lie down and risewithout interference. Stall components should avoidcontact with the animal’s body, thereby lessening thepotential for injury. Stall partitions for dry cows shouldbe 48 inches on center, which is slightly more than thespace allotted for lactating cows.

Bedded-pack resting areas for groups of pre-calvingcows and heifers should allow at least 100 square feet

12��to 14��Clear

Figure 4-16. Personnel or safety pass.

43


Facilities

Figure 4-17. Freestall barn for dry cows, bred heifers, and heifers of breeding age.

per animal, assuming that animals have access to ascraped feed alley or outside lot. Early dry cows shouldbe provided at least 50 square feet per cow.

Individual pens for calving should be 12 x 12 feet,or 10 x 14 feet. A 4-inch layer of sand on concreteprovides good footing for cows. Cover the sand witha deep layer of long straw. Dirt floors covered withstraw bedding also will provide improved footing.Provide access to pens for removing animals unableto walk or stand.

Other facility design considerations are these:■ Easily cleaned feeding space.■ Convenient feeding access.■ Quality water in easy-to-clean waterers.■ Stanchions or headgates for restraining animals

to enhance safety.■ Provisions for lifting cows unable to stand.■ Good lighting and convenient electrical outlets.■ Observation aids such as video cameras and

noise monitors.■ Access for veterinary treatment.■ Access for removing dead animals.■ Access for cleaning pens.

Example Barn LayoutsThe freestall barn plan illustrated in Figure 4-17

shows housing for dry cows, bred heifers, and heifersof breeding age. A particular group may be subdi-vided using temporary gates across the alleys,allowing greater flexibility in using the barn toaccommodate a variety of management strategies. Forexample, the dry cows may be divided into twogroups—one group for the early dry cows, the otherfor the pre-calving cows. Various group sizes may becreated merely by shifting the temporary gates. Cowswould calve elsewhere.

Advantages of this layout include:

■ Heifers housed in freestalls will more likely usefreestalls after calving.

■ Well-designed and managed freestalls result incleaner udders and less exposure to mastitis-causing organisms.

■ Less bedding is necessary.

Disadvantages include:■ Freestall barns cost more initially than barns

with bedded manure packs.■ A specific number of freestalls of each size

reduces flexibility in later adjustments tomanagement or grouping strategy.

A barn with multiple pens as shown in Figure 4-18may be used for cows needing special attention.Combine two or more pens for groups of pre-calvingcows and cows that have just recently calved; useindividual pens for cows at time of calving. Or, placecows in individual pens from two to three weeksprepartum through calving.

Each pen has a waterer and a stanchion. Cowtraffic is along the outside walls; the center aisle isreserved for personnel. Gates serve as pen dividers,allowing two or more pens, each intended for onecow, to be combined into a larger pen for a smallgroup. A small storage room for supplies and portablemilking equipment as well as an area in which tosanitize equipment and utensils could be added.

Advantages of this layout include:■ The barn provides individual pens for calving.■ Pre-calving cows and cows that have just calved

may be housed as a small group by shiftinggates to form a larger pen.

■ As an alternative, a pre-calving cow could bemoved to an individual pen in this barn two tothree weeks ahead of her expected calving date,

44


allowing her to adjust to new surroundings andisolation.

Disadvantages include:■ Housing cows in individual pens or small group

pens requires more labor than in freestalls orother group arrangements, especially if a cow ismoved to this barn two to three weeks ahead ofexpected calving.

■ Because calving dates cannot be predicted withsufficient accuracy, moving cows to this barnjust three to four days ahead of calving isimpractical. So, moving cows to the barn whencalving is imminent seems to be the beststrategy, and the barn should be located nearhousing for pre-calving cows.

■ Frequent observation of pre-calving cows mustnot be left to chance but be an assignedresponsibility to assure that cows will, in fact,be in the calving barn at calving time.

Group pens for pre-calving cows and individualpens for cows at time of calving are shown inFigure 4-19. Pre-calving cows and heifers can bemoved to this barn into a group setting 2 to 3 weeksahead of calving. Then they are near the maternityarea, which allows an animal to be easily moved to anindividual pen just ahead of calving.

Advantages of this layout include:■ Housing for pre-calving cows and heifers is

close to the maternity area.

Figure 4-18. Separate handling/treatment barn.

Cows requiring additional observation, treatment, orhaving other special needs can be separated from themilking herd and housed in a separate barn. Include asmall storage room for supplies and portable milkingequipment.

Figure 4-19. Barn with bedded group and

individual pens.Group pens used for pre-calving cows and individualpens used for individual cows at calving time. Thislayout is easily expanded by adding on to either end.

■ With frequent observation, animals will spend aminimum amount of time in the individualpens, reducing labor.

Disadvantages include:■ Moving pre-calving cows and heifers to

individual pens only a few hours beforecalving requires frequent observation; thisobservation task must be an assigned responsi-bility.

■ The bedded pack in the group pens may increaseexposure of udders to mastitis-causing organ-isms. To minimize this risk, frequent removal ofmanure and soiled bedding followed byadditions of clean bedding is essential.

The layouts in Figure 4-20 and Figure 4-21provide freestalls for a group of pre-calving cowsand heifers, and individual pens are provided forcalving. The layout of Figure 4-20 is more readilyexpandable; additional freestalls and pens could beadded to either end. The layout of Figure 4-21allows dividing the freestalls into two groups; e.g.,early dry and pre-calving, using temporary adjust-able gates across the two alleys.

Advantages of these layouts include:■ All important design criteria are met.■ An animal can be readily moved from the

freestall area to an individual pen when calvingis imminent, lessening labor for caring foranimals in the individual pens.

45


Facilities

Figure 4-20. Barn with head-to-head freestalls

and individual pens.Freestalls used by pre-calving cows, pens used byindividual cows at the time of calving. This layout iseasily expanded by adding on to either end.

StanchionWaterer

12 x 12 Pens

Temporary Gate

FreestallsWaterer

38


Figure 4-21. Barn with head-to-head freestalls and

individual pens at the end of the building.Freestalls used by pre-calving cows, pens used byindividual cows at the time of calving. Given sufficientstalls, the freestall area could be divided into onegroup for early dry cows, and the other for pre-calving.

Disadvantages include:■ Moving pre-calving cows and heifers to

individual pens just a few hours prior tocalving, a labor-saving management strategy,requires that animals be observed frequently. Aswith previous layouts, the responsibility ofdetecting when animals are about to give birthand then moving them to individual pens mustbe assigned. These activities should not be leftto chance.

PasturePasture is another acceptable alternative for pre-

calving cows and heifers and maternity animals,particularly when rotational grazing is practiced.Exposure of the udder to manure is less apt to occuras animals are moved frequently to clean, grassyareas. Avoid areas without grass.

46


47

Milking ParlorsMilking parlor type is the first consideration in

designing milking centers. Parlor type and sizeinfluence:

■ Milking center size, layout, and location.■ Cow traffic patterns.■ Milking routine.■ Amount of mechanization.■ Profitability.

Parlor size depends on:■ Group size.■ Initial mechanization.■ Plans for future improvements.■ Number of cows milked.■ Available labor and capital.■ Milking time available.■ Milk production level.

Parlor selection depends on:■ Herd expansion.■ Initial investment.

TTTTThe milking center is more than a place to milk cows, especially on farms wheremilking occupies less than a majority of the day. A milking center for freestall

housing can include a milking parlor, holding area, utility room, milk room, loungearea, office, and treatment area. Consider providing for the capability of sortingcows as they leave the parlor, and install handling and treatment facilities in thearea alongside or opposite the holding area. On smaller dairies, the time remainingafter milking allows for using the holding area and cow lanes in the milking centerfor other purposes

On larger dairies, milking may occupy most hours of the day. Handling andtreatment (and even sorting) operations are usually apart from the milking centeropposite the holding area.

Milking center dimensions depend on milking parlor type, cow size, milk tanksize, type, equipment location, and type of washing and milk handling equipment.Coordinate construction with the building contractor and equipment supplier

The U.S. Public Health Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance requiresapproval of a milking facility prior to operation. Obtain approval of a plan foreach farm before construction or remodeling begins. Contact the milk buyerabout approval procedures before building. Approval agencies usually require anoverall plan drawn to scale and dimensions, showing electrical lighting, ventila-tion, insulation, waste disposal, and water supply

■ Annual costs.■ Personal preference.

SelectionConsider total chore time, including the following

tasks, when selecting a milking parlor:■ Parlor setup.■ Actual milking.■ Changing cow groups.■ Cleanup.

Note the only segment of chore time the parloritself affects directly is the time spent actuallymilking. Keep this in mind when comparing how fastparlors milk. Milking performance figures for milkingparlors, expressed in cows per hour on a steady-statebasis, are useful for comparing and estimatingmilking time. But the total labor required to accom-plish milking is a more important figure to have inmind when selecting a milking parlor.

To estimate total chore time and overall labor

Chapter 5Milking CenterWilliam G. Bickert, Extension Ag Engineer, Michigan State University

48

Chapter 5Milking Center

efficiency, sum up the times estimated to be spent oneach aspect of the milking operation. For estimatingpurposes, assume 20 minutes for parlor setup, 30 to45 minutes for parlor cleanup, and 15 minutes per100 cows for changing groups (although numerousfactors affect actual time spent on each task). Toestimate actual milking time for herringbone andparallel, assume 4 to 5 cows per hour per milkingstall. Estimate the time required for milking in anassumed milking parlor of a given size and with agiven degree of mechanization by dividing the totalnumber of cows to be milked by the quoted through-put in cows per hour. But be aware that a quotedthroughput can be considered only an approxima-tion. Numerous factors affect parlor performance,effective utilization of labor, and quality of themilking operation.

On small dairies, actual milking time is a smallerpart of the total chore time than on larger dairies. Soinvesting in larger parlors and in more mechanizationto achieve higher throughput affects a smallerpercentage of the total time required for milking. Inother words, smaller dairies benefit less from addedinvestments in larger parlors and mechanization thando those with more cows. Also, the annual costs ofbuildings and equipment have to be borne by fewercows.

Parlor TypesWhen choosing a parlor type, evaluate the

investments in a milking parlor in terms of benefitsand cost per cow. While initial investment and annualcost are important to parlor selection, the least-costparlor system may not always be the best alternativewhen available labor, milking time, and expansionpotential are considered.

Flat-barnFlat-barn parlors with 6 to 16 stalls have been used

as an alternative to more expensive elevated parlors,Figure 5-1. A flat-barn parlor can serve well until anelevated parlor can be afforded.

When making the transition from a tie stall to afreestall system, consider converting a section of thestanchion or tie stall facility to a flat-barn parlor formilking only. Install lever-lock stanchions or walk-through stanchions and a proper pipeline milkingsystem. Automatic take-off units improve throughputlabor efficiency and reduce work effort. Adapt aportion of the barn for a holding area, and use theflat-barn arrangement much like an elevated parlor.Moving cows through the flatbarn as a stall becomesavailable gives higher throughput than moving cowsin groups.

Do not invest a lot of money in developing thissystem. Flat barn parlors are low cost and are in-tended to be used until cash flow supports theconstruction of a more efficient parlor design.

Side-openingSide-opening parlor layouts are usually double-2

to double-5, Figure 5-2. The advantage of side-opening parlors is more individual cow attention, butthere is a greater distance between udders comparedwith the herringbone. This distance becomes impor-tant when the parlor is mechanized and more cows areneeded in the parlor to keep the milker and theequipment busy. Pit length increases by 8 to 10 feetfor each pair of milking stalls.

HerringboneHerringbones are the most common elevated

parlor. They often range from double-4 to double-24,Figure 5-3, although some dairies use larger herring-bones.

Herringbone stalls are adaptable to mechanization.The walking distance between udders varies from 36to 45 inches depending on the manufacturer.

Cow movement improves when cows are handledin groups compared with being handled individuallyin side-opening and rotary parlors. A slow-milkingcow, holding up an entire group, can seriously affectcow throughput in larger herringbones. Slow-milkingcows may be culled or may be segregated in a groupby themselves.

ParallelParallel parlors, Figure 5-4, range in size from

double-6 to double-50. Cows stand parallel at a 90degree angle to the operator’s pit, requiring theoperator to attach teat cups from the rear by reachingbetween the hind legs. Some designs have cowsphysically separated from each other by dividersactivated as individual cows enter. Walking distancebetween cows is 27 to 30 inches.

Swing ParlorSwing parlor designs are an attempt to minimize

the investment in a parlor. Purchased herringbone orparallel stalls or home built stalls are used for the cowplatform. A high line milking system is installed overthe operator area. One milking unit is used on twostalls and is swung from one side of the parlor to theother side.

Rotary ParlorRotary parlors—tandem, herringbone, turnstile—

have received some attention. Rotary parlors have up

49


Figure 5-1. Flat-barn parlor.Cows move to the milking unit rather than themilking unit moving to the cow.

Figure 5-2. Double-2 side-opening parlor.

Figure 5-3. Double-8 herringbone parlor.

Figure 5-4. A parallel parlor.

to 80 stalls on a rotating platform. The large numberof stalls is necessary to achieve reasonable through-put rates with high-yielding cows. Cows usuallystand radially facing the center. Rotary parlorspromote a regimented, assembly-line-like workroutine. But this may result in less desirable workingconditions. Operators of a rotary must meet frequentdeadlines in order to maintain the pace set by therotating platform. If the pace is too fast and theoperator falls behind, elements of the work routinemust be skipped or platform rotation must beinterrupted. Also, a full pre-milking udder prepara-tion routine will suffer in a rotary parlor because ofthe natural tendency of the operator to attach themilking machine to the cow soon after she enters. Infact, since current rates of rotation are often less than15 seconds per stall, a single operator cannot bothprepare the udder and attach the milking machine.More than one person is required to prep and installunits. Extra people will be required. Platform rotationis often interrupted because of balking cows at theentrance, milking not being completed as cows arriveat the exit, operators falling behind in their workroutine due to machines dropping off or othermalfunctions, and other delays. Actual throughput inrotary parlors is about 80% of the calculated theoreti-cal throughput.

Other Parlor TypesThere are a variety of hybrid and specialized

parlor designs available in the market place. Inparabone parlors, the angle at which cows stand isbetween herringbone and parallel parlors. Sometimescows are milked from the side, sometimes from therear. Polygon parlors increase the number of sides tofour to minimize the effect of a slow milking cow onparlor throughput. Robotic milking systems are justrecently being introduced into the U.S. market.Housing layout is quite affected by this alternative. Arobotic milking system can handle 50 to 70 cows.Automated cow ID and sorting gates are used in thesystem to move cows through the milking robot asthey go to feed and return to the resting area.

Parlor LayoutA straight entrance from the holding pen into the

milking parlor and a straight exit from the parlor arepreferred for good cow flow. Turns at the entrance canslow cow movement, interrupting the operator. Whencows must be turned, make the turn at the exit ratherthan at the entrance. Avoid steps or ramps at theparlor entrance.

Provide return lanes from the parlor to the housingunit. A single return lane is common—one group of

50


cows crosses over the front of the parlor to exit.Return lanes outside the building should be wideenough to scrape with a tractor. Make clear openingsof the inside lanes 33 to 36 inches wide to preventexiting cows from turning around. Lanes can behosed or hand scraped. Design return lanes so a downcow can be easily removed. Allow for sorting andcatching cows for treatment from the return lane.Figures 5-5 and 5-6 show some examples of milkingcenter layouts.

Rapid-exit StallsRapid-exit stalls allow all cows in a group to move

directly out of the milking stalls through individualgates or a raised barrier in front of the cows. Theresulting benefit of decreasing overall exit time canbe justified for larger parlors (e.g. double-10 herring-bones and larger).

With a rapid-exit herringbone or parallel parlor,cow exits usually lead to return lanes along bothsides of the holding area (Figure 5-6). Thus, anyprovisions for sorting cows must be duplicated onboth sides.

Because of the two return lanes, rapid exit is notdesirable where sorting, handling, and treatment areincorporated into the milking center. A single returnlane from the herringbone parlor permits sorting cowsinto a catch lane with a sorting gate controlled fromthe pit and allows the cow to be held or moved into apen having self-locking stanchions. With gates toblock the parlor entrance, animals can be movedthrough the holding area into the treatment area forsorting, examination, or treatment. See Chapter 6,Special Handling and Treatment Facilities, foradditional information.

Parlor MechanizationMilking parlor mechanization depends on parlor

size, available labor, initial investment, and personalpreference. Increase parlor size as mechanization isadded to better use labor and equipment. Automaticdetachers are usually standard equipment in largeparlors. Other mechanization to consider includes crowdgates, cow I.D., sorting gates, and power-operatedentrance and exit gates, and indexing (adjusting frontrail—a feature that shortens milking stalls).

Holding AreaThe holding area confines cows prior to their

entering the milking parlor. Usually this area isenclosed and is a part of the milking center, which inturn, may be connected to the barn or located in theimmediate vicinity of the cow housing. To reduce Figure 5-5. Examples of milking center layouts.

Office12x14, approx

UtilityRoom20 x26 , approx

Storage

Restroom

MilkRoom Operator Pit

Office7x11', approx Storage

UtilityRoomMilkRoom

d-6 d-8

MilkRoom

Office10'x12',approx

Stor-Rest-room

UtilityRoom20x20,approx

Rest-room

d-6 d-8

Office9x9, approx

StorageRest-room

MilkRoom

d-6 d-8d-4

UtilityRoom

d-4

OperatorPit

OperatorPit

OperatorPit

Return

Return

Return

Return

8 OverheadDoor

8 OverheadDoor

8 OverheadDoor

age

34"clearor 5 to8

or 5 834" clear

or 5 834" clear

or 5 to 834" clear

44,a

ppro

x44

,app

rox

44,a

ppro

x44

, app

rox

40, approx

28, approx

42, approx

42, approx

42, approx

28 , approx35 , approx

42 , approx

28,approx

51


Figure 5-6. Rapid-exit parlor.Extra parlor width to accommodate return on both sides and rapid exit.

pollution potential from runoff, provide a roof overall animal traffic areas to and from the milking center.

Provide 15 square feet per cow in the holdingarea. Slope the floor down 2 to 4% away from theparlor. Consider parlor capacity when planning theholding area. Hold cows no more than one hour ateach milking. Normally, group sizes can not exceed4 to 5 times the number of milking stalls to meetthis criteria, e.g., a double-4 parlor, should havegroup sizes of 32 to 40 cows (e.g. 2 sides x 4 stallsper side x 4 times the number of milking stalls = 32).For parlors that continue milking while changinggroups, increase the holding area 25% to allow foroverlap.

Crowd gates are used to limit the size of theholding area, encouraging cows to the parlor. Crowdgates should not be used to pressure the cows tomove. Electrified crowd gates should not be used.

With an enclosed holding area, replace the wallbetween the holding area structure and milkingparlor with an overhead door. Movement into theparlor is improved when cows can see parlor activitywhile waiting in the holding area. During coldweather, an assembly of overlapping plastic stripshung vertically between the holding area and parlorallows leaving the overhead door open. Also, thisfacilitates the use of a ramp for operator movementfrom pit to holding pen, Figures 5-7, 5-8, and 5-9.Cows require minimal training to enter the milkingparlor through the hanging plastic strips.

Except in severe climates, the holding area doesnot need to be insulated. Cows, brought in formilking, warm the holding area. The overhead door

Milk Room

EquipmentandStorage

Storage Restroom

Office

Cow Exit Area, 8 to 10 wide

Parlor Stalls

Operator Pit

d-16d-12d-10

74 , approximately

61 , approximately54 , approximately

40, a

ppro

xim

atel

y

Figure 5-8. Interior side view of ramp and pit.The ramp slopes up from a step at the back of the pitthrough a distance of 10'-12' to a step into the holdingpen. A gutter with a grate drains the pit and ramp.Provide good footing for the operator.

Figure 5-7. Parlor with ramp.A ramp makes it easier to get behind balky cowswithout chasing them away from the entrance.

RampOperator area HoldingPen

52


to the parlor does not need to be lowered exceptduring very cold weather and equipment washing.

Natural ventilation of the holding area is preferredfor the necessary removal of animal moisture andheat. Provide an open ridge and open eaves formoisture removal during cold weather. Opensidewalls fully in summer; cover with sidewallcurtains or fabric in winter. Provide supplementalcooling with fans and sprinklers.

Avoid using part of a feeding or resting alley inthe barn as the holding area. Initial money is saved inconstruction cost, but this practice limits the use of acrowd gate, interferes with future expansion, andincreases the difficulty of dividing the herd intoproduction groups. Feeding and alley scraping alsocan be difficult. In the long run, this alternative ismore expensive.

Utility RoomProvide a location for milking and support

equipment. Use the information in Table 5-1 toestimate space needs. Allow equipment access bymeans of an overhead door. Most utility rooms arebuilt too small. Be sure to leave enough room to workaround equipment. Provide space for additionalequipment.

Install good lighting, a floor drain, and goodventilation. Ventilation is essential to cool vacuumpumps and compressors, Figure 5-10. Design aventilating system to use heat from the compressor towarm the rest of the milking center in the winter. SeeChapter 7, Building Environment, for environmentalrecommendations.

Electrical service is required for vacuum pumps,milk cooling equipment, water heaters, ventilating

fans, furnace, grain meters, and electric fence control-lers. Locate the electrical service entrance panel onan interior wall of the utility room to reduce conden-sation and corrosion of electrical contacts. For safetyand to meet National Electrical Code requirements,do not locate equipment within 42 inches in front of,above, or below the panel. Do not locate other utilitylines, such as water lines, within 42 inches of theentrance panel.

The utility room must not freeze during the winter.Usually, the equipment produces enough heat toprevent freezing. Provide adequate ventilation forefficient equipment operation. Extra heat in the wintercan be used to partially heat the milkroom or parlor.

Figure 5-9. Pit cross-section.A 1-1/2'' crown reduces strain on the operator’s legs anddirects water to pit walls. A 2''x2'' gutter along each pitwall carries water to the gutter at the end of the pit. Slopethe pit floor and gutters toward the end of the pit. Use arough broom finish on the pit floor for operator safety.Rubber mats on the pit floor improve operator comfort.

Table 5-1. Floor area required for equipment

in the utility room.

ItemItemItemItemItem Area, ftArea, ftArea, ftArea, ftArea, ft22222

Milk Vacuum Pump 6 to 9

Compressor 8 to 10

Chiller 31 to 48

Water Heater 4 to 6

Furnace 3 to 5

Storage 3 to 5

Work Alleys 20 to 30

Refrigerator 6 to 9

Desk 4 to 12

Figure 5-10. Compressor ventilation.Also see Figure 5-11.

53


Storage RoomProvide a separate room for storing cleaning

compounds, medical supplies, bulk materials,replacement milking system rubber components, andsimilar products. Separate and insulate the storageroom from the utility room to reduce deterioration ofrubber products.

Design the room to minimize high temperatures,and ozone associated with motor operation. Aninterior, windowless space with ventilation to controltemperature rises is recommended. Provide this areawith good lighting, a floor drain, and a refrigerator formedical products. Federal regulations require separate,clearly labeled storage areas for medications forlactating and non-lactating cows. A third storage areaor refrigerator for calf and heifer medications isrecommended.

Maintain storage room temperatures between 40and 80 F. Low temperatures can damage medicalsupplies while high temperatures can acceleraterubber component deterioration. Maintain safestorage temperatures with a supplemental heater orduct from a central heating system. Do not use airfrom the utility room, milk room, or parlor.

If an interior space is used and all surroundingwalls are insulated, an additional heat source may notbe needed. Heat from refrigerators used to storerubber products and pharmaceuticals will keep thespace warm. Provide a source of fresh air and athermostatically controlled exhaust fan to controltemperature. Do not bring air from dusty driveways,the parlor, or animal housing into the storage room.

Milk RoomThe milk room often contains the milk bulk tank,

a milk receiver group, a filtration device, in-linecooling equipment, and a place to wash and storemilking equipment. Milk room size depends on thesize of the bulk tank and whether it is bulkheaded.Plan for a larger tank or a second tank and possibleexpansion.

Minimum recommended separation distances are24 inches from the rear-end of the tank and 36 inchesfrom the outlet valve and working ends. Gravity-typemilk filtration systems and large bulk tanks mayrequire ceiling heights of 10 feet or more. Checklocal milk codes for required separation distancesbetween the bulk tank and other equipment, ceiling,or walls. Also consider any other special require-ments.

Many larger bulk tanks are designed so a majorportion of the tank extends through one wall(bulkheaded) to the outside or to an adjacent utility

room. This reduces milk room size and the cost ofbuilding materials. Special wall constructiontechniques are required around bulkheaded tanks.Design the footing to hold the tank and to preventfrost heaving.

A properly maintained environment includesremoving excess moisture, reducing heat buildup,and preventing freezing of equipment. Because this isthe room where milk is stored and equipment iscleaned, take care to minimize odors and dust.

A pressurized ventilating system with filters on theinlet to the fan is preferred. Locate the fan away fromsources of excess dust, odors, and moisture. Thepressurization minimizes the opportunity for odor toenter from the parlor. Provide 600 to 800 cfm. Alarger fan is needed when compressors are located inthe milk room. Additional fan capacity is needed toprovide one air exchange per minute when compres-sors are located in the milk room. Provide a louveredoutlet for air to exhaust to the outside. Provide heatin the milk room with a unit heater or central heatingsystem to prevent freezing.

OfficeA milking center office is needed for keeping herd

health and production records. It may also be themain farm office. Protect computer-based feeding andrecord systems from dirt and moisture.

Use the central-heating system or a space heater toheat the office and restroom. Heater size depends onbuilding insulation levels and winter design tempera-tures. Install a small exhaust fan in the restroom.Consider installing additional summer ventilation orair conditioning in the office.

Employee AreasThe employee areas might include showers,

lockers, break room, and conference room. Theseareas provide comfortable rest areas for the workerswhen they are off their shift or taking a break fromtheir duties. These areas can also be used for commu-nication with employees and management.

ToiletAn enclosed restroom can be located in a section

of an employee lunch/break room or can be built intothe utility space of the milking center. Provide aroom with at least a toilet and sink in the milkingcenter. Consider a shower, lockers, and a resting areafor workers. Separate facilities for men and womenmay be required by local regulations. For sanitary

54


reasons, do not open the restroom door into the milkroom. A septic system is required to handle wastematerial from this area.

Milking Center EnvironmentEach room in the milking center has its own

environmental requirements. Consider heating,ventilating, and cooling principles when designingan environmental control system. Bring fresh air fromoutside or from the utility room.

Heat Rejected from CompressorConsider directing heat generated from air-cooled

compressors to other rooms with a fan and duct orwith a compressor shed, Figure 5-11. Use an induceddraft or powered vent furnace to force exhaust gasesout through powered dampers, Figure 5-12. Select afurnace with easily changeable filters.

A central hot water system can heat each roomwith exchangers, Figure 5-13. The heated water fromthe milk cooling unit can be used as a hot watersource. Allow for individual temperature control in

Figure 5-11. Compressor sheds.The doors retain compressor heat in cold weather and open to remove it in warm weather. Make the cross-sectionalarea of all air passages 1-1/2 times the size of the condenser area.

a. Compressor outside milkhouse. b. Compressor inside milkhouse.

SummerHeatOut

Winter Heat In

Milkhouse or UtilityInsulatedDoors orLouvers

Milkhouse or Utility

WinterHeatIn

Summer Heat Out



InsulatedDoors orLouvers

Figure 5-12. Parlor forced-air central-heating system.Heat also directed to office, storage, and restroom.

Office Storage

Utility RoomMilk Room

Rest-room

8' Overhead DoorOutside Air Intake(Located Above Door)

Milking ParlorInsulatedOverhead Door

Underfloor Ducts

DowndraftFurnace

Figure 5-13. Hot water central-heating system.

Office Storage

Utility Room

Milk Room

Rest-room

8 Overhead Door

Milking ParlorInsulatedOverhead Door

R

R R

RR

R

WaterHeater

Hot Water

Radiator

Storage

R

R

55


each room. Use a water heater or a boiler for supple-mental heat when needed. Local regulations may notallow this system if the same heat exchanger is usedin preheating the washwater.

Regardless of the methods of using the waste heatin winter, provide a thermostatically controlledexhaust fan that turns on at a preselected temperature.Select a fan to provide one air exchange per minutefrom the utility room. Provide 1 square foot of airinlet area for each 600 cfm of fan capacity. Cover theair inlets with gravity or motorized louvers that openwhen the fan turns on. Locate the inlet so the air fromthe inlet is not drawn out of the room immediately bythe exhaust fan (a conditon known as shortcircuiting).

Holding Area EnvironmentThe ventilating system for the holding area must

remove animal moisture and heat. With naturalventilation, provide an open ridge and open eavesfor winter moisture removal. Open sidewalls fully insummer; cover with sidewall curtains or fabric inwinter. With a mechanical ventilating system, base fancapacity on the animal holding capacity and recom-mended ventilating rates. See Chapter 7, BuildingEnvironment, for information on ventilation systemdesign. Install proper air inlets and controls. Considerpositive pressure where mechanical ventilation is used.This avoids drawing contaminated air from the barnwhen holding areas are attached to the barn. Also,avoid moving air from the holding area into themilking parlor area. Pay particular attention to the airconditions during hot humid weather. Extra fans and/or sprinklers may be required to keep high producingcows from overheating.

Treatment Area EnvironmentWhen the treatment area is adjacent to the holding

area, use the holding area’s ventilating system. Whenthe treatment area is a separate room, provide a separatemechanical or natural ventilating system. Design thesystem to accommodate varying animal densities.

Consider supplemental heat (individual spaceheater or central heating system) when water freezingor worker comfort are concerns.

Milking Parlor EnvironmentBecause the milking parlor and seasonal condi-

tions vary, the milking parlor requires a very versatileventilation system. Consider using fans with aninterval timer and manual switch in parallel forgreater flexibility. During summer, use the manualswitch for continuous operation during milking andcleanup. During winter, use a timer to provideventilation after milking and wash down to dry out

the parlor. A timer should operate until the floor isdry before shutting off the fan.

Summer Ventilation and CoolingThe preferred option for summer ventilation is a

positive pressure system. Provide 1,000 cfm per cowoccupying the space at 1/8-inch static pressure forminimum summer ventilation. An alternative design isto provide 6 to 9 room air changes per minute. A fanand duct system is an option that has been usedsuccessfully in milking parlors, Figure 5-14. Locatethe fan in the gable end, and duct the air to the parlor.Provide 1 square foot of cross-sectional area of duct foreach 1,000-cfm fan capacity. Use two or more open-ings to the parlor. Provide a total net discharge areathat is 30% less than the duct cross-sectional area.

Increasing air movement in the pit area providesadditional summer operator comfort. Ceiling fansmounted to move air down across the operator or fansto blow air through the pit area are an alternative.

Winter Ventilation and HeatingVentilate the parlor for operator comfort and

moisture removal. Winter ventilation can be designedas a negative pressure system if doors remain closedmost of the time. Use exhaust fans to remove heat andmoisture given off by cows, and use circulating fansfor air movement in the operator pit and heaters.Provide an exhaust fan capacity of 100 cfm per cowoccupying the space at 1/8 inch static pressure forminimum winter ventilation. An alternative design isto provide 0.1 to 0.15 room air changes per minute.Locate the exhaust fans on the leeward side of theparlor, and exhaust directly outdoors, away from anymilk room, holding area, or office air intakes. Provide1/2- or 3/4-inch mesh screened air inlets with a totalnet area of 1 square foot for each 400-cfm of fancapacity. Locate the air intakes to ensure air move-ment through the entire parlor area. Use heaters tomaintain room temperature.

Supplemental heating is affected by buildinglocation, insulation and operator preference. In mostcases in a well insulated parlor, cows will produceenough heat during the milking period to maintaindesired inside temperature above freezing. Usesupplemental heat during milking on the coldestdays. When not milking, proper insulation is impor-tant for efficient use of supplemental heat. Useradiant, floor, unit space, or central heat to heat theparlor. Use radiant heaters for warming the operatorwithout heating the air. Hang heaters from the ceilingand direct them toward the cow’s udder and themilker’s hands. Additional heaters can be installedover other work areas.

56


When possible, use heat removed from the milk toheat the milking center. A central forced air or hotwater heating system can allow for this option. Installunderfloor ducts to the milker’s pit at 8 inches abovethe pit floor with the hot air directed toward the floor.Use insulated plastic or clay bell tile 8 to 12 inchesin diameter for the ducts. Locate cold air returns highon the wall to provide an airflow path back to thefurnace. Size the cold air return area larger than thewarm air discharge area. Do not use the air from thissystem to heat the milkroom, office, or lounge area.

Milking EquipmentA milking system includes all equipment to

collect, cool, and store milk. Milk quality cannot beimproved, but can be maintained with properlyfunctioning milking equipment. Malfunctioningequipment can reduce milk harvest, cause mastitis,and diminish milk quality.

The most common milking system is the pipelinesystem. With a pipeline system, milk flows through amilker claw into a stainless steel pipeline and travelsby gravity through the pipeline to the milk receiverfrom which it is pumped into the bulk tank.

The location of milk and vacuum lines can beeither high or low. A high line is usually more than4 feet above the cow platform, and a low line is belowor at the cow platform. Low milk lines are preferredso milk flows down to the pipeline requiring a lowervacuum level (11 to 13 inches Hg). With a high line,the milk must be lifted to the milk line requiring ahigh vacuum level (13 to 15 inches Hg). Low linesreduce vacuum fluctuations that can cause damage tothe teats and udders.

Install milk lines in a complete loop with a doubleinlet at the receiver to reduce vacuum fluctuations.Install vacuum and pulsation lines in a complete loopwith both ends attached to the distribution tank.Slope milk lines according to Table 5-2. Milk line

Figure 5-14. Summer air duct.Provide at least two air discharge openings to the milking parlor.

57


slopes of less than 0.8% (1 inch per 10 feet) increasethe risk of milk line flooding and vacuum fluctua-tions. Check with the milk inspector before installingany milking equipment.

Consult milking equipment dealers or manufactur-ers, state extension engineers, veterinarians, orconsulting engineers for more details on selecting,installing, and operating the milking system equip-ment. See Milking Machine Installations–Construc-tion and Performance, ASAE S518.2 JUL 96, forminimum system design requirements.

Vacuum Pump SizingSize vacuum pumps to have adequate capacity to

meet the operating requirements for milking andcleaning, including all ancillary equipment operatingduring milking. In addition, there must be enoughvacuum pump capacity to provide sufficient effectivereserve capacity so that the vacuum drop in or nearthe receiver does not exceed 0.6 inches Hg during thecourse of normal milking. In most conventionalmilking systems this will be achieved with a vacuumpump capacity of 35 cfm plus 3 cfm per milking unit.Some systems may be fitted with components suchas air lubricated regulators, and air sweeps on somebackflush systems, that require greater pumpcapacity.

If more than one vacuum pump is installed, thesystem must be able to isolate the pumps not in use.

Milkline SizingMilklines should be designed so the milk flows in

the lower part of the milkline and air flows in a clearcontinuous path above the milk under normalmilking conditions. A vacuum drop of more than0.6 inches Hg from the receiver to any point in themilkline is an indication of slugging in the milkline.Slugging is caused by sudden air admission to themilkline during unit attachment or detachment, orby unit falloffs. Using the design guidelines inTables 5-2 and 5-3 should achieve this requirementin most conventional milking systems.

Milk CoolingTo maintain milk quality, cool milk from the first

milking to 40 F or less within 30 minutes. Keep theblend temperature on subsequent milkings below50 F. The maximum blend temperature permitted byFederal and State agencies is 50 F. Store milk at 36 to38 F. Regularly verify the bulk tank thermometer isregistering the correct temperature. Storage tempera-tures less than 35 F will lower fat tests and causerancid flavor due to freezing of a thin layer of milkon the cooling plate.

Some milk cooling devices are the following:■ Conventional compressor/condenser bulk tank

cooler. Size compressors according to the milkflow per hour entering the tank.

■ Combination of heat exchanger and bulk tankcooler. Plate coolers and tube coolers arebetween the receiver jar and the bulk tank. Wellwater runs countercurrent to milk flow throughthe heat exchanger. Milk temperature decreasedepends on heat exchanger surface area, watertemperature, and water and milk flowrates. Abulk tank cooler completes the cooling process.

■ Heat exchanger plus ice bank. Well watercirculates through one heat exchanger, and icewater is circulated through another heatexchanger to finish the cooling process. Milk isstored in an unrefrigerated tank truck, or milkenters the bulk tank at about 36 F. The bulktank maintains milk temperature and does notcool the milk.

Plate and tube precoolers usually are installedbetween the milk pump and refrigeration system.

Table 5-2. Maximum number of units per slope for

milklines with LIMITED AIR admission.Looped milklines. Guidelines based on a mean milking rateof 12 lbs per minute per cow. Steady air admission of 0.35to 0.70 cfm per unit through claw air vents and air leaks.Transient air admission of 3.5 cfm per milkline slope. Pipefittings do not substantially reduce the cross-sectional areaof the milkline. Designs assume that units are attachedsimultaneously by an operator using CAREFUL attachment

procedures. Based on ASAE S518.2 JUL96.

Milk diameterMilk diameterMilk diameterMilk diameterMilk diameter Milkline SlopeMilkline SlopeMilkline SlopeMilkline SlopeMilkline Slope(inches)(inches)(inches)(inches)(inches) 0.8%0.8%0.8%0.8%0.8% 1.0%1.0%1.0%1.0%1.0% 1.2%1.2%1.2%1.2%1.2% 1.5%1.5%1.5%1.5%1.5% 2.0%2.0%2.0%2.0%2.0%

2.0 2 3 3 4 5

2.5 6 6 7 9 10

3.0 11 13 14 16 19

4.0 27 30 34 38 45

Table 5-3. Maximum number of units per slope for

parlor milklines admitting EXCESSIVE AIR.Looped milklines. Guidelines based on a mean milking rateof 12 lbs per minute per cow. Steady air admission of 0.35to 0.70 cfm per unit through claw air vents and air leaks.Transient air admission of 7 cfm per milkline slope. Pipefittings do not substantially reduce the cross-sectional areaof the milkline. Designs assume that units are attachedsimultaneously by an operator using TYPICAL attachment

procedures. Based on ASAE S518.2 JUL96.

Milk diameterMilk diameterMilk diameterMilk diameterMilk diameter Milkline SlopeMilkline SlopeMilkline SlopeMilkline SlopeMilkline Slope(inches)(inches)(inches)(inches)(inches) 0.8%0.8%0.8%0.8%0.8% 1.0%1.0%1.0%1.0%1.0% 1.2%1.2%1.2%1.2%1.2% 1.5%1.5%1.5%1.5%1.5% 2.0%2.0%2.0%2.0%2.0%

2.0 1 1 2 2 3

2.5 4 4 5 6 8

3.0 9 10 12 13 16

4.0 24 27 31 36 41

58


Milk and water pass through the precooler simulta-neously, with heat being transferred to the coolerwater from the warmer milk. Because milk is coolerupon entering the bulk tank, milk cooling costs maybe reduced by 20 to 60%. To maximize the benefit ofa precooler for energy savings, utilize the warmedwater to the fullest extent (e.g. to partially supply thecow waterer system). Consult the precoolermanufacturer’s literature for optimum water-to-milkflow ratio, and design the system to reuse this wateraccordingly.

Milk Heat RecoveryHeat recovery equipment is practical for almost all

dairies. Potential cost savings derive from twosources:

1. Using heat recovered from milk to offset energycosts for heating water.

2. Reducing energy for operating mechanicalrefrigeration systems that cool milk.

To maximize the benefits of heat recoveryequipment, do the following:

■ Determine the hot water and space heatingneeds of a particular milking center.

■ Select appropriate equipment to maximizeenergy savings.

■ Design a system for greatest cost benefit.

A desuperheater heat exchanger removes heat fromthe refrigerant gas after it leaves the compressor.Concentric tubes carry water and refrigerant gas in acountercurrent pattern. Depending on compressorhorsepower and operating time, water can be heatedto 180 F. Tempered water may be used either directlyor to supply a water heater.

Water-cooled condensers can heat water. Becausewater is the condensing medium, the condensingtemperature typically limits the heated water tem-perature to 110 F, but in some units, temperatures canreach 180 F.

Heat produced from an air-cooled condensing unitcan be used to heat the milking center. If a down-draftfurnace is used in the utility room, the furnace fancan be used to pull air from the air-cooled condens-ing unit and distribute the heat to the milking parlorthrough under-floor ducts. The furnace serves as abackup heat source during colder weather.

Water SupplyUse 115 F water in the milking parlor to wash and

sanitize udders. For clean-in-place milking equip-ment, water temperature requirements are 95 F to

110 F for sanitize, pre-rinse, and acid rinse cycles,and 120 F to 160 F for the detergent wash cycle. Twoseparate water heaters are recommended. Waterheaters should provide water at temperatures 10 F to20 F warmer than is required by each cycle. Insulateall hot water pipes with preformed insulation.

Pipe hot and cold water to all wash and rinse vatsand sinks in the milk room. Provide a mixing faucetwith a hose and nozzle for cleaning the bulk tank,floor, and walls. Dispense acidified water and/orsanitizer through this hose and nozzle to improvesanitation and milk quality.

For some installations, an insulated and coveredwash vat is required to help maintain water tempera-ture, especially during cold weather.

Check local regulations when designing the watersupply system. A tendency is to size too small.Carefully evaluate hot water requirements. The waterheater needs to be sized to wash equipment, pipe-lines, and any other equipment requiring hot water.Use a water softener to protect the water heater and toreduce cleaning chemical cost where minerals causehardness. See Chapter 10, Utilities, for additionalinformation on water requirements.

Milking Center ConstructionMaterial and construction requirements vary with

milking center operating conditions. Consideroperator use, animal contact, sanitation, fire risk,temperature, and moisture levels. Proper constructionand materials can reduce maintenance and improveoperation. Also, base selection on initial cost andcompatibility with existing structures.

Wall ConstructionMost milking center walls are stud or post-frame

construction. Use fiberglass batt insulation in thewall cavity with a vapor retarder and protectiveinterior liner. When an insulated wall is not needed,masonry block walls are durable and economical.Non-bearing walls can be 4 inches thick or justenough to endure animal abuse. Waterproof epoxypaint or tile-faced block on the inside resists moisturepenetration and is easily cleaned. Stud-frame,post-frame, or masonry construction can be usedseparately or in combination.

Inside Lining MaterialMilk room and milking parlor activities require

wall linings with the following characteristics:■ Easily cleaned.■ Resistant to cleaning detergents, acids and

water.

59


■ Impervious to water.■ Light-colored.■ Durable.

Fire-rated, fiberglass-reinforced plastic supportedby plywood is one of the best lining materials. Highinitial cost is offset by cleanability, durability, andlow maintenance. Masonry walls sealed and paintedwith a good epoxy paint are another alternative wheninsulation is not needed. Other materials are exteriorplywood, glazed tile, and glazed block. Carefullyfinish and seal joints. Aluminum and painted steelsheets are suitable for ceilings.

In other milking center rooms, plywood, chipboard,or similar materials can be used. Seal all materials tokeep moisture out and improve cleanability. Tightlyseal all joints to protect building materials.

In animal traffic areas, a rub rail 36 inches abovethe floor protects wall surfaces. A rub rail can be a2-inch pipe spaced about 2 inches from the wall for atotal of 4 inches. Maintain 34 inches clearance in lane.

InsulationInsulate rooms, including the utility room, that

will be kept warm. Provide the same insulation levelsthat are recommended for warm barns. Use 4- to 6- milpolyethylene vapor retarder to protect insulation. Besure the vapor retarder has no breaks or holes. SeeChapter 7, Building Environment, for additionalinformation on insulation.

FloorsConcrete floors are durable, cleanable, waterproof,

and safe. A compressive strength of at least 4,000 psiis necessary for the milking center floor. High qualityconcrete is more resistant to deterioration from milkand cleaning compounds. When placing concrete, donot overwork the surface. Embedding a piece of slateor tile under milking equipment and bulk tank drainscan reduce chemical damage. (Plastic pipes orstainless drains can solve this problem) Embed ablack tile in the floor of each milking parlor stall tocheck foremilk for clinical mastitis.

Where a non-skid surface is needed for cow andhuman traffic, trowel carborundum or aluminum oxidechips (1 pound per 4 square feet) into the surface. Astiff broom finish is a common alternative. Groove theconcrete in the holding areas and return lanes.

Install curbs at doorways to prevent water fromflowing between rooms. Use preformed stainless orgalvanized steel curbing on the cow platform toreduce splashing.

If frozen manure is a concern in the holding area orreturn lanes, consider installing hot water floor heat.

For more discussion about floors, see Equipotentialplane and voltage ramp.

DrainsUse deep-water-seal trap drains, Figure 5-15. These

drains have high flowrates and provide continuoustrapping, preventing gas backflow. Install sewers,drains, fittings, and fixtures according to the stateplumbing code. Use materials approved in the code.Cast iron sewer piping with approved seals isrecommended. Use at least 4-inch drain lines.

Large floors in milk rooms and milking parlorsmay require more than one drain. Locate drains ingutters or room corners to improve drainage. Recessdrains 1/2 inch below the floor or gutter surface.Collection gutters along walls are usually 2 to 6inches wide, and center floor gutters are 8 to 12inches wide. Limit floors to one or two slopingsurfaces to ease installation and reduce ponding,Figure 5-16.

Milk room drains must handle milking equipment andbulk tank washwater. For easy access and good sanita-tion, do not locate floor drains under the bulk tank or itsoutlet valve. Size drains and pipelines to handle the waterfrom cleaning and sanitizing operations. Usually, 4-inchdiameter pipelines can be used for branch lines, and6-inch diameter pipelines for main lines.

Figure 5-15. Deep-water-seal trap drain.

Figure 5-16. Milk room floor slopes.Slope floors a minimum of 2% (1/4"/ft).

a. Two-slope floor to

wall gutter.

b. Two-slope floor

to center gutter.

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The amount of solids the waste disposal systemcan handle affects the design of the cow platformdrainage system. A flat floor without gutters is easierto clean and reduces the amount of solids washedinto the system. However, there is more splashing ofmanure and urine with a solid floor than with a gratedgutter. For easier cleaning and washdown, slope thefloor along the length of the parlor toward theentrance to a cross gutter, Figure 5-17a. When guttersare used along the length of the parlor, slope the floortoward the entrance with a cross slope from the pit tothe gutter, Figure 5-17b. Slope the gutter bottom todrain toward one end.

Plan ahead to minimize the number of deep-water-seal trap drains needed. Install one drain in the milkroom and another in the gutter at the end of theoperator pit. The parlor, cow platform, and milk roomdrains can discharge through the pit wall about 6inches above the pit gutter. Bringing these drainsthrough the pit wall allows for observing the drainsfor problems, Figure 5-18.

LightingMilking center lighting requirements vary

depending on the task carried out. Recommendedillumination levels, in Table 10-4, range from 50footcandles (fc) in the operator pit of the milkingparlor and in office areas to 10 fc in storage rooms.See Chapter 10, Utilities and Farm Building Wiring,MWPS-28, for more information on lighting.

Stray VoltageStray voltage is a voltage difference between two

cow-contact points. A common example is a smallvoltage difference between the water cup and thefloor of a dairy barn, Figure 5-19. When the animaltouches both surfaces, completing the electricalcircuit, a small current flows through her body. Cowcontact voltages should be kept below 1 volt, a levelwhich has been shown to cause no harm to dairycows. When stray voltage problems occur, a thoroughinvestigation using proper equipment will locate thesources and allow the problem to be corrected. If astray voltage problem is suspected, contact the localpower supplier and a licensed electrician who isfamiliar with wiring for livestock facilities.

Symptoms of Stray VoltagesSmall shocks or tingles associated with detectable

high cow-contact voltages can result in animalsaltering their behavior. These voltages are generallynot large enough to directly harm the animal. Someof the changes in animal behavior are:

■ Nervousness during milking.

■ Reluctance to enter the parlor.■ Reluctance to use waterers.■ Reluctance to consume feed.■ Poor milk letdown.

These changes in animal behavior also can occurdue to problems with milking equipment, changes inmilking routine, spoilage of feed, or pollution ofdrinking water. Therefore, investigate all potential

Figure 5-17. Milking platform drain system.

a. Platform sloped

toward entrance.

b. Platform with

cross slope.

Gutter

ParlorPit

ParlorPit

Open OpenDrain Drain

Figure 5-18. Milking center drainage system.

Office

Storage

Utility Room

Milk Room

Restroom

ParlorPit

OverheadDoor

Key:Covered DrainOpen Drain

Trap Drain

Gutter

ToSeparateTreatment

4% Slope, ½"/ft

2% Slope, ¼"/ft

To WasteHandlingSystem

Run line to pit floor drain channel.Milk can be seen if bulk tank valve isleft open during milking.

Gratedchannelwith linedbottom topreventacid etchingof concrete.

Gutter

61


sources of behavioral changes. If dangerous levels ofvoltage are present, then a safety problem exists;contact a licensed electrician to correct the problemimmediately.

Causes of Stray VoltageStray voltage may occur from on-farm and off-farm

sources. Off-farm stray voltage sources can be dealtwith by the electric utility. Off-farm sources of strayvoltage can be created by these conditions:

■ Voltage on the primary neutral.■ A ground-fault at a neighbor’s electrical system.■ Problems with the off-farm electrical distribu-

tion system.

Common on-farm sources of stray voltage on dairyfarms include the following:

■ Ground-faults.■ Equipment ground used as a circuit neutral or a

circuit neutral used as an equipment ground.■ Large voltage drop on the secondary neutral.■ Electric fencer or cow trainer wires short-

circuiting to or inducing a voltage in pipes andequipment.

All of these sources of stray voltage can becorrected. Finding and correcting sources of strayvoltage requires complete investigation by qualifiedprofessionals using proper equipment.

Equipotential Plane and Voltage RampIn new milking parlors and/or holding areas,

install an equipotential plane and voltage ramp,Figure 5-20. A properly installed equipotential planemaintains all floor surfaces and parlor equipment atthe same voltage. As a result, no voltage differencecan occur across cow-contact points. A properlyinstalled equipotential plane provides the greatestinsurance against future stray voltage problems innew milking centers. An equipotential plane andvoltage ramp can be installed in an existing milkingcenter, but at great expense. Equipotential planes arenot needed in freestall barns because freestall barnsare not wired to the extent of milking parlors. Checkwith an extension engineer to determine the localrequirements for installing equipotential planes.

Use the following procedure to construct anequipotential plane in the parlor and/or holding area.

■ Use 6x6, 10-ga welded-wire mesh, or weldtogether #3 reinforcing steel bars in a gridpattern, 15 inches on center. Where fibre meshconcrete is used, lay #4 copper wire spaced18 inches on-center on the compacted basebefore placing the concrete. Bond all metalstructures together and to this copper wire.Connect this system to the electrical groundingsystem for the building.

■ Weld all parlor equipment supports to thereinforcing steel before concrete placement.

Figure 5-19. Example of stray voltage.In this case, the grounded neutral network is 1.5 V relative to true ground. This 1.5 V may be created by one ormore sources such as the faulty connection shown here. Part of the 1.5 V is accessible to the cow through thewaterer, because it is a part of the grounded neutral network. When the cow touches the water and the wetconcrete, she provides a path for current flow.

62


■ Ground the metal system to the serviceentrance panel.

Welded-wire mesh can be difficult to weld to, butplacing reinforcing bars in a grid pattern requiresmore welding. Bolted, wired, or clamped connectionsare not satisfactory for connections between reinforc-ing steel and parlor equipment. Use an approvedclamp-type connector and AWG 6-CU wire to groundthe floor and parlor steel at the service entrancepanel. Install a voltage ramp at every location wherean animal steps onto or off of the equipotential plane,Figure 5-21. If the voltage on the equipotential planeis higher than the rest of the farmstead, a voltageramp provides a gradual increase in voltage as thecow walks onto the plane. If a voltage ramp is notused, a cow may receive a small shock that createsparlor entry problems. Therefore, voltage ramps arealways needed with an equipotential plane.

Figure 5-20. Construction of an equipotential plane in a milking parlor.

Improper GroundingImproper grounding is a safety problem, not a

stray voltage problem (even though it can cause strayvoltage). Correct the problem immediately because itis a serious hazard. Proper use of grounding wires onelectrical equipment is required in all buildings.However, proper grounding is a common oversight onmany farms. As long as all of the electrical equipmentis in good condition, an improperly grounded systemwill work. However, if a motor or heating elementfails, a person or an animal could receive a fatalshock due to improper grounding of the system. Havea licensed electrician find and correct any groundingproblems. If a producer routinely feels shocks whileoperating electrical equipment or when touchingmetal in any type of livestock building, a groundingproblem may exist.

Welded Lap Joint

Return Alley Parlor Milking Pit Parlor

Steel Concrete Reinforcement

Note: •Note: •Note: •Note: •Note: • = Welded Bonds

63


Figure 5-21. Voltage ramp to an equipotential plane.a#3 reinforcing steel bar, 15'' o.c. can be substituted for 6x6, 10 ga welded wire-mesh. Where fibre meshconcrete is used, lay #4 copper wire spaced 18 inches on-center on the compacted base before placing theconcrete. Bond all metal structures together and to this copper wire. Connect this system to the electricalgrounding system for the building. Locate voltage ramps at all animal entrances to and exits from theequipotential plane. See the National Electric Code (NEC) and the Farm Building Wiring Handbook, MWPS-28,for additional information on proper wiring practices and stray voltage.

Return Alley

Milking Parlor

Milking Pit

Milking Parlor

HoldingArea

Voltage Ramps

6x6, 10 ga Welded-wire Mesh ,in Holding Area, Milking Parlor,and Milking Pit Floors

Cow

Bar

n Ar

ea

#3 Bar, bond towire mesh

6x6, 10 gaWelded-wire Mesh

One Animal Step Length,4' min for dairy

#5 Copper Clad Steel Bars,12" o.c., bond to the #3 barand wire mesh in equipotential plane

Bonds: Welding preferred.Approved groundingconnectors acceptable.

#5 Copper Clad Steel Bar

6x6, 10 ga Welded-wire Mesh

Locate in the center of the slab

Cow

Bar

n Ar

ea

and Milking Pit Floorsin Holding Area, Milking Parlor,6x6, 10 ga Welded-wire Mesh ,

Voltage Ramps

AreaHolding

Milking Parlor

Milking Pit

Milking Parlor

Return Alley

a a

a

a

Equipotential Plane

12"

Voltage Ramp

Equipotential Plane

Equipotential Plane

Voltage Ramp Equipotential Plane

Note:Install voltage ramps in parlor entrance and exit.

45o

#3 Bar

Perspective

Bars and wire mesh are shownthrough the concrete.

64


65

Handling and Observation GroupsDevelop a management plan based on separate

handling and observation areas. Management groupsare typically based on the opportunity to house andview animals as a group because of similar character-istics and needs. These cows are usually housed, fed,and handled as a group. Only when an animalbecomes an exception due to illness, injury, or

calving cycle is the animal separated and handleddifferently. Cows that may require separate manage-ment groups can include:

� Close-up cows (2-3 weeks prepartum).� Maternity (calving).� Freshened cows (0-7 days postpartum).� Cows recently dried off.� Ill or injured cows.

BBBBBuildings and equipment serve as tools for carrying out essential management tasks.Well-planned facilities with proper handling, restraint, and treatment facilities

make it possible to implement a management program. Regardless of herd size orhousing type, properly designed facilities promote calf, heifer, and cow care.

A complete handling, restraint, and treatment management plan includes areasfor the following:

� Observation.� Separation.� Treatment.

Herd size, expected treatment types, and handling frequency determine neededfacilities. Provide handling and treatment facilities for each group of animals. Whenplanning new facilities or evaluating existing ones, plan for and consider thefollowing features.

� The ability for one person to easilyobserve and move a single cow orgroup of cows.

� Animal handling lanes thatpromote smooth cow traffic flowwith maximum safety for handlersand cattle.

� Restraint facilities for medicalexaminations, treatment, artificialinsemination, calving, and routinehoof trimming.

� Access to water, medical supplies,and records.

When selecting or designing a handling and treatment facility recognize that noone system best meets the needs of all dairy operators. Personal management style,conditions, and traditions determine the selection of the best workable system.

� Areas that are easy to cleanand maintain.

� Suitable heat and ventilation.� Good lighting.� The ability to separate or discard

non-salable milk.� Parking space for a veterinarian’s

truck, possibly inside.� Convenient feeding and

bedding.� Access to assist down cows

when necessary.

� Maternity.� Loading/receiving.

Chapter 6Special Handling and Treatment FacilitiesWilliam G. Bickert, Extension Ag Engineer, Michigan State University

66

Chapter 6Special Handlingand TreatmentFacilities

Close-up cows require a clean, dry environment.Feeding facilities should allow for preparing cows forthe high energy ration they will receive uponentering the milking herd. Freestall housing close tothe maternity area allows frequent observation.

Locate maternity pens away from other animals,especially young calves, and sick cows to minimizethe spread of disease. Use individual maternity pensfor calving to provide individual attention to andobservation of cows during calving. Keep pens clean,dry, and well-bedded. Feed and water may be neededin maternity pens.

Freshened cows need frequent observation beforebeing moved into the milking herd. Freestalls or alarge well-bedded pen can be provided for this group.For a large herd, a separate hospital/maternity barn,possibly equipped with a pipeline or portable milker,could be provided, Chapter 4. Monitor individualfeed intake and milk production to determinewhether or not each cow is progressing normally.

Cows recently dried off also require special attention.Separate these cows from the milking herd for feeding.Provide a freestall area or bedded-pack group pen toobserve regularly, conduct necessary medical treat-ments, and monitor progress. Provide a separate area foranimals with long-term illnesses or injuries.

ObservationIn any housing system, the operator should be able

to observe all animals easily. Dairy cattle that areobserved easily receive better and more immediatecare. Common observation points include themilking center, feeding fences, exercise lots, restingareas, and calving areas. House animals needing moreregular observation in areas where they can bechecked conveniently. A drive-through freestall barnwith a center alley allows more regular observationthan a converted, loose-housing dry lot system.

SeparationPlan handling facilities to provide for separation

of an entire group or an individual animal. Animalshoused in dry lots, freestalls, corrals, or pastures canpresent a difficult separation challenge. The milkingcenter provides a convenient place to separateanimals housed in loose or freestall housing. An areaalongside the holding area can provide a convenientplace to sort and separate animals for medicalexamination and treatment. Allow easy access forfeeding and manure removal.

Separation also can be achieved along feedingareas. Using a feeding alley with gates allows cows to

be driven along familiar resting or feeding alleys thatopen into sorting or treatment pens. Proper gatelocation can block a cross alley and direct cows intotreatment pens. Position gates to gradually funnelcows toward the opening. Attempting to direct a cowthrough an open gate along a sidewall or feedingfence can be difficult.

Fenceline (headlock) stanchions, Figure 6-6, canbe used for separating individual animals or groupsof animals from the larger group. The necessaryprovision is that the array of stanchions be furnishedwith individual cow release mechanisms.

Provide separate pens for maternity and treatmentto reduce disease transmission. Recommendedmaternity and treatment pen size is at least 12 x 12feet. Large pens provide more room to assist calvingand are easier to keep clean and dry. Depending onthe farm and management situation, provide up tofive calving pens for every 100 cows. On farms wherethe management plan calls for a cow to be moved tothe calving pen when calving is imminent, only twopens per 100 cows may be necessary.

Provide one or more stanchions in pen sides torestrain cows for examination or treatment. Diagonallockup stanchions can limit access to the head andneck. Stanchion pens used for calving must allow foradequate space behind the cow. Consider providingat least one lifting ring centered over the pen capableof supporting a cow. A dirt floor in the pen mayenable cows to move easier.

Gates can be used within pens to form a funnel todirect a reluctant cow into a stanchion or other type oflockup, Figure 6-1. Gates also can become part of a penarea for breeding or rectal examination. Use sturdy, wellconstructed gates. Gates that are too weak or improperlysized can break and cause injury to animals andoperators. Use gates that have no more than 10 inchesbetween rails and that are at least 66 inches high todiscourage jumping. Hang them 16 to 18 inches fromthe ground so animals will not crawl under them.

Treatment AreasProvide a treatment area for confining cows for

artificial insemination, postpartum examination,pregnancy diagnosis, sick cow examination, andsurgery. Sorting, handling, restraint, and treatmentcan be incorporated into an existing or remodeledbarn without difficulty, Figure 6-2. Use a crowdingpen to direct cows toward a headgate. Provide ablocking gate in the animal handling lane to keepother animals away from the operator working behinda restrained animal. Provide a storage cabinet andtable for veterinary supplies.

67

Chapter 6Special Handling

and TreatmentFacilities

a. Single side gate.

Swing side gate and divider gate to direct cowtoward stanchion.

b. Both side gates and stanchion.

Swing both side gates and divider gates tofunnel cow into stanchion.

Figure 6-1. Treatment pen stanchion and gates.

Figure 6-2. Handling and treatment area

in a barn corner.Crowd pen, headgate, treatment pens and supply storagelocated in the corner of existing or remodeled barn.

Figure 6-3. Treatment stall.

Treatment StallA single stall can be used for treatment, Figure 6-3.

Locate the stall so there is access to both sides of thecow during examination. An existing stall barn canbe converted to a treatment area during the transitionto freestall or loose housing. A separate handlingfacility for easier restraint, examination, treatment,and surgery can be added later.

Restrain the cow’s head with a swing stanchionthat can lock into position with a removable bar.Position the bar above the cow’s head to reduce the

risk of choking if the cow goes down. Use a sturdyring in the wall in front of the stall for furtherrestraint. Provide three rings in the ceiling over thecenterline of the stall for lifting points. Locate onelifting point above the cow’s shoulders, anotherabove the tailhead, and a third 4 to 6 feet behind thecow. The lift rings and the ceiling must be strongenough to support the cow’s weight. In barns withgutters, place a removable, 6-foot long cover over thegutter behind the stall. Partitions help prevent thecow from moving sideways.

Animal Alley StanchionSide Gate

Treatment Pen

Divider Gate

Animal Alley StanchionSide Gate

Treatment Pen

Divider Gate

68


c. Treatment pen.Equip with self-locking stanchion and gatesto restrain cow.

Figure 6-4. Milking center treatment area.

a. Holding area, handling alleys and treatment pens.Holding area, animal movement alleys, and treatment pens located in the milking center.

b. Gates block parlor entrance.Use gates to block parlor entrance. Holding area actsas a crowding pen to direct cows into the handling lane.A headgate can be used to restrain cows, or they can bedirected into a separate pen.

69



Milking Center Treatment AreaOn farms where the milking parlor is used only

part of the day, the milking center can double as atreatment area. Use the holding area and cow lanes inthe milking center for sorting, handling, restraint, andtreatment. An area alongside the holding areaprovides a convenient place to sort animals and toperform medical examinations and treatments,Figure 6-4. However, do not examine or treat animalsin the milking parlor. It is not designed for, orintended to be used for, these purposes.

Sort cows exiting the parlor into a catch lane witha sorting gate controlled from the operator’s pit. As

cows travel single file from the parlor, individualanimals easily can be diverted. Two parallel lanes—one for returning cows to the housing area, the otherfor catching cows—can be used for sorting cows asthey exit the parlor, Figures 6-4 and 6-5. Cows can beheld in a catch lane or can be moved into one of thepens equipped with self-locking stanchions.

With gates to block the parlor entrance, a group ofcows can be moved through the holding area into thetreatment area. Use a headgate positioned in one ofthe animal lanes for restraint, Figure 6-5. Animalsalso can be diverted to treatment pens equipped withself-locking stanchions. Although the milking center

b. Gates block parlor entrance to treatment stall.Use gates to block parlor entrance and direct cows from holding area (crowding pen) to treatmentstall and headgate, catch alley, or treatment pen. Adjust gates in selected treatment pens to allowaccess to treatment stall.

Figure 6-5. Milking center treatment area with treatment stall and headgate.

Swing gates out of way.

Treatment Alley 12 x12 Treatment Pens

Milking Parlor

Vet Room

ObservationWindow

Crowd Pen Crowd Gate

Headgate

Foot Bath

a. Holding area, catch lane, headgate and treatment alley.Two parallel lanes are used as a return lane and a catch lane for cows exiting the parlor. A third,short lane is located along the treatment pens as a headgate and treatment stall area.

Holding Pen

Return Lane

Foot Bath

Catch Lane

WatererStanchions

Treatment 12'x12' Treatment Pens

Milking Parlor

Vet Room

ObservationWindow Alley

70


is used primarily for the lactating herd or cowsexiting the milking parlor, this area can be used forreplacement animals and dry cows.

Milking parlor type affects decisions whenplanning and incorporating sorting, handling, andtreatment into the milking center. A single return lanefrom the milking parlor permits sorting cows into acatch lane using a sorting gate controlled from thepit. Cows to be treated are moved into a treatmentpen with self-locking stanchions.

Automatic sorting gates used in combination witha cow identification system can be used to separatecows. Careful planning will help ensure ample pensand other facilities for handling and treating sortedgroups of cows.

With a rapid-exit parlor, cow exits lead to return lanesalong both sides of the holding area. Provisions forsorting cows must be duplicated on both sides of theholding area. Some rapid exit parlors are constructedwith single return lanes for more convenient sorting.Handling and treatment areas are needed on each side ofthe holding area and may not be feasible or practical.Sorting and handling after the animals reconverge at therear of the holding area is an option. A separate han-dling facility may be more effective for meeting cattlesorting, restraint, and treatment requirements.

FootbathsMany dairy producers use footbaths to help

maintain healthy feet and to treat problems such asfoot rot and hairy or strawberry warts. The mostappropriate treatment product will depend on theproblems in the herd. Producers need to check withtheir veterinarians for the preferred product andmixing instructions.

To be effective, the treatment solution must bekept clean. One way to help ensure cleanliness is tohave two footbaths in a series. The first contains onlywater to clean the cows’ feet; the water in this bathneeds to be changed frequently. The second footbathcontains the treatment solution.

Portable and permanent footbaths have been usedsuccessfully. Typically footbaths are 6 to 8 feet longand 6 to 8 inches deep. Usually they are the samewidth as the alley in which they are installed.

Following are other suggestions for footbath use:� Locate them where all cows must walk through

them, for example, in a return/exit lane from themilking parlor.

� Construct them of durable materials such asconcrete, plastic, fiberglass, or treated wood.

� Make them so they are easily cleanable. Forexample, install a 2-inch drain in the corner ofpermanently installed units.

� Place a hydrant and adequate storage foringredients nearby.

� Make provisions to contain the material emptiedfrom a footbath. A good plan is to discharge tothe manure storage facility.

Fenceline (Headlock) StanchionsHeadlock stanchions provide another option for

handling and treatment. Headlock stanchions can beused along a feed manger to restrain animals forexamination or treatment. Headlock stanchions alsoprovide a convenient method for restraining andexamining cows in dry lots or pastures.

In group housing, fenceline stanchions along afeed manger can restrain animals for heat detection,breeding, and pregnancy-checking. Fencelinestanchions near pastures and other feeding areasprovide convenient access to animals. A levermechanism opens or closes all stanchions simulta-neously.

Desirable features of fenceline stanchions include:� Individual or group cow release.� Self-locking mechanism as a cow lowers her

head after entering.� A quick release for downed cows.� A method to lock animals away from feed.� A method to lock out animals when not in use.

For mature cows, place stanchions at least 2 feeton center. Provide at least the same number ofstanchions as cows in the group.

Separate Handling FacilityOn dairies where milking occupies most working

hours, a separate veterinary facility may be desirable,Figure 6-7. A separate facility allows greaterefficiency.

Figure 6-6. Fenceline stanchion.

71



A holding area provides space for working cowsinto the facility. The lead-up alley restrains a groupof cows single file for routine vaccinations or forloading animals out. Blocking gates positionedalong the lead-up alley prevent cows from backingup. Angled restraining stalls permit the veterinarianunrestricted access to the rear and sides of a cow.Hinged sides allow for unrestricted access, andwalk-through headgates provide for smoother cowmovement. After cows are released, they can bereturned to the barn or diverted to a hoof trimmingtable.

A variety of group and individual pens meet theneeds of different cow groups. With loose housingsystems, it is not as convenient to handle cowsindividually or in small groups. A separate handling/treatment barn or area may be needed for specificmanagement groups in freestall or loose housingsystems, Figure 6-8. Provide enough pen space tomeet the needs of the different management groups.Consider space for animals that need additionalattention (e.g. close-up cows, cows after freshening,maternity, and treatment). Provide this space in aseparate barn or an area incorporated into a freestallbarn, existing loose housing barn, or stall barn.

12 -6“ 48

32Holding AreaHoof TrimmingTable

Headgate

RestraintStalls

Lead-upAlley

Blocking Gate

Loading Chute

Mobile VeterinaryUnit Area

BlockingGate

Figure 6-7. Handling and treatment building.A variation of this building concept or layout can be incorporated into an existing stall barn or other existing barn.

Maternity AreaSee the section Housing for Dry Cows on page 42

in Chapter 4 for information on maternity areas as wellas housing for pre-calving and newly freshened cows.

Headgates and ChutesHeadgates can provide many features not found in

a fixed stanchion or pen wall. Either homemade orpurchased commercially, they can be placed in alleysand other areas to provide a convenient treatmentsystem, Figure 6-9. The self-locking headgate can beadjusted for animal size. Headgates used for dairycows must provide a complete opening from top tobottom to allow front exit. This type of headgateallows easy removal of downed cows and heifers.Some commercially available headgates hinge at thebottom and open in a fan-like fashion, obstructing thecow’s exit and increasing the potential for injury towide hips, low-hanging udders, and rear legs. Thisstyle of headgate is not recommended.

Chutes prevent side-to-side cow movement duringtreatment. Side gates or panels can be opened forcomplete examination of a cow’s udder and body.Tapered sidewall chutes are not suitable for dairy cattle.

72


Loading ChutesWell-designed animal loading facilities reduce

loading time and the likelihood of injury to cattleand operator. Required ramp dimensions are deter-mined by the transport equipment popular in the area.Low-bed trailers, less than 12 inches from the ground,require only a drive-in alley and side gates to funnelthe cows.

Provide a chute with solid sides for receiving andshipping cows. Provide a holding pen to hold cowsbefore loading. Provide steps or cleats on the chutefloor so the cows do not slip.

Unloading large numbers of animals is easier withwide docks. Some trucks may require wide platformsbecause of wide, built-in unloading ramps. Includecombination swinging and telescoping gates to closeoff areas between permanent loading dock sides and atruck. Solid sides 5 to 6 feet high prevent distractionof animals.

Provide a catwalk on one side of the ramp for theoperator. A catwalk can be a 20-degree incline withgrooves or steps 1 foot wide and 3 to 4 inches high toreduce the chance of slipping or falling.

SafetySafety passes are similar to personnel passes,

Figure 4-16. Safety passes typically provide 12 to 14inches of clear space for people to pass through.Provide at least one safety pass in each pen and oneevery 25 to 30 feet in animal movement and handling

Figure 6-8. Separate handling/treatment barn.A separate barn can be provided for cows with special needs. Cows requiring additional observation ortreatment can be separated from the milking herd and housed in a separate barn. Provide about one individualpen for every 20 cows. Include a small storage room for supplies and portable milking equipment.

Stanchion

12 x12 Treatment Pens

Small Group

Alley

Alley

Alley

Alley

Feed Manger

Figure 6-9. Commercial headgate.

73



5'Workspace

2.5 ft per cow, up to 30 ft total length 4'

4'

34''offset

Personnel Pass

Figure 6-10. Herringbone palpation facility.

b. Isometric view.

alleys to allow an operator to exit quickly. Avoidlocating safety passes where animal flow is directlyat the pass. Excited animals may try to use the safetypass for an escape route and become trapped. Widerpasses are more convenient, but require a self-closinggate or a third guard post. A 16- to 18-inch openingbetween the bottom rail of the fence or gate and thefloor will allow a person the opportunity to roll awayfrom an aggressive animal.

A separate alley for people allows movementthrough facilities without animal contact.

Herringbone Palpation FacilityA herringbone palpation facility is a simple,

inexpensive way to handle cows in groups and iseasy to construct, Figure 6-10. The palpation facilityprovides the worker with a comfortable, safe environ-ment, and places the group of cows at ease. Thepalpation facility should be located adjacent toanimal traffic lanes between the milking center andhousing facilities. Swing gates in return alleys arethe most common method used to create the herring-bone palpation facility. The length of the facilitydetermines the size of the group that can be handled.After the separated cows are checked, bred and/ortreated, they can be returned to housing facilities.

A herringbone palpation facility can also be usedin conjunction with a central workstation for recordcollection and access. The record system wouldprovide the operator with complete health historyquickly when the cows are being examined to helpduring the examination.

a. Plan view.

24''

39''

18''30''42''

66'' (

optio

nal)

74


75

Ventilating ProcessVentilation is an air exchange process that

accomplishes the following:■ Brings fresh air into the building through

planned openings.■ Thoroughly mixes incoming and inside air.■ Picks up heat, moisture, and air contaminants.■ Exhausts warm, moist, contaminated air from the

building, Figure 7-1.

Failure to provide for any step of this processresults in inadequate ventilation, which can create anunhealthy indoor environment.

The purpose of ventilation is to provide a healthyenvironment for the animals. Ventilating systemdesign and management should be based on animalrequirements. When operator comfort is consideredand adjustments made to the ventilating system, theresulting environment may not be best for livestock.

Ventilating systems affect:■ Air temperature.■ Moisture level.

■ Moisture condensation on surfaces.■ Air temperature uniformity.■ Air speed across animals.■ Odor and gas concentrations.■ Airborne dust and disease organism levels.

As the ventilating system exchanges air, it bringsin oxygen to sustain life. It removes and dilutesharmful dust and gases, undesirable odors, airbornedisease organisms, and moisture.

Types of Ventilating SystemsVentilating systems can be either natural or

mechanical. Natural ventilation is commonly used forhousing dairy animals in freestall barns and openfront buildings. It relies on wind and differencesbetween inside and outside temperature to move airthrough the building. A mechanical ventilatingsystem uses fans to provide air exchange. Bothnaturally and mechanically ventilated buildings needproperly sized openings for fresh air to enter andexhaust air to exit. Ventilating system control can beaccomplished either automatically or manually.Mechanical ventilating systems almost always usethermostatic control while natural ventilatingsystems are commonly adjusted manually.

Ventilating Dairy FacilitiesDairy animals perform very well over a wide range

of air temperatures. In cold weather it is important toprovide plenty of fresh air without drafts and avoidhigh humidities and condensation or frost formation.In hot weather it is important to provide shade and

DDDDDairy animals need a clean, dry environment with plenty of fresh air. Theyperform very well over a range of temperatures. Cool temperatures that are

comfortable to dairy cows may not be as comfortable to humans, but it is necessaryto put cow comfort first.

A ventilating system must exchange air and maintain an acceptable environmentuniformly and economically all year-round. Proper ventilation is key to providingcows with fresh air and maintaining a dry environment.

��

��

��

��

��

��

Figure 7-1. A basic ventilating process.

Chapter 7Building EnvironmentKevin Janni, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Minnesota,and Richard Stowell, Extension Ag Engineer, The Ohio State University

76

Chapter 7BuildingEnvironment

plenty of fresh air, and to avoid excessive tempera-tures that lead to heat stress. Supplemental coolingcan be used to minimize the effects of hot weather.

Dairy animals can be housed in buildings in whichthere is no temperature regulation. The indoortemperature is about the same as the outside tempera-ture all year. These buildings are usually uninsulatedand naturally ventilated with curtain sidewalls. Thebuilding protects the animals and their resting areafrom cold winds, rain, and snow in inclement weatherand provides shade in hot sunny weather. When keptdry, adequately ventilated, and properly fed, dairyanimals do very well in these barns. Proper equipmentselection and management minimize the inconve-niences associated with freezing weather. Coolingsystems can be included and used during hot weather.

Uninsulated barns will have problems withcondensation and frost formation in cold climateswhere wintertime outdoor temperatures drop belowzero for extended periods of time, and managers wantto keep indoor temperatures above 10 F to minimizeproblems with frozen manure. Uninsulated barns insuch cold climates cannot provide both adequate airexchange to remove moisture given off by theanimals and keep the indoor temperature raisedenough to prevent manure from freezing withoutadding supplemental heat. Installing insulation underthe roof or an insulated sloped ceiling with a con-tinuous open ridge can reduce condensation and frostformation. Attic or ceiling insulation does not reducethe need for air exchange. Adequate air exchange isessential even in very cold weather to provide freshair and to remove airborne contaminants and mois-ture. The insulation needs to be installed properlyand protected from damage by birds for it to beeffective. The insulation adds to the initial cost of thebuilding. Roof and ceiling insulation has little effectin hot sunny weather on animal heat stress comparedto that available from supplemental evaporativecooling system.

Dairy animals can also be housed in insulatedbarns designed to be kept at 40 F or above using anautomatically controlled ventilating system andsupplemental heat. The insulation prevents conden-sation and reduces building heat loss during coldweather. Insulated barns require a well designed andmanaged ventilation system that will include inlets,fans and controls. Insulated barns are typicallymechanically ventilated year round.

Natural Ventilating SystemsIn a natural ventilating system, wind and the

difference between inside and outside temperature

move air through the building. Naturally ventilatedbuildings are best ventilated with a continuous ridgeopening, large continuous sidewall openings, asmooth roof underside, continuous eave openings,and a roof slope with a pitch of 4/12 to 6/12.

Wind blowing across the open ridge and throughsidewall and endwall openings and indoor/outdoortemperature differences move air through thebuilding to provide the air exchange. Fresh air entersthrough eave or sidewall openings, Figure 7-2. Heat,moisture, and contaminant-laden air exits through theopen ridge and down wind sidewall opening. Someventilation occurs even on calm days because warm,moist air rises, causing a chimney effect. Large,adjustable or full sidewall openings allow increasedair movement due to wind in summer. Continuousopenings help provide good fresh air distribution.

Location and SitingBuilding location is critical for natural ventilation

to work well. Locate buildings on high ground, wheretrees or structures do not disturb airflow around orthrough the building.

Trees, silos, tall growing crops, and other struc-tures disrupt airflow for a distance of 5 to 10 timestheir height downwind. Locate naturally ventilatedbuildings at least 75 feet (in any direction) from suchobstructions. See Table 7-1. As a rule, greater

Figure 7-2. Airflow in naturally ventilated buildings.Airflow patterns vary with wind direction and velocity.

77

Chapter 7Building

Environment

separation is needed if the upwind structure is morethan 80 feet long. Also, a distance of 75 feet betweenbuildings is recommended for fire safety, especiallyfor major buildings or complexes.

Building OrientationBuilding orientation affects natural ventilating

system performance. Orient naturally ventilatedbuildings to provide maximum wind exposure,especially for summer winds. Greater and moreuniform wind driven air exchange occurs when thewind enters through the continuous sidewall or eaveopening rather than through the smaller endwall.Cross ventilation, from side to side, is especiallyimportant during warm weather. Orient buildings soprevailing summer winds are perpendicular to theridge openings.

In the Midwest, buildings with the long axis east-west usually have the best summer cooling, wintersun penetration, and winter wind control. Considerlocal wind conditions and terrain when orientingnaturally ventilated buildings.

Ventilation OpeningsProperly sized ridge and eave openings and large

adjustable sidewall openings are important parts of anatural ventilating system.

Ridge OpeningsProvide a ridge opening of at least 2 inches

(measured horizontally) for each 10 feet of buildingwidth. For example, a 75-foot wide building wouldhave a 15-inch wide ridge opening. Protect exposed

areas of the truss top chord from weathering bycovering, painting or sealing the exposed framing.Avoid using kingpost trusses because the center webcan wick moisture to the main connection at thelower chord.

With a properly sized ridge opening and properanimal density, precipitation entering the building isnot a serious problem. Air exiting through the ridgeprevents most rain and snow from entering. Raisedridge caps usually are not recommended because theyare expensive and require maintenance. Also, if notproperly designed, they can disturb airflow as well astrap snow, Figure 7-3. An upstand may be necessaryto prevent snow from blowing into the building. Anupstand 1-1/2 to 2 times the ridge opening, Figure7-4, can be added to help keep out snow and rain at alower cost than a raised ridge cap. Overshot ridges arealso popular and provide protection to the truss ridge

Figure 7-3. Raised ridge cap.

Figure 7-4. Upstand.Upstand or baffle is 1-1/2 to 2 times ridge width to helpkeep out wind and snow and increase chimney effectwhen the wind is blowing perpendicular to the ridge.

Open Ridge,2"/10 of BuildingWidth

Optional Upstandto Reduce SnowBlowing intoBuilding

45 -60o o

Provide at least 1"/10Building Width ofClear VerticalDistance

Table 7-1. Minimum separation distance between

naturally ventilated buildings (feet)a.To account for changes in wind direction, determine theminimum separation distance for each building. Use thelarger of the two values.

Length of Nearby Height of Nearby Building

Building 20' 25' 30' 35'

100'100'100'100'100' 75b 75b 75b 75b

200'200'200'200'200' 75b 75b 80 85

250'250'250'250'250' 75b 80 85 95

400'400'400'400'400' 90 100 110 120

500'500'500'500'500' 100 110 125 135

1,000'1,000'1,000'1,000'1,000' 140 160 175 190a Buildings with solid sidewalls present greater blockage to

airflow and require more separation distance. See NaturalVentilating Systems for Livestock Housing, MWPS-33, for moreinformation on separation distances between buildings.

b Distance specified is based on other limitations such as firecontrol and equipment operation.

78


connection. Provide 3 inches of opening per 10 feetof building width when designing overshot ridges.

When possible, locate manure alleys or other lesscritical areas under the ridge. In four- and six-rowdrive through freestall barns, the driveway is nor-mally under the open ridge. Slope the driveway sothat precipitation drains away from the feed manger.When the amount of precipitation coming throughthe ridge is objectionable, it is better to protect areasbelow the ridge than to build a cap. Cover criticalcomponents, such as a feeder motor or feeder belt, orplace an internal gutter 2 to 3 feet below the openridge to collect rainwater and channel it out of thebuilding, Figure 7-5. Upstands can be used to helpguide precipitation to the gutter.

Figure 7-6. Eave openings.aMake the length of eave vent doors about 75% of the opening length. Extended solid soffit keeps wind fromblowing up wall. Use 3/4'' x 3/4'' hardware cloth to keep birds out.

Figure 7-5. Interior trough with an open ridge.

Eave OpeningsConstruct continuous eave openings along both

sides of the building. Size each opening to have atleast half as much open area as the ridge opening.Eave openings can be provided at the open spacesbetween trusses or on the underside of the roofoverhang, Figure 7-6.

In severe climates, adjustable eave vents reduceairflow and snow blow-in. Close eave vents only partway and then only during severe winter weather(blizzard conditions). Open them immediately afterthe storm passes. Do not leave the vents closed allwinter. A fascia can protect eave openings from directwind gusts and reduce drafts in rest areas.

Sidewall Height and OpeningsOpen buildings as fully as possible in the summer

so that the building acts as a sunshade during hotweather. Large sidewall openings increase warmweather cross ventilation. Make sidewalls a minimumof 10 feet high. Use 12- to 14-foot sidewalls for drive-through barns, high animal density, or situationswhere prevailing winds are obstructed. Highersidewalls are sometimes needed for maneuveringequipment and can partially offset obstructedprevailing winds.

The sidewall opening should be at least 8 feethigh, continuous the entire length of the building.Open sidewalls fully to provide maximum summerventilation. With large sidewall openings, provide a3- to 4-foot overhang at the eave to shade andpartially shield the opening from blowing rain andsnow piles and drifts.

¾" x ¾"Hardware Cloth

Cold Climate

½ of Ridge Width

Eave Vent,Door OptionalAt Least

a

½ ofRidge Width

Fascia

¾" x ¾"Hardware Cloth

Mild Climate

½ of Ridge Width

Eave Vent

Fascia

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Figure 7-7. Split or two-curtain sidewall opening. Figure 7-8. Full wall curtain system.To open sidewall, roll up fabric curtain and tie topermanent horizontal 2x4s.

WinterAirflow

SummerAirflow

Fabric Curtain

Restraint Ropes

Optional Bird Screen

Fabric Curtain,raised position

12" to 16"

3' Overhang

SummerAirflow

Plywood swing dooroption forcold climates

Removable 2x2s

Fabric Curtain

Horizontal 2x4,permanently fastenedto between-post 2x4swith fabric in between

3 Overhang

Remove 2x2s to drop18" to 24" flap in earlyspring; close flap andreplace 2x2s in late fall

Removable 2x2

Removable 2x2

Fabric Curtain

Building Post

3"

Install an approximately 6',high tensile wire fence oninside of post to protectcurtain from animals

Plywood swing door optionfor cold climates

Ventilation through existing buildings can beimproved by increasing the amount of open area, butdo not compromise the structural integrity of thebuilding by removing structural members andsheathing. Provide openings in the back of open-front buildings and in both long walls in enclosedbuildings. For good airflow at the animal level, putthe lower edge of the opening as low as operationwill allow. When construction details and animalaccess allow, lower openings improve airflowthrough the animal zone in warm weather.

Sidewall openings can be closed or covered usingplastic or nylon curtains, pivot doors, top- or bottom-hinged doors, and removable panels, Figure 7-7 andFigure 7-8. Curtains, protected from the animals, are a

low cost method for covering large openings duringthe winter.

In one type of installation, the curtain is rolled upas a rug and tied at every post. To close the sidewall,ties are released, and the hanging curtain is thenfastened in place using vertical nailing strips at eachpost and horizontal nailing strips all along the bottom.A plastic mesh or cord strung over the sidewallopening may be necessary to reduce flapping ofcurtains in the wind. Various systems are available foradjusting curtain openings, but none offer the advan-tages of simplicity and low cost this method provides.Use of nailing strips does not provide convenience ofsidewall opening management, which may be desiredwhen wide temperature fluctuations occur.

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EndwallsEndwall openings can provide additional ventila-

tion to supplement sidewall openings in the summer.Additional openings in the gables of endwallsimprove summer ventilation, Figure 7-9. Provideremovable ventilating panels, wall sections, orcurtain endwalls. Alley doors alone do not provideadequate ventilation.

Roof SlopeRoof slope affects wind flow across the open ridge

and the chimney effect (warm air rising). Roof slopesof 4/12 to 6/12 work very well in naturally ventilateddairy barns. Condensation and high interior summertemperatures are more likely with roof slopes lessthan 4/12 because of reduced air movement. Build-ings with roof slopes steeper than 6/12 have greaterchimney effect but are generally not needed. Slopesof 3/12 are acceptable for open front buildings lessthan 30 feet wide.

Avoid using exposed purlins that extend morethan 4 inches below the roof line. Keep the undersideof the roof smoother to enhance airflow.

Facility ManagementManagement of facilities changes as weather

conditions change. Managing the ventilation systemis often the key in maintaining an acceptablebuilding environment. Poor building environmentcan lead to corrosion of metals and deterioration ofwood and can decrease cow comfort and health.

Cold Weather ManagementPreventing water and manure from freezing and

controlling building humidity are the main concernsduring extended periods of cold weather. Use waterersand pipes that are heated or protected from freezing.Fresh manure deposited in a cold building adds heat

and moisture to the building. To prevent excessmoisture from accumulating, remove manure fromalleys more often during cold weather using anautomatic or rubber tire scraper. Scrape the barnimmediately after cows are moved to the holdingarea, at least twice a day. In extremely cold weather,scrape in the afternoon when conditions are slightlywarmer. A heavy tractor scraper or bucket with steelblade and down pressure helps remove frozenmanure. Bedded packs do not require extra manuremanagement in cold weather.

Inadequate winter ventilation (air exchange) andhigh humidity can cause fog, condensation, or frostto form in the building, leading to animal healthproblems. Eave and ridge openings must be open forair exchange. Attempts to warm the building byclosing eave inlets, wall openings, or ridge openingswith baffles increase the problem. Do not completelyclose eave openings; leave them open at least one-half inch per 10 feet of building width. Eave open-ings could be closed temporarily during severestorms. Attempts to raise building temperature byclosing ventilation openings during cold weatheroften result in a building being left closed throughmilder temperatures, which can result in poor airquality. During normal winter weather, open sidewallsto provide increased air exchange as average outsidetemperatures rise.

Hot Weather ManagementHot, muggy summer weather is one of the most

critical times for animal health, comfort, and produc-tivity. When winds are calm and there is little airmovement, providing adequate air exchange to avoidheat stress is difficult. (See Supplemental Cooling).

Continuous large openings are important for goodsummer ventilation. Sidewall and endwall openingsallow for better airflow. Summer sidewall openings

Figure 7-9. Summer openings in endwalls.

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must allow wind to blow through the animal zone forheat stress reduction. Open sidewalls and endwalls asmuch as possible to provide the best summer environ-ment by allowing the building to act as a sunshade.Adequate ridge and eave openings help provide moreairflow through the building. Do not remove struc-tural members. If sheathing is removed, consideradding supports to retain structural integrity. Low,wide buildings and buildings with flat ceilings orlow-pitched roofs are difficult to ventilate naturally.

Existing single-story buildings can be modified tobe naturally ventilated by removing any existing flatceiling, opening the ridge, and removing thesidewalls, endwalls, and gable ends for better naturalair movement. Low, wide buildings will still bedifficult to ventilate adequately. Remove externalobstructions such as tall corn, trees and othervegetation, and interior obstructions such as solidpartitions that restrict airflow.

Supplemental CoolingConsider supplemental cooling to reduce heat

stress when shade and maximum natural airflow areinsufficient. Dairy cows suffering from heat stresshave reduced feed intake and milk production andincreased breeding problems. Dairy cows can bestressed when a combination of the followingconditions exist:

■ High daytime temperatures.■ High nighttime temperatures (less cooling).■ High relative humidity.■ Low wind velocities.

Supplemental cooling can be provided in differentways. One common method is to increase the airflowpast the cows using fans. Two other methods rely onevaporative cooling to either cool the air around thecows or wet the cow’s skin and allow body heat toevaporate the water.

Cooling FansProvide cooling fans to increase air movement

over the body of the cow. Air should move past cows’bodies at 200 to 400 ft/min. (2.2 to 4.5 mph). Themain criteria for selecting cooling fans are capacityto provide a good air throw, fan size, drive type, andpurchase and operating costs.

Supplemental cooling fans need to have goodthrow. Fans with more throw have a higher airvelocity at a greater distance away from the fan. Lookfor fans that expel air in a fairly tight cone. Typicalfans throw air a distance equivalent to 10 times thefan diameter. Space 36-inch fans 30 feet apart;48-inch fans 40 feet apart. Do not sacrifice a sustained

air velocity at a greater distance for broader coverage(wider distribution) when selecting cooling fans.

Use propeller or other axial-flow fans. Typically,these fans are 24 to 48 inches in diameter and operatewith 1/4- to 1-horsepower motors. They generate highairflow rates when operating at little or no staticpressure - roughly 10,000 cfm per 1/2 Hp. Orient fansin the same direction as prevailing summer breezes sothat the airflow generated by the fans supports winddriven air exchange rather than fighting it underwarm conditions. When these fans are installed in theopen air over feed alleys and freestalls, they mix theair but do not draw fresh air into a barn.

Install supplemental cooling fans wherever cowsmay be confined for extended periods and over areaswhere cows tend to voluntarily spend considerableamounts of time. Recommended priority areas forsupplemental cooling fans are:

1. In holding pens,2. In close-up (dry cow) pens,3. In maternity and sick/treatment pens,4. Fresh cows,5. High producers,6. Low producers.

In the holding area, blow air away from themilking parlor, Figure 7-10. In freestall barns, locatefans over the feeding alley where cows will bestanding to eat, and in the resting area, Figure 7-11.

Evaporative CoolingEvaporative cooling systems for dairy cows

usually use either low-pressure sprinklers or high-pressure misters (also called foggers). Both systemsare used in conjunction with supplemental coolingfans. Their design, mode of action, and managementare different. Improperly designed systems may notprovide the cooling effect the cows need during hotweather. They may also create wet conditions thatlead to increased mastitis. Adequate ventilation (airexchange) is essential for evaporative cooling towork properly.

Low-pressure SprinklersLow-pressure sprinklers can be used in both the

holding pen and over feeding alleys to completelysoak the cows to the skin. When the skin is wet,sprinkling is stopped to allow the cows’ body heat toevaporate the water. Use a timer to run the sprinklerslong enough to soak the cows to the skin, perhaps1 to 3 minutes on per 15-minute cycle. Cooling fansare required to increase airflow past the cows andincrease evaporative cooling. It is critical that thesprinklers be turned off to allow time for evaporation.

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Avoid excessive sprinkling. Excess sprinkling canincrease chances of wetting the udder, feed, andbedding and can increase the amount of water thatruns off into the manure storage.

Use either 180 degree (half-circle) or 360 degree(full-circle) low pressure (20 to 40 psi) sprinklernozzles that produce large droplets, which readilywet the cow’s skin. A fine mist should not be used.Irrigation nozzles and solid-cone coarse droplet spraynozzles with flow rates between 0.2 and 0.5 gallonsper minute work very well. Along a feed manger, the180-degree nozzles mounted next to the bunk tospray away from the feed bunk minimize wetting ofthe feed. The 360-degree nozzles work well inholding areas.

Use information from a sprinkler supplier todetermine nozzle spacing based on water pressure.Space nozzles so that the system provides a uniformdistribution. Size water lines adequately to providesufficient water flow and minimal pressure drop toproduce a more uniform spray, especially along long

feed bunks. Consider installing a pressure regulatorto keep the water pressure within operating limits.Excessive pressure may produce a mist or smallerdroplets that do not wet the cow’s skin but cling tothe outer regions of the haircoat effectively insulat-ing the cow. Sprinkler systems can be automaticallycontrolled using a thermostat and 30-minute cycletimer in series. Sprinkler systems are usually set toturn on when air temperatures exceed 78 to 80 F. Ifwater is being blown onto feed then either dropletsize is too small or fans need to be repositioned.

High-pressure MistersHigh-pressure misters (sometimes called foggers)

operate at pressures around 200 psi and are designedto create very fine droplets that evaporate in the air.As the droplets evaporate the air temperature isreduced a few degrees. The cooler air is blown pastthe cows. The amount of cooling achieved dependson the air temperature and relative humidity and theamount of evaporated water. Misting systems work

Figure 7-10. Supplemental cooling fan placement in the holding pen.Place fans in the pen when possible. Bottom figure shows an alternative fan placement.

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83

Chapter 7Building

Environment

Cow Alley

Cow Feeding Alley

Drive-through Feeding Alley

A

(10) x (fan diameter) = Distance between fans

(10) x (fan diameter) = Distance between fans

Figure 7-11. Supplemental cooling fans in the cow alley and freestall areas.

Feeding Alley

3’ to 4”3’

8’ M

in.

Clea

ranc

e He

ight

Cow Alley

a. Front view

b. Plan view

c. Side view

A= Height above floor to avoid contact by animals and equipment (see Figure 7-11a)

84


best in dry climates. Adequate ventilation (airexchange) is required to remove the humidified andheated air.

High-pressure misting systems run continuouslywhen cooling is needed. Equipment suppliers havemisting systems that can be mounted directly oncooling fans. Booster pumps are required to providethe water pressure needed to create the fine droplets.When designed, installed, and maintained properly, ahigh-pressure misting system can cool air aroundcows without wetting the cows or their surroundings.This means that misting systems can be used in areaswhere sprinklers cannot be used. However, improp-erly operating units can quickly wet a considerablearea. Incomplete evaporation of the droplets resultsin wet stalls, inefficient water use, and ineffectivecooling. Again, small water droplets cling to thecow’s haircoat, creating an insulating layer. Mistingsystems suffer from nozzle plugging. Water filtersreduce plugging but add to the maintenance required.Use piping and connectors that can handle the waterpressure required by the nozzles. Size pipes toprovide adequate water flow and minimal pressuredrop. Misting systems can be automatically con-trolled using a thermostat. Misters are usually set toturn on when air temperatures exceed 78 to 80 F.

Bird ControlExcessive numbers of birds can be a nuisance in

naturally ventilated barns. Screening the ventilationopenings can often reduce bird numbers. Cover theopenings with 3/4-inch hardware cloth or plasticnetting and increase the opening size proportionallyto account for the blockage by the screen. Screenedridge openings may freeze shut in cold weather anddisrupt the natural ventilation. Remove ice when itaccumulates on the screen. Consider blockingnesting areas on truss chords and framing, or putplastic netting under trusses.

For eave inlets, horizontal screening under theeaves keeps birds from roosting or nesting in the eavearea. Vertical screening above the siding may be lesssusceptible to plugging. Choose the screen locationby ease of installation and maintenance or by cost ofinstallation. The framing system dictates these choices.

Selecting structural designs that provide fewernesting and resting locations can reduce birdnumbers, nesting, and the mess from droppings. Wildbird hunting and poisoning is regulated. Federalstatutes protect all wild birds, except sparrows,starlings, and pigeons. Permits are required to hunt orpoison grackles and black birds. Attracting naturalpredators like owls and American Kestrels can reducebird numbers.

Troubleshooting Natural VentilationProper siting, design, construction and manage-

ment will prevent most problems with naturalventilating systems. Check the following items whenplanning a naturally ventilated building.

■ Locate building with clear accessto wind.

■ Design and size inlets and outlet openings foradequate air exchange.

■ Avoid a site with high silos, trees, or otherbuildings close by that limit airflow to thebuilding.

■ Manage inlets and outlets properly. Do notclose openings to increase inside temperatures.The result is usually severe moisture buildup,condensation on the roof and walls, highlevels of ammonia odor, animal respiratoryillness, and a temperature rise. Do not totallyclose ventilation openings.

■ Do not block inlets or outlets by attachingsheds or roof extensions.

■ Provide proper sanitation and housekeeping.Remove wet bedding and manure regularly.Control extra moisture sources (manure, wetbedding, leaky waterers).

■ Select equipment and systems (i.e., waterers)that function in cold weather.

■ Maintain curtains and doors to minimizedrafts.

■ Check for blocked ventilation openings.Remove dirt and debris. Raise or removea ridge cap that restricts the ridge opening.

■ Check recommended animal stocking density.Overcrowding can cause problems.

■ Keep insulation protected and in good repair.■ When summer ventilation openings cannot be

added or obstructions cannot be removed,consider adding supplemental cooling.

■ Provide fascia boards to reduce direct windgusts.

■ Provide a horizontal baffle below the eave inlet.See Figure 7-6.

More detailed trouble shooting recommendationsfor naturally ventilated buildings are available inNatural Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing,MWPS-33.

Mechanical Ventilating SystemsMechanical ventilating systems have fans, controls,

and either air inlets or outlets. A well-designed systemprovides greater control over room temperature and airmovement than natural ventilation. Mechanical

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ventilation works well to ventilate the milking parlor,milk room, utility/mechanical room, office, confer-ence room, break room, and restrooms in the milkingcenter. See Chapter 5, Milking Center, for ventilationrecommendations.

Mechanical ventilation is used to ventilate barnsor rooms with flat ceilings and buildings that areblocked from good natural ventilation by existingbuildings and obstructions. See Mechanical Ventilat-ing Systems for Livestock Housing, MWPS-32, formore complete design information.

Types of Mechanical Ventilating SystemsMechanical ventilating systems types can be

broken into three general categories, negativepressure (exhaust), positive pressure, and neutralpressure. In negative pressure systems, the exhaustfans blow air out of the building and create a nega-tive pressure inside the building. In positive pressuresystems, the fans blow air into the building andcreate a positive pressure inside the building. Neutralpressure systems have fans that blow air both into andout of the building and maintain a neutral pressureinside the building.

Negative pressure systems are commonly usedfor animal facilities because they avoid problemswith moisture being blown into the wall and ceilinginsulation through small cracks. Positive andneutral systems can be used to correct ventilationproblems in existing buildings. See MechanicalVentilating Systems for Livestock Housing,MWPS-32, for design information on other types ofventilating systems.

Mechanical Ventilating System ElementsMechanical ventilating systems use fans, inlets or

outlets, and controls to distribute and mix freshoutside air uniformly in the ventilated room orbuilding. The fans, usually mounted in a wall,ceiling, or duct connected to the outside, force air toflow and create a static pressure difference betweeninside and outside of the building or room. Mixingfans hung inside a room increase air circulation, butthey do not cause the air exchange required by aventilating system. Inlets provide a place for fresh airto enter and are key to fresh air distribution andmixing in a negative pressure ventilating system.Controls can provide automatic adjustment to theventilating rate by turning fans on and off or chang-ing fan speeds. Controls can also be used to adjustinlet opening size to improve air distribution andmixing. Together the fans, inlets or outlets, andcontrols make up the ventilating system for abuilding or room.

Ventilating RatesVentilating rates for good environmental control

depend on many factors. Simple tables are commonlyused to account for number of animals, animal sizeand age, and weather (i.e., cold, mild, or hot). Forwarm barns, base ventilating rates on Table 1-9 andthe expected animal occupancy for the room orbuilding. Ventilating rates for different weather areused for selecting fans and sizing and adjusting inlets.For cold barns, air exchange requirements range fromno less than 0.17 air changes per minute in winter to atleast 1 air exchange per minute in summer.

Negative Pressure (Exhaust)Ventilating Systems

In negative pressure ventilating systems, fansexhaust air from a building, creating a vacuum ornegative pressure inside the building. The slightvacuum pressure difference between inside andoutside the building causes airflow through designedinlets and other openings. Inlets need to be sizedproperly, well distributed, and adjusted as the ventilat-ing rate changes to get uniform fresh air distributionand mixing. It is critical that a clear path exist forventilating air to follow between the outside and theinlet for a mechanical ventilating system to workproperly. If winter ventilation air is taken from theattic, adequate openings from the outside into the atticare necessary. Use 3/4-inch screen on attic or eaveopenings to exclude birds and minimize screenplugging, which will reduce opening area and airflow.

Size long narrow slot inlets based on 1 square foot(144 sq in) of inlet area for each 540 to 750 cfm offan capacity. Continuous slot air inlets in bothsidewalls work well for buildings up to 38 feet wide.The inlets should be continuous along the length ofthe building, except over individual fans or fan banksand 8 feet on either side of the fans. Group fans inone bank for barns up to 150 feet long. Use two ormore fan banks for longer barns. See MechanicalVentilating Systems for Livestock Housing,MWPS-32, for more complete design information.

For inlets to perform properly, seal doors, win-dows, and unplanned openings so fans develop thedesired negative pressure. Fresh air infiltratingthrough unwanted openings reduces the amount ofair entering through planned inlets and disrupts airdistribution. Unwanted openings include:

■ Open doors, windows, manure system dis-charges, feed conveyors, and hay chutes. Ridgeand eave openings for naturally ventilatedbuildings are unwanted openings for mechani-cal ventilation. Too much air entering one areacan leave other areas stagnant.

86


■ Cracks in walls, ceilings, and around doors andwindows. Even small openings can interferewith good air distribution, especially at lowwinter ventilating rates.

■ Flush or scraper openings, or manure pits/channels to the outside or between rooms. Closethese large openings with removable doors orweighted curtains.

Positive Pressure Ventilating SystemsIn positive pressure ventilating systems, fans blow

air into a building creating a positive pressure insidethe building. The positive pressure differencebetween inside and outside the building causes air toexit the building through designed outlets and otheropenings. Fresh air is usually distributed throughdesigned area inlets or ducts. Positive pressureventilating systems generally provide good airdistribution and mixing, but can force moist air intowalls and attic spaces. This is a critical problem inclimates where the moisture can condense or freezeon insulation in the walls or attic. A properly in-stalled and well-protected vapor retarder willminimize moisture problems but not eliminate them.Frost may freeze doors and windows shut. Fansmounted in the endwall of a parlor blowing in duringsummer with air leaving through the holding area is agood application of a positive pressure system. SeeMechanical Ventilating Systems for LivestockHousing, MWPS-32, for more complete designinformation.

Neutral Pressure Ventilating SystemsIn neutral pressure ventilating systems, similarly

sized fans blow air into and exhaust air from thebuilding at the same time. The two or more push-pullfans create a near neutral pressure inside the building.Exhaust fans are usually sized slightly larger tocreate a slight negative pressure. Like positivepressure systems, fresh air is distributed throughdesigned area inlets or ducts to provide good airdistribution and mixing. Neutral pressure systems aremore expensive to build and operate because theyhave twice the number of fans. See MechanicalVentilating Systems for Livestock Housing,MWPS-32, for more complete design information.

Fan Selection GuidelinesSelect fans to move the required air flow against at

least 1/8 inch (0.125 inch) static pressure. Considerthe reduction in fan capacity due to screens, shutters,and hoods when selecting fans. Provide the coldweather ventilation capacity with single-speed ortwo-speed fans. Provide additional capacity with

single-speed, multiple-speed, and/or variable-speedfans to provide mild and hot weather ventilatingrates. Purchase fans that have an Air Movement andControl Association (AMCA) certified rating seal orequivalent testing and rating.

Use fans designed specifically for animal housing.Buy totally enclosed, split phase or capacitor-typefarm-duty fan motors. Wire each fan to a separatecircuit to avoid shutdown of the entire ventilatingsystem when one motor blows a fuse. Protect each fanwith a time-delay-fused switch at the fan. Size time-delay fuses at 25% over fan amperage.

Select fan motors with thermal overload protectionwith manual reset switches. Manual reset switchesreduce the safety hazard of a fan starting while beingchecked and reduce on-off cycling that can damagethe motor.

Proper maintenance is important for good ventila-tion. Keep fans, shutters, and other equipment cleanand properly lubricated. Adjust and replace belts asrequired. Use belt tighteners on fans to reducemaintenance time.

Ventilating System ControlsVarious controllers are available to automatically

adjust fans, heaters, inlets, sidewall openings, andsprinklers. The controllers can turn devices on andoff or make incremental changes (i.e., change variablespeed fans or adjust inlet opening) depending on thedevice being controlled. Check controller settingsand performance every six months. Replace damagedor corroded units.

Thermostatic control is the most common type ofcontrol used. Temperature control is done usingsingle or two stage thermostats or solid state control-lers and computer systems. Thermostatic controllerscan be used to control heaters, cooling systemsprinklers and mixing fans, ventilating fans inmechanically ventilated systems, and sidewallopening size in naturally ventilated buildings. Sensorlocation is important for obtaining a representativetemperature. Avoid placing thermostatic sensors ininlet or heater air streams, sunlit areas, on exteriorwalls, and where animals can damage them. SeeMechanical Ventilating Systems for LivestockHousing, MWPS-32, for information on fan andheater staging to avoid wasting supplemental heat.

Timers turn devices on and off based on time.Interval or cycle timers are the most common.Common periods are 5, 10, 30 minutes, and 1, 2, 4and 24 hours. During an interval, the timer can turn adevice on and off for one or more periods of time.Interval timers can be used to control lights,

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Chapter 7Building

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sprinklers in a supplemental cooling system (i.e., on3 out of 15 minutes), and exhaust fans in milkingparlors for moisture control after cleanup. Timers arenot recommended for providing the minimumventilating rate in mechanically ventilated barns.

Static pressure sensor/controllers are available forautomatically adjusting inlets for mechanicallyventilated buildings and rooms. Locate the pressuresensors to minimize wind effects and protect the outsidesensor. Set the sensor to maintain a static pressuredifference of between 0.04 and 0.08 inches of water.

Manure Pit VentilationWell-designed pit ventilation reduces manure gas

and odor in the animal area, improves air distribu-tion, and helps warm and dry floors. All mechanicallyventilated, slotted floor buildings can benefit frompit ventilation. Pit ventilation does not mean the pitis free of harmful gases. Entry into manure pitsrequires proper safety precautions or the personentering the pit could be overcome by harmful gasesand die.

Allow at least 12 inches of clearance between thebottom of slat support beams and the manure surfacefor pit ventilation airflow. Variable-speed fans are notrecommended. Fans made with corrosion resistantmaterials or finishes are required. See MechanicalVentilating Systems for Livestock Housing,MWPS-32, for design information.

Attic VentilationProvide continuous ventilation of attic spaces to

minimize moisture buildup caused by weatherchanges and stable moisture. Use gable louvers andridge and soffit vents. Provide 1 square inch of netopening area for each square foot of ceiling area.Divide the open area between eaves and ridge and/orgable areas. Be sure that attic ventilation openingsdo not trap large amounts of warm, moist airexhausted from an animal space. Use 3/4-inch by3/4-inch hardware cloth to screen openings to keepbirds out. Check screens annually and clean asneeded to maintain adequate opening area.

Supplemental HeatersSupplemental heat may be required to maintain

the desired temperature and improve thermal comfort.Radiant, space, and make-up heaters are available.Radiant heaters warm surfaces and can providewarmth without heating the air. Unit heaters heatroom air directly. Make-up air heaters heat incoming

ventilation air. Regular and proper maintenance isrequired to maintain efficient and safe operation. SeeHeating, Cooling and Tempering Air for LivestockHousing, MWPS-34, for design information for sizingsupplemental heating systems.

Unvented heaters add both heat and products ofcombustion into the building. The products ofcombustion include gases that can create health andsafety problems within the building if concentrationsaccumulate. For this reason unvented heaters are notrecommended.

InsulationInsulation is any material that reduces heat

transfer from one area to another. Although allbuilding materials have some insulating value, theterm insulation usually refers to materials with arelatively high resistance to heat flow. A material’sR-value indicates its resistance to heat flow. Goodinsulators have high R-values. See MechanicalVentilating Systems for Livestock Housing,MWPS-32, for more discussion on insulation andinsulation values.

Insulation LevelsInsulation levels for milking centers are based

on wintertime building heat loss and the potentialfor moisture to condense on ceilings and exteriorwalls. Provide a minimum insulation level of R=11in the walls and R=19 in the ceiling. Additionalinsulation is desirable if it can be installed easilyand economically.

Insulation is not needed in dairy barns kept withina few degrees of the ambient temperature all year.Roof insulation is needed when interior temperaturesare to be kept above 10 F while outdoor temperaturesare below 0 F. When using roof insulation provide anR-value greater than or equal to five. Do not use roofinsulation to hide condensation problems caused byinadequate ventilation.

Installing InsulationFigures 7-12 through 7-15 show common con-

struction methods for insulated roofs, ceilings, walls,and foundations. Do not compress or pack batt,blanket, or loose fill-type insulating products.

Perimeter insulation reduces heat loss through thefoundation and eliminates cold, wet floors in heatedbuildings. Insulate the entire concrete exterior to aminimum of 24 inches below the ground line.Rodents can burrow as much as 36 inches belowgrade, damaging insulation and foundations. Use2-inch rigid, closed-pore insulation, and protect it

88


with high-density fiberglass reinforced plastic orfoundation grade plywood above and below ground.See Figure 7-15.

Vapor RetardersWet insulation loses its insulating effectiveness,

which increases heat loss and building deterioration.Vapor retarders protect insulation effectiveness byrestricting moisture migration through walls, ceil-ings, and roofs. Vapor retarders are classified by theirpermeability rating measured in perms.

Install 4- to 6-mil polyethylene (plastic) vaporretarders on the warm side of all insulated walls,ceilings, and roofs. Use polyethylene vapor retardersunderneath concrete floors and foundations tocontrol soil moisture penetration. Use waterproofrigid insulation if in contact with soil. See Figures7-12 through 7-15 for proper vapor barrier locations.Avoid puncturing or cutting holes into vaporretarders to minimize moisture migration through theholes. Provide ventilation in enclosed areas (seeAttic Ventilation) on the cold side of insulatedsurfaces.

Figure 7-12. Insulating ceilings.Loose-fill, batt, or blanket insulation recommended forinsulating ceilings in environmentally controlledbuildings. Insulation must cover the truss bottom chord.

Truss Chord, up to 8 o.c.

R24+ Insulation

2x4 Nailers on Edge up to 4 o.c.

6 mil Plastic Vapor Retarder

Metal Ceiling, ribs across building

8" Painted Plywood Ceiling with Edges Blocked

Fiberglass-Reinforced-Plastic (FRP) Board Ceiling

-or-

-or-

Figure 7-13. Insulating roofs.

Metal Roofing

2" Rigid Insulation

Vapor Retarder

" Fire-ratedPlywood

2x4 Purlin

Truss Top Chord

Metal Roofing

3 " Batt Insulation

Vapor Retarder

" Fire-ratedPlywood

2x4 Purlin

Truss Top Chord

a. Rigid foam over purlins.

b. Insulated roof panels over trusses.

Fabricate on the ground and lift intoplace—then apply roofing.

Figure 7-14. Insulating foundations.Foundation perimeter insulation on outside (R=2.2 perfoot). Use waterproof insulation and protect fromdamage with a rigid, waterproof covering. Tempered 1/4''hardboard and 3/8'' foundation grade plywood resistphysical and moisture damage but are not rodent proof.Backfill with soil to within 6'' to 8'' of insulation top.

89

Chapter 7Building

Environment

Figure 7-15. Insulating walls.

d. Glazed tile and block wall insulation.Approximate R=10 if standard blocks, R=14 iflightweight blocks with cores filled.

c. Concrete block wall insulation.

Approximate R=10 if standard blocks, R=14 iflightweight blocks with cores filled. Can be usedfor remodeling.

b. Post frame building wall with 6" batt

insulation.

Approximate R=21.

a. Stud wall insulation.

Approximate R=12 if 2x4 studs, 20 if 2x6 studs.Common in warm buildings.

Metal Siding

Stud

Batt Insulation

Vapor Retarder

Interior Liner

Metal Siding

2 x 4 Nailer

2 x 4 Girt

Interior Liner

Vapor Retarder

6” Batt Insulation

6 x 6 Post

1 x 4 Nailer

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa a aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa a aaaaaaaaaaa a aa aaaaa aaaaaa2 x 2 Furring Board

Concrete Block

1 1/3” Rigid WaterproofInsulation

Interior Liner

Vapor Retarderaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa a aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa a aaaaaaaaaaa a aa aaaaa aaaaaa2” Rigid Insulation

Metal Tiles

Concrete Block

Metal Tiles

Glazed Tiles

90


Fire ResistanceMany types of plastic foam insulation commonly

used in farm buildings have extremely high flamespread rates and need to be covered with a fire-resistantmaterial. When plastic foam insulation is not covered,insurance may be refused for the structure.

To reduce risk, protect foam insulation with fire-resistant coatings. Do not use fire rated gypsum board(sheet rock) in high moisture environments such asanimal housing. Materials that provide satisfactoryprotection include

■ 1/2-inch thick cement plaster.■ 1/4-inch thick, sprayed-on magnesium

oxychloride (60 pounds per cubic foot) or1/2-inch of the lighter, foam material.

■ Fire rated 1/2-inch thick exterior plywood.

If using fiberglass reinforced plastic coverings,choose fire rated products.

Birds and RodentsProtect insulation from bird and rodent damage

with interior liners and exterior siding or roofing.Be sure to protect the ends of the insulation. Analuminum foil covering is not sufficient protection.

Cover exposed perimeter insulation with aprotective liner. High density, fiberglass reinforcedplastic is preferred. Foundation grade plywood3/8-inch thick resists physical and moisture damagebut is not rodent proof. Seal holes and cracks in wallsand ceilings to limit rodent access. Maintain a rodentbait program.

Screen eave and gable openings with 3/4-inch by3/4-inch hardware cloth to exclude birds. Removeany ice that accumulates on the screen duringprolonged cold periods.

Doors and WindowsLoose fitting doors and windows and cracks around

window and doorframes, pipes, and wires can createcold spots, drafty areas, or condensation problems inmechanically ventilated buildings. Cracks and leaksalso reduce the effectiveness of the ventilating systeminlets. Use insulated and weather stripped entry doorsto minimize leaks and heat loss. Locate doors on thedownwind side to minimize drafts during entry. Forupwind entries, a vestibule or hallway between outerand inner doors prevents cold wind from blowingdirectly into the building. To conserve floor area,consider making the vestibule entrance part of ahallway, storage area, wash room, or office.

Minimize windows and skylights in animalhousing. In warm buildings, windows and skylightsincrease winter heat loss. The insulation value ofsingle and double glazed windows (R=1 to 2.5) iswell below the R-value of an insulated wall (R=13to 15). In cold barns, skylights can cause roof waterleaks and increase the summer heat load.

When remodeling a building, consider replacingall windows with insulated inlets or permanent wallsections. Insulated through-the-wall inlets can beused for summer ventilation. Caulk cracks and jointson outside surfaces.

91

A manure management system includes thesecomponents:

■ Collection.■ Transfer.■ Storage.■ Possible treatment.■ Land application.■ Nutrient utilization and sampling.

Intensive, more specialized, concentrated animalproduction systems have altered the nutrient cycle andbalance between crop production and animal production.Independent of operation size, a proper manure manage-ment system and plan are essential. A complete manuremanagement system has the following goals:

■ Maintain good animal health and milk quality byproviding sanitary facilities.

■ Avoid pollution of soil, groundwater orsurface water.

■ Reduce odors and dust.■ Control insect and rodent (other pest) reproduction.■ Balance capital investment, cash-flow requirements,

labor, and nutrient use.■ Comply with appropriate state and local regulations

pertaining to manure and effluent handling.

Failure to provide adequate manure collection,handling, and storage facilities in conjunction withadequate land area for proper application and utilization

of manure nutrients could adversely affect air, water, andland resources.

Degraded stream water quality and fish kills can resultfrom manure and feed waste entering from surface runoff.Improperly designed or constructed waste storagefacilities, or over-application of nitrogen or phosphoruscan lead to groundwater pollution. Many livestockowners and operators are conscious of manure’s pollutionpotential and have taken steps to control it.

Proper design and management are essential topollution control when operating animal facilities.Choose a manure handling system that most nearlymatches a producer’s resources, including abilities anddesire to operate the system.

Beyond the concern for pollution control and compli-ance with local, state, and federal standards, livestockproducers benefit from the manure’s fertilizer value.Using manure nutrients in crop production wisely is apractical method of controlling pollution. The value ofmanure as a source of plant nutrients needs to be givenstrong consideration in a manure management system.

A complete manure management plan includes:■ Estimate of annual manure production.■ Estimate of annual nutrient production.■ Estimate of annual crop nutrient utilization potential.■ Cropping rotation.■ Land available for application during the year.■ Adequate collection, handling, and storage

facilities.

MMMMManagement of animal manure and effluent is an integral part of a total farmmanagement plan. Changes in agricultural production have led to fewer

producers, larger average herd sizes, purchase of feed from distant areas, and a muchhigher concentration of animals and production facilities on less land. In some areaslivestock operations have become concentrated, and non-farm residents havelocated amongst the farms. These features increase the challenge for implementinggood manure management plans.

This chapter identifies the sources of manure and effluent and provides anoverview of selected handling and storage systems. See the Manure Managementpublications from MWPS, for detailed system design. Contact a registeredprofessional engineer or the local Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)office for specialized design assistance.

Chapter 8Manure and Effluent ManagementRichard Stowell, Extension Ag Engineer, The Ohio State University,and Joe Zulovich, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Missouri

92

Chapter 8Manureand EffluentManagement

■ Analysis of animals’ rations to avoid overfeedingnutrients.

■ An emergency action plan to quickly deal withaccidental manure spills or other environmentalemergencies.

No single manure management system is best forall operations. Each system has advantages anddisadvantages. Proper implementation and manage-ment are the keys to a successfully operated manuremanagement system. When selecting a manuremanagement system for a specific operation,consider these factors:

■ Animal, age and size.■ Feed.■ Housing.■ Bedding.■ Cropping practices.■ Topography of farmstead.■ Proximity to waterways and neighbors.■ Labor and equipment.■ Personal preference.■ Future expansion.

Manure and Effluent VolumesEstimating the amount of manure and effluent that

must be collected and stored is an important step in amanagement plan. To calculate manure and effluentvolumes on a dairy, consider the following:

■ Manure from livestock.■ Bedding.

■ Milking center effluent and recycling wash water.■ Precipitation on open storage area.■ Evaporation from open storage area.■ Flushing water from the freestall barn, parlor, or

holding area.■ Runoff from roofs and outside lots.■ Seepage from stored silage.

Use Equation 8-1 to determine the size of manureand effluent storage for the desired storage period.See Manure Management publications from MWPSfor more on sizing storages.

Dairy cattle produce 1.2 to 1.6 cubic feet (69 to103 pounds) of manure per day per 1,000 pounds ofbody weight. Fresh manure, a mixture of urine andfeces, is 12 to 14% solids (86 to 88% moisturecontent, wet basis). Actual manure volume and solidscontent of fresh manure vary depending on the rationfed, animal age, and level of milk production. Table8-1 gives approximate daily manure productionvalues for dairy cattle of various weights. If possible,use site specific data in designing a storage unitinstead of the values shown.

BeddingThe type and amount of organic bedding used

depends on housing type, Table 8-2. Manure fromloose housing or bedded pens is typically handledand stored as a solid. Manure from freestall barns ishandled as a semi-solid or slurry. Adding organicbedding, such as straw, to manure increases the solidscontent.

Table 8-1. Daily fresh manure production of dairy cattle.Values are approximate. The actual characteristics of a manure can easily have values 30% or more above orbelow the table values. The volumes of manure that a manure handling system has to handle can be muchlarger than the table values due to the addition of water, bedding, etc.

Stage ofStage ofStage ofStage ofStage of SizeSizeSizeSizeSize Daily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw ExcretedDaily Raw Excreted WaterWaterWaterWaterWater DensityDensityDensityDensityDensity TSTSTSTSTS VSVSVSVSVS BODBODBODBODBOD55555 Nutrient content (lbs)Nutrient content (lbs)Nutrient content (lbs)Nutrient content (lbs)Nutrient content (lbs)ProductionProductionProductionProductionProduction (lb)(lb)(lb)(lb)(lb) (lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs) (cu ft)(cu ft)(cu ft)(cu ft)(cu ft) (gal)(gal)(gal)(gal)(gal) (lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft)(lb/cu ft) (lb)(lb)(lb)(lb)(lb) (lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs) (lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs)(lbs) NNNNN PPPPP22222OOOOO55555 KKKKK22222OOOOO

Heifer 150 13 0.20 1.5 88% 65 1.4 1.2 0.20 0.05 0.01 0.04250 21 0.32 2.4 88% 65 2.3 1.9 0.33 0.08 0.02 0.07750 65 1.00 7.5 88% 65 6.8 5.8 1.00 0.23 0.07 0.22

Lactating 1,000 106 1.70 12.8 88% 62 10.0 8.5 1.60 0.58 0.30 0.311,400 148 2.40 17.9 88% 62 14.0 11.9 2.24 0.82 0.42 0.48

Dry 1,000 82 1.30 9.7 88% 62 9.5 8.1 1.20 0.36 0.11 0.281,400 115 1.83 13.7 88% 62 13.3 11.3 1.70 0.50 0.20 0.40

TS = total solids; VS = volatile solids; N = total nitrogenBOD5 = the oxygen used in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter in 5 days at 68 F. A standard test to assess effluent strength.Elemental P (Phosphorus) = 0.44 x P2O5; Elemental K (potassium) = 0.83 x K2O

Equation 8-1. Manure storage volume.

( ) ( ) ( )Storage

Volume = Manure + Bedding +

Milking Center

Effluent +

Flush

Water +

Open Storage

Precipitation -. Evaporation

93

Chapter 8Manure

and EffluentManagement

Bedding used in freestalls also adds to the manurestorage volume needed. For sand bedding, add the fullvolume of bedding to the total storage needs. Fororganic materials, allow additional storage volume forone half of the total bedding volume because organicbedding materials absorb moisture from the manure.Estimate the total bedding volume by dividing theweight of bedding used by the bulk density, Table 8-3.

Handled properly, almost any type of absorbent,soft material can be effective bedding. However, sometypes of manure handling equipment and storageslimit the use of certain bedding materials. Long orchopped straw, sawdust, sand, shredded newsprint,composted manure solids, or rice hulls can be used tobed freestalls. Use finely chopped bedding materialswith hollow-piston pumps, gravity flow pipes, flushsystems, or slotted-floor barns. Long straw and othercoarse bedding materials can be handled with tractorscraping and solid-piston pumps and chopper pumps.

Sawdust from kiln-dried lumber can be used onstall mattresses and clay bases. Very fine lime(powder) works when dusted daily on mattresses.However, as deep bedding on dirt surfaces it mayencourage coliform mastitis. Do not use woodchipswhen other choices are available. Green sawdust canharbor organisms that cause Klebsiela mastitis, so agegreen sawdust before using it as bedding.

Sand provides a very comfortable freestall surfacefor dairy cows. Sand drains well and, unlike organicbedding materials, does not provide a good growingenvironment for mastitis-causing microorganisms.Sand that is worked out of the freestalls into the alley

Table 8-3. Bulk densities of common bedding

materials.

MaterialMaterialMaterialMaterialMaterial Bulk density, lb/ftBulk density, lb/ftBulk density, lb/ftBulk density, lb/ftBulk density, lb/ft33333

Shavings 9

Sawdust 12

Baled straw 4-5

Chopped straw 6-8

Loose straw 2-3

Sand 100-120

Table 8-2. Bedding requirements for dairy cattle.

Bedding materialBedding materialBedding materialBedding materialBedding material FreestallFreestallFreestallFreestallFreestall Bedded packBedded packBedded packBedded packBedded pack - - - lb/day per 1,000 lb of animal weight - - -- - - lb/day per 1,000 lb of animal weight - - -- - - lb/day per 1,000 lb of animal weight - - -- - - lb/day per 1,000 lb of animal weight - - -- - - lb/day per 1,000 lb of animal weight - - -

Chopped straw 2.7 11.0

Long straw NR 9.3

Shavings 3.1 NR

Sand 20-40 NR

NR = not recommended

also helps to prevent cows from slipping. However,manure mixed with sand is abrasive and causesmanure pumping and scraping equipment to wear outquickly. If allowed by state regulations daily spread-ing of manure is common on farms that use sandbedded freestalls.

Sand is incompatible with most gravity flow andslotted floor systems because it tends to settle out instorages and clog pipes. The same is true for crushedlimestone, paper mill sludge, clay, and other materi-als that are more dense than water. Sand does notabsorb moisture from the manure. An absorbentmaterial may be needed to remove manure from asemi-solid storage with a loader during warm weather.

Producers who plan to hire a contractor to empty astorage unit and spread manure and effluent oncropland should contact the contractor to see if theywill handle sand-laden manure. Well-managed stallmattresses, Figure 4-5, can provide the cow with thecomfort and cleanliness benefits without the manureand effluent handling complications.

Estimating Manure and Bedding Volumesfor Storage

The volume of manure produced by cows variesgreatly depending on the level of milk productionand rations fed. The amount and type of beddingused also varies greatly. Therefore, use higherestimates of the storage volumes for manure andbedding is warranted. (Equation 8-2 and Table 8-4).

In Example 8-1, freestall housing requires 20,440cubic feet less storage than loose housing. However,

Example 8-1. Determining the annual storage

volume for manure and bedding.Determine the annual storage volume required formanure and bedding for 100 cows. Compare freestallversus loose housing needs using chopped straw.

Solution:Solution:Solution:Solution:Solution:Assume all cows weigh 1,400 pounds. The requiredstorage volumes are:

Freestalls:(100 cows) x (1,400 lb/cow) x (1.7 ft3/day/1,000 lb cow) x

365 days = 86,870 cu ft

Loose housing (where all manure and beddingstored):(100 cows) x (1,400 lb/cow) x (2.1 ft3/day/1,000 lb cow) x

365 days = 107,310 cu ft

94


much, if not all, loose housing storage is in thebedded pack and not in an outside storage. Thestorage capacity for manure scraped from alleys in abedded pack barn where the pack is spread directlymay need to be 53,655 cu ft (107,310 cu ft x (1 -0.50)). Also, bedded pack manure can be stacked,while freestall manure must be contained.

Milking Center Effluent VolumesThe amount of milking center effluent generated

varies greatly depending on the type of cleaningmethods for floors and udders, and the type of milkingsystem, Table 8-5. For example, a parlor floor that iscleaned with a hose may require only 80 gallons ofwater per day, but a flush system can require as muchas 4,000 gallons of water per day. Effluent generatedfrom a 100-cow operation with automatic milkingsystem washing equipment and a hose for cleaning theparlor floor, can vary from 450 to 850 gallons per day.Small operations tend to use less water for cleaningfloors and equipment, but more water per cow. Waterconservation measures, such as using effluent waterfrom a pre-cooler to clean floors or water livestock, cangreatly reduce the amount of effluent created in themilking center. Effluent generation rate is related moreto system design and management than the number ofcows milked.

Precipitation and EvaporationPrecipitation that falls on uncovered manure

storage must be included in storage volume calcula-tions. Figure 8-1 shows a normal annual precipitationfor the United States. The amount of precipitationthat needs to be included depends on:

■ Desired storage period.■ Average amount of precipitation during the

storage period.■ The amount of evaporation that is likely to

occur from the storage surface.■ Top area of storage.

Most dairy manure storages that use an organicbedding form a crust due to the high fiber content ofthe manure. If a large amount of dilution water isadded to the storage unit, then a crust does not form.Examples of manure storage units that do not form acrust are storage units used with flush systems andanaerobic lagoons. The rate of evaporation from an

encrusted surface is small; do not include evapora-tion in sizing calculations.

RunoffPolluted runoff from outside lots must be collected

and disposed of in an environmentally safe manner.Polluted runoff comes from several sources:

Equation 8-2. Storage volume for manure and bedding.

Table 8-5. Approximate milking center effluent

and flush volumes.

Washing operationWashing operationWashing operationWashing operationWashing operation Water volumeWater volumeWater volumeWater volumeWater volumeBulk tankBulk tankBulk tankBulk tankBulk tank

Automatic 50-60 gal/washManual 30-40 gal/wash

Pipeline in parlorPipeline in parlorPipeline in parlorPipeline in parlorPipeline in parlor 75-125 gal/wash(Volume increases for longpipelines in stanchion barns)

Pail milkerPail milkerPail milkerPail milkerPail milkerMiscellaneous equipment 30 gal/day

Cow preparationCow preparationCow preparationCow preparationCow preparationAutomatic 1.0-4.5 gal/washed cowEstimated average 2 gal/washed cowManual 0.25-0.5 gal/washed cow

Parlor floorParlor floorParlor floorParlor floorParlor floorCleaned with a hose 20-40 gal/milkingFlusha 800-2,100 gal/milkingWell water pre-cooler 2 gal/gal of milk cooledMilkhouse floor 10-20 gal/dayToilet 5 gal/flush

aAmount of water needed depends on width of flush alley. SeeTable 8-7 for more information about flush parameters. Toconvert to cubic feet, divide gallons by 7.5.

( )Manure & Bedding

Storage Volume = Number of Cows x

Avg. Cow

Weight x

Total Manure Volume

per 1,000 lb cow - day x

Length of

Storage

Table 8-4. Volumes of manure and bedding used

in sizing storages.Based on live animal weight.

ManureManureManureManureManure BeddingBeddingBeddingBeddingBedding TTTTTotalotalotalotalotalHousing typeHousing typeHousing typeHousing typeHousing type volumevolumevolumevolumevolume volumevolumevolumevolumevolume volumevolumevolumevolumevolume

- - - - ft3/day per 1,000 lb - - - -

FreestallFreestallFreestallFreestallFreestallSand bedding 1.7 0.3 2.0Organic bedding 1.7 0.2 1.8a

Loose HousingLoose HousingLoose HousingLoose HousingLoose Housingbbbbb

Chopped bedding 1.7 0.8 2.1a

Long straw 1.7 1.9 2.7a

a Assumes that bedding absorbs water up to 50% of beddingvolume.

b Assumes all manure and bedding is delivered to storagewhere bedding pack is hauled directly to the field, reducetotal volume to storage by 50%.

95

Chapter 8Manure


Figure 8-1. Normal annual precipitation, inches.

96


■ Precipitation that falls directly on a lot.■ Precipitation that flows off a roof into a lot.■ Runoff water from surrounding areas that flows

through an open lot.

Reduce runoff collection and storage requirementsby not allowing clean upslope runoff to flow into afeedlot. Divert clean runoff around an outside lot withearthen or concrete channels. Use gutters, downspouts,and/or concrete channels to divert roof runoff away fromoutside lots and to reduce collection requirements.

If runoff water is added to the same storage unit asthe manure and milking center effluent, then thedesign storage period will be reduced greatly duringperiods of heavy rainfall. For lot runoff, a separatecollection and storage unit that removes solids isrecommended. Such a system allows liquids to beirrigated onto cropland between heavy rainfallevents. (See Managing Lot Runoff, page 112).

On many farmsteads it is less expensive to preventthe creation of polluted runoff by roofing the feedingand resting areas for heifers and dry cows than tostore the runoff. Manure must be cleaned from thefeedlot by periodic scraping, but a collection systemfor runoff is not required. Covered feeding areas arerecommended for farmsteads located in areas of Karstgeology or sandy/gravelly soils, or near lakes, rivers,or wetlands.

Manure Consistency and HandlingCharacteristics

Manure consistency is the primary factor thatdetermines the methods used to collect, transfer, andstore manure. Manure consistency is typically statedin terms of the solids content on a wet basis. Manurehandling and storage methods are classified accord-ing to four consistencies:

■ Solid.■ Semi-solid.■ Slurry.■ Liquid.

Additionally, sand-laden manure has specialhandling needs.

SolidSolid manure can be stacked easily and is ob-

tained when the manure is dried sufficiently orbedding is added to increase the solids content to18% or more. About 12 pounds of bedding needs tobe added per 100 pounds (1.67 ft3) of fresh manure tohandle dairy manure as a solid. (This is roughly theamount of manure produced per day from a 1,400 lb

cow.) Solid manure can be handled using front-endloaders, tractor-mounted blades, or mechanicalscrapers. A conventional box-type spreader is used forapplication. Possible spreading mechanisms includepaddles or augers. Sand laden manure will not stackeven if the moisture content is below 80% unless it iscontained.

Semi-solidSemi-solid manure has a solids content ranging

from 10 to 16%. The solids content of fresh dairymanure is 12%, and it may be handled as a semi-solidif precipitation or milking center effluent is notadded. Semi-solid manure may be pumped with apiston pump, unloaded from storage using an auger,or handled with the same type of equipment as issolid manure. Box spreaders with tight end-gates canbe used with semi-solid manure. However flail-typeor V-bottom spreaders generally allow for moreuniform application of semi-solid manure. Flail-typespreaders usually have a shaft mounted parallel to themain axis of the tank. Chain flails mounted to theshaft discharge the manure out the side. V-bottomspreaders convey manure by means of an auger to animpeller located at the side or rear of the spreader.

SlurrySlurry manure contains 4 to 10% solids. Adding

30 gallons of dilution water from precipitation,runoff, or milking center effluent per 100 gallons(13.4 ft3) of fresh manure (about 10 cows) reducesthe solids content to less than 10%. A slurry can behandled with submerged centrifugal, piston, helicalrotor, and positive-displacement gear-type manurepumps. To pump heavy slurries against low pres-sures, use submerged centrifugal, piston, auger, ordiaphragm pumps. Slurry manure is most oftenapplied to cropland using direct injection, or tanksmounted on wagons or trucks. Special irrigationequipment can be used if the solids content is lessthan 6% solids.

LiquidLiquid manure has a solids content of less than

4%. Liquid manure is typically the effluent fromliquid-solid separation equipment, milking centers,or lagoons. Without solid separation, about 250gallons of dilution water must be added per 100gallons of fresh manure to reduce the solids contentto less than 4%. With proper management andscreening, liquid manure can be handled with liquidpumps. However, a slurry or trash pump is moretrouble-free. Liquid manure can be spread using directinjection, tank wagons, or irrigation equipment.

97

Chapter 8Manure


Sand-laden ManureSand bedding improves herd health and milk

quality by reducing mastitis and somatic cell counts.However, moisture from the manure is not retained orabsorbed in the sand when compared to organictypes of freestall bedding. The consistency of sand-laden manure is similar to a slurry when wet and cannot be stacked on concrete areas like manure contain-ing straw, paper or wood shavings. While sand’sabrasiveness decreases the life of equipment duringhandling, many producers feel that improvements inherd health offset this disadvantage.

Collection and TransferSeveral collection and transfer methods are

possible. Selection considerations include:■ Facility type.■ Labor requirements.■ Investment.■ Manure management system.

Collection MethodsFreestall housing, loose housing, and open-lot

systems have different requirements and options forcollection systems.

Before removal, freestall manure is usually a semi-solid and can be stored in an outdoor storage. Withoutdoor storages, remove manure from the buildingwith a mechanical or tractor scraper, front-end loader,flushing gutter, or gravity-flow gutters or channels.

Clean freestall alleys each time the cows aremoved to the parlor. Frequent removal of manurefrom the barn keeps cows clean resulting in aprobable decrease in somatic cell count due toenvironmental mastitis. Clean cows also increase thethroughput rate of the parlor because less time isrequired to clean udders before milking.

An open-lot system requires two manure-handlingsystems. Lot scrapings and sheltered-bedded packsare semi-solid or solid. Lot runoff is liquid. Solid orsemi-solid manure from shelters or lots can be movedto storage with a tractor scraper or front-end loader.

Lot runoff contains manure, soil, chemicals, anddebris and must be handled in the manure manage-ment system. Runoff from roofs, drives (not animalalleys), and grassed or cropped areas without animaltraffic are relatively clean; divert clean runoff fromthe manure handling system.

Tractor ScrapeOne of the most common methods of manure

collection from freestall alleys, outside lots, andloose housing is scraping with a tractor-mounted

blade or bucket, or a skid loader. To reduce polishingof the concrete floor, many producers use a rubberscraper fabricated from half of a large tire. The tire isbolted to a metal frame that can be mounted to thefront of a tractor or a skid loader. The curved shape ofthe tire also results in less manure flowing out alongthe edges. During sub-zero weather, remove frozenmanure with a hydraulically operated metal-edgedbucket or blade.

Large, tractor-mounted loaders are suitable forremoving manure from outside lots and scrape alleyswith straight runs and few turns. Wide front wheelspacing is desirable for stability. A loaded bucketreduces rear wheel traction, so limit use to relativelyflat areas. Avoid using tractor-mounted loaders inbuildings that require backing down long alleys orthat have restricted turning areas.

Skid loaders can be used to clean manure fromcramped areas, such as resting areas in bedded-packheifer barns. Most loaders have a low height and aturning radius of their own length, so they can beused in tight quarters. One disadvantage is that somehave a relatively low lifting capacity. Anotherdisadvantage is the damage caused by maneuveringinto the structure and equipment.

Mechanical Alley ScrapersA typical alley scraper has one or more blades, a

cable or chain drive to pull the blades, a 0.5- to1-horsepower electric motor and controls. The cableor chain is typically recessed into a groove in thecenter of the alley. The blade is wide enough toscrape the entire alley in one pass. A time clock canbe used to operate an alley scraper several times perday. Continuous operation is needed in cold weatherto prevent the blade from freezing to the floor and tokeep frozen manure from building too deep. Alleyscrapers are not effective at removing frozen manure.Therefore, they do not perform well in cold barnswhen the outside temperature falls below 0 F. Tractorscraping must be used as the backup manure collec-tion system during extreme winter weather.

Mechanical scrapers can reduce daily laborrequirements. However, maintenance requirementscan be high because of corrosion and deteriorationdue to the environment.

Slotted FloorConcrete slotted floors provide a means by which

manure is quickly removed from the animal environ-ment with minimal labor cost. Manure either fallsthrough the slotted floor or is worked through thefloor by animal traffic. Manure is stored in a pitbeneath the floor or removed with gravity-flow

98


channels, flushing systems, or mechanical scrapers.Mechanical alley scrapers are not recommended foruse beneath slotted floors because equipment repairor replacement is difficult. Operations using deep pitstorage and gravity flow channels should avoid usingsand in the freestalls. Sand that accumulates in the pittends to settle to the bottom of the pit and is difficultto remove. The result is a decrease in storage capacity.

Storage of manure and milking center effluent in apit beneath a slotted floor combines manure collec-tion, transfer, and storage. However, manure pits canlead to a buildup of manure gases and moisture in theanimal environment. The increased concentrations ofcorrosive gases and moisture can lead to prematuredeterioration of metal gusset plates on trusses. Manuregas concentrations can become dangerously highinside buildings during agitation and pumping.Therefore, evacuate all people and livestock from thebuilding, and maximize the ventilation rate whileemptying the pit. Proper management of the ventila-tion system (natural or mechanical) is critical to thesafe operation of a slotted floor over a manure pit. Pitslarge enough to accommodate eight months or more ofstorage can be difficult to agitate to ensure adequatesolids removal and are expensive to construct.

Manure collected beneath a slotted floor also canbe removed by flushing. The channel beneath theslotted floor should have straight sides, and the flushparameters are similar to those given in Table 8-6.Flushing beneath slotted floors has these primaryadvantages:

■ Animals are separated from the flush waterresulting in dryer hooves.

■ Freezing of flush water below the slots createsless slipping problems for cows.

However, using slats with a flush system signifi-cantly increases the capital investment.

Gravity-flow ChannelsGravity-flow channels beneath a slotted floor or a

grate can be used to collect manure and milkingcenter effluent. Manure continuously flows slowly toa reception pit, cross channel, or discharge pipe sominimal labor is required to collect or transfermanure to storage. Biological activity helps liquifymanure and maintain flow.

The basic elements of a gravity-flow channel,shown in Figure 8-2, include a flat, level bottom; a6-inch high dam at the discharge end; and a designeddepth and length. The 6-inch dam is required to holdback a lubricating liquid layer. The manure assumes aslope ranging from 1.5% to 3%, depending on themoisture content of the manure. A slope of 3% is

typically used for design. The level floor and the damconserve liquid in the system to facilitate flow. If nodam is present, liquids will tend to flow out of thesystem leaving a build up of solids, and flow willstop.

This system usually does not work well for drycows and heifers because of the thick consistency oftheir manure. The required depth of the channeldepends on the length of the channel, the slatthickness, and the required freeboard. See Equations8-3 to 8-6 to calculate channel depth.

Equation 8-3 shows the initial channel depthneeded for a length of 80 feet is 3.9 feet or 47 inches.The maximum practical channel length recommendedbetween steps is 80 feet; however, lengths up to 132feet have been used. Table 8-6 summarizes somecommon gravity-flow designs.

The overflow dam can be concrete blocks, poured-in-place concrete, a steel plate, or pressure-treatedwood. A removable dam and an access port allow fortotal clean out if desired.

Before putting cows in the building, fill thechannel with 6 inches of water to form a lubricatinglayer. Limit the use of finely chopped bedding to1 pound per cow per day. Do not use long straw. Donot use sand. Avoid adding milking center effluentcontaining disinfectants to channels in the freestallarea because it may kill desired biological organisms.

Three conditions typically slow or stop the flow ofmanure in gravity-flow channels:

■ Drying of the manure surface during the summer.■ Freezing of manure in winter.■ Manure sticking to sidewalls.

Provide a convenient way to add water to allchannels at the end opposite the dam to restart the flowof manure. During sub-zero weather, the channel servesas temporary storage for two to three weeks. Restart theflow of manure when the weather moderates.

Table 8-6. Gravity-flow step height.Based on level channel bottom and 3% manure slope.Reception pit depth should be 2 ft minimum, Figure 8-2.

ChannelChannelChannelChannelChannel Initial channel Initial channel Initial channel Initial channel Initial channel StepStepStepStepSteplength, ftlength, ftlength, ftlength, ftlength, ft depthdepthdepthdepthdepthaaaaa, in, in, in, in, in heightheightheightheightheightbbbbb, in, in, in, in, in

40 32 20

50 36 24

60 40 28

70 43 31

80 47 34aIncludes 6" freeboard, 6" dam and 6" slat thicknessbIncludes 6" dam.

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Chapter 8Manure


Figure 8-2. Stepped gravity-flow channel.See Table 8-6 to determine channel depth. Channel bottom has 0% slope.

Length, up to 80Depth,

8 10

see Table 8-7

Slotted Floor

2 Pipe to Storage

3% Slope onManure Surface

6 DamGravity Flow Channels

Slotted Floor Step 2 Step 1

Tota

l Dep

th

Tota

l Cha

nnel

Dept

h

6" Step Dam

Reception PitCross ChannelCross Channel

Depth

Step Height2 min

40 -80 , typical Initial Channel Depth

Equation 8-6.Total depth.

( ) ( )Total Depth (feet) = Total Channel Depth (feet) + Cross Channel Depth (feet)

Equation 8-5. Cross channel depth.

( ) ( ) ( )[ ]Cross Channel Depth (feet) = 1 foot + Number of Steps x Step Height (feet) 2 feet≥

Equation 8-4. Total gravity flow channel depth.

( ) ( ) ( )[ ]Total Channel Depth (feet) = Initial Channel Depth (feet) + Number of Steps x Step Height (feet)

Equation 8-3. Initial gravity flow channel depth.

( ) ( )Initial Channel Depth (feet) = Length, feet x 0.03 ft / ft + (1.5 feet) *

*Includes 6'' freeboard, 6'' step dam, and 6'' slat thickness for a total of 18'' or 1.5'.

100


Alley FlushFlush systems can be used to clean freestall alleys,

parlor floors, and holding areas when temperaturesare above 25 F. Flushing may be possible all winter inmild climates.

The volume of flush water required depends on thealley width and slope, Table 8-7. The parameters inTable 8-6 were developed to provide an initial flowdepth of 3 inches, a velocity of 5 feet per second, anda 10-second flow duration for alley lengths up to 150feet. Care must be taken to match the correct alleyslope with the proper flush volume and flow rate toensure good solids removal.

A large amount of water is required for flushingfreestall alleys. A two-row freestall barn with alleywidths of 10 feet and 12 feet requires about 2,750gallons per flush with a floor slope of 2%, Table 8-7.Flushing the alleys two or three times per dayrequires 5,500 to 8,250 gallons per day. The amountof fresh water required per day for alley flushing canbe greatly reduced by recycling the water used forflushing. Water can be reused for flushing freestallalleys when cows are not in the barn. With recycledwater, salt and mineral concentrations increase andcan cause pumps and distribution pipes to plug.

Recycling flush water requires a solids separationsystem. Flushed manure is typically stored in anearthen storage basin and periodically pumped forirrigation. Often, solids settle out and are difficult toagitate and suspend. Consider using a liquid-solidseparator before flushed manure enters the storage.The use of two earthen storage basins connected inseries is another common liquid-solid separationtechnique. The use of recycled flush water leads toincreased concentrations of corrosive gases andmoisture and premature deterioration of metal gussetplates on trusses. Even with recycled flush water,some fresh make-up water is needed to enhancedilution of solids.

Recycled effluent cannot be used to flush parlors.Therefore, if a flush system is used only for cleaningthe parlor and holding area, then the daily flushvolume must be clean water. The storage require-ments for parlor flush systems can double the volumeof a manure storage. Use a 2% slope in the parlorinstead of a 1% slope to reduce the amount of flushwater required by 40 to 50%.

TransferTransfer manure to storage by tractor scrape,

gravity flow, or pumping. Move milking centereffluent to storage by gravity flow or pumping.System selection depends on manure characteristics,bedding practices, available labor, elevation of barn

above the storage and storage system. Add milkingcenter effluent where sand will settle out of sand-laden manure (usually in the storage.)

Floor Heating SystemsA floor heating system can be used to assist

manure removals in a dairy freestall barn. This systemis not intended to heat the entire area or completelymelt ice, but is intended to allow thawing to thepoint that manure and ice detach from the floorsurface. Floor heating systems are typically placed inanimal drive and walk alleys, and holding areas.

Use a 3/4-inch thermoplastic pipe (such aspolybutylene piping or comparable) placed at either12 or 18 inches on center in the concrete of alleyfloors. One complete floor heating system circuit is asingle continuous length of 3/4-inch pipe placedwithin the alley floor. The pipe orientation of acircuit can be either a serpentine pattern or a singlestraight pipe. If a serpentine pattern is used, theeffective length of the circuit will increase due to theelbows in the system. Several circuits will be requiredto effectively heat a complete alley floor. The circuitsfor an alley floor can be connected to a commonmanifold piping system. This manifold systemconnects to the required water pumping and waterheating system.

The design of a floor heating system incorporatesthe following design assumptions:

1. A 10 F temperature difference is allowedbetween the beginning and end of a pipingcircuit. This design assumption dictates that apiping circuit requires a 1-gpm water flow ratefor each 5,000 BTU/hr circuit heat output.

2. The 3/4-inch pipe size minimizes the impact ofother alley floor design considerations includ-ing minimum steel reinforcing requirementsand equipotential plane requirements.

3. An operating temperature of 45 F is assumedfor the inlet temperature into a piping circuit.

Table 8-7. Flush parameters.Assumes 5 fps water velocity for 10 sec.Alley lengths up to 150 feet

AlleyAlleyAlleyAlleyAlley FlowFlowFlowFlowFlow Flow rate,Flow rate,Flow rate,Flow rate,Flow rate, Flush volumFlush volumFlush volumFlush volumFlush volumeeeee,,,,,slope, %slope, %slope, %slope, %slope, % depth, inchesdepth, inchesdepth, inchesdepth, inchesdepth, inches gpm/ftgpm/ftgpm/ftgpm/ftgpm/ft gal/ftgal/ftgal/ftgal/ftgal/ftaaaaa

1.0 7.0 1,306 220

1.5 5.0 933 156

2.0 4.0 747 125

2.5 3.4 635 106

3.0 3.0 560 94aPer foot of alley width.

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Chapter 8Manure


This will minimize the design temperaturedifference for a circuit. Also, insulation will notbe required under the heated alley floors andaround most piping. Minimizing the operatingtemperature of the system tends to minimize thetotal size of the boiler system required.

4. The heating system assumes heat loss from thetop of the floor surface only. As long as the

operating temperature of the system is kept low,heat loss into the soil will be negligible sincedeep soil temperatures are typically 55 to 60 F.

5. The flow rates required for a given piping circuitare in Tables 8-8 and 8-9. The length of a circuitdepends upon piping layout. The designtemperature difference depends upon locationand is the difference between the estimated

Table 8-8. Flowrate for floor heating system for pipes 18" o.c. (gpm).Numbers right of the dark line have a head loss greater than 40'. Numbers in shaded area have a head lossgreater than 80'. Avoid designs in the shaded area.

TTTTTemperatureemperatureemperatureemperatureemperature EstimatedEstimatedEstimatedEstimatedEstimated RequiredRequiredRequiredRequiredRequired T T T T Total effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)DifferenceDifferenceDifferenceDifferenceDifference Heat LossHeat LossHeat LossHeat LossHeat Loss OutputOutputOutputOutputOutput

FFFFF BTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ft22222 BTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ft 100100100100100 200200200200200 300300300300300 400400400400400 500500500500500 600600600600600 700700700700700 800800800800800 900900900900900 10001000100010001000

5 1.9 2.8 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.610 4.7 7.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.415 8.1 12.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.420 11.8 17.7 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.525 15.9 23.9 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.3 4.830 20.3 30.4 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 4.9 5.5 6.135 24.9 37.3 0.7 1.5 2.2 3.0 3.7 4.5 5.2 6.0 6.7 7.540 29.7 44.6 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.4 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.945 34.8 52.2 1.0 2.1 3.1 4.2 5.2 6.3 7.3 8.3 9.4 10.450 40.0 60.0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 12.055 45.4 68.1 1.4 2.7 4.1 5.4 6.8 8.2 9.5 10.9 12.3 13.660 51.0 76.5 1.5 3.1 4.6 6.1 7.6 9.2 10.7 12.2 13.8 15.365 56.7 85.1 1.7 3.4 5.1 6.8 8.5 10.2 11.9 13.6 15.3 17.070 62.6 93.9 1.9 3.8 5.6 7.5 9.4 11.3 13.1 15.0 16.9 18.875 68.6 102.9 2.1 4.1 6.2 8.2 10.3 12.3 14.4 16.5 18.5 20.680 74.7 112.1 2.2 4.5 6.7 9.0 11.2 13.5 15.7 17.9 20.2 22.485 81.0 121.5 2.4 4.9 7.3 9.7 12.2 14.6 17.0 19.4 21.9 24.3

Table 8-9. Flowrate for floor heating system for pipes 12" o.c. (gpm).Numbers right of the dark line have a head loss greater than 40'. Numbers in shaded area have a head lossgreater than 80'. Avoid designs in the shaded area.

TTTTTemperatureemperatureemperatureemperatureemperature EstimatedEstimatedEstimatedEstimatedEstimated RequiredRequiredRequiredRequiredRequired TTTTTotal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)otal effective length of one circuit (feet)DifferenceDifferenceDifferenceDifferenceDifference Heat LossHeat LossHeat LossHeat LossHeat Loss OutputOutputOutputOutputOutput

FFFFF BTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ft22222 BTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ftBTU/hr-ft 100100100100100 200200200200200 300300300300300 400400400400400 500500500500500 600600600600600 700700700700700 800800800800800 900900900900900 10001000100010001000

5 1.9 1.9 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.410 4.7 4.7 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.915 8.1 8.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.620 11.8 11.8 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.425 15.9 15.9 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.230 20.3 20.3 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.135 24.9 24.9 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.040 29.7 29.7 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 5.945 34.8 34.8 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.6 6.3 7.050 40.0 40.0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2 8.055 45.4 45.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 5.4 6.4 7.3 8.2 9.160 51.0 51.0 1.0 2.0 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.2 9.2 10.265 56.7 56.7 1.1 2.3 3.4 4.5 5.7 6.8 7.9 9.1 10.2 11.370 62.6 62.6 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.0 6.3 7.5 8.8 10.0 11.3 12.575 68.6 68.6 1.4 2.7 4.1 5.5 6.9 8.2 9.6 11.0 12.3 13.780 74.7 74.7 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 14.985 81.0 81.0 1.6 3.2 4.9 6.5 8.1 9.7 11.3 13.0 14.6 16.2

102


inside barn air temperature and an average floortemperature of 40 F. Flow rates causing 80 feet ofcircuit head loss are generally not acceptable.

6. The layout of circuit piping depends upon barnlayout, manifold piping design, other siteconsiderations, and location of boiler for heating.

7. Total boiler size is estimated as the sum of 50BTU/hr per foot of total manifold piping, plusthe larger value of either 50 BTU/hr-foot oftotal circuit piping or the required BTU/hroutput of circuit pipe, Table 8-8 or Table 8-9.

8. Pumping requirements and manifold piping aredesigned on a case-by-case basis.

Tractor ScrapeScraping animal manure from freestall alleys

directly into a below ground storage structure is aneffective transfer method. Push-off ramps are commonfor herds of 200 cows or fewer; these ramps provideinexpensive manure transfer for sites that do notaccommodate gravity flow. Use pipe fencing on allsides of the push-off ramp for the safety of the tractoroperator and for security purposes, Figure 8-3.

The greatest problems with push-off ramps occurin winter. Frozen manure can accumulate and blockthe push area. One way to eliminate this problem is to

provide a very wide push-off ramp (20 to 100 feet) somanure can be pushed into the storage at multiplelocations. A concrete stacking slab along the edge ofthe push-off ramp also may be used during periods offreezing weather. In the spring, the thawed manure ispushed or flows into the storage.

Gravity-flow PipesGravity-flow transfer pipes use the hydraulic head

exerted by liquid manure to force it to flow. Therequired transfer-pipe size depends on the manurecharacteristics. Liquid manures, such as milkingcenter effluent, flow well through small-diameter(6- to 8-inch) pipes. Larger (24- to 36-inch diameter)pipes with smooth interiors work well with dairymanure with well-mixed bedding and solids contentof up to 12%. The required pipe diameter depends onthe total flow rate and the solids content. Gravity-flow pipe systems are compatible with:

■ Tractor scraper.■ Mechanical alley scraper.■ Gravity-flow channels.■ Flush systems.

To assure adequate hydraulic head for manureflow, the minimum elevation difference between the

Figure 8-3. Push-off ramp.

103

Chapter 8Manure


4� min

4� to

6�

12� A

ppro

x.

3�

Steel or Concrete Pipe,24" to 36" diameter

Clean Outs at100��

Cover or Fencing

Drop Structure

Top of Clean Out Above Barn Floor

Surface Water Diversion

Figure 8-4. Manure transfer to storage.Assumes storage is within 300 feet of drop structure.

a. Typical Installation. Option A.

b. Steep Terrain. Option B.

scraped alley or collection pit and the top of themaximum depth of the stored material should be 4 to6 feet for transfer distances up to 300 feet, Figure 8-4.

Gravity-flow manure systems are very dependenton material consistency. Separation of material ismore likely to occur in long pipe runs or the recep-tion pits if solids are not mixed uniformly with theliquids or if the solids content is very low. Pluggingcan result with an accumulation of solids. Provideclean-out ports every 100 feet and at all bends. Solidmaterial mixed uniformly in liquids will flow betterfrom gravity-flow channels. The system works bestwhen less than 3 pounds of organic bedding per cowper day are used. Also, slugs of material droppingsuddenly in a vertical section of pipe can entrap air,causing air locks.

Use air vents to help prevent air locking. Typicallocations for air vents include:

■ A few feet downstream from the reception pit.■ At or near changes in vertical direction.

Consult the manufacturer’s recommendations forinstallation of air vents. Avoid bends in the transferpipe if possible. If a change in direction is needed,use long sweeping bends. Limit horizontal elbows totwo, 22.5-degree bends, and separate them with a10-foot section of pipe.

Air locking may be a problem with steep changes indirection. Also, liquid portions may travel faster alongsteeper slopes than solids, resulting in plugging.Vertical change in direction can be accomplishedwith two, 45-degree bends or by using a clean out.See Figure 8-4.

Design the reception pit or hopper that feeds themanure pipe to hold the entire manure volume for atleast one day. Many reception pits hold three toseven day’s manure volume.

Milking center waste is typically less than 6%solids. Therefore, it can be transferred to the manurereception pit in the freestall barn or the manurestorage through 6- to 8- inch pipes. Provide acontinuous 1% (1/8 inch per foot) slope for 6-inchpipes and a 0.5% (1/16 inch per foot) slope for 8-inchpipes. Greater pipe slopes cause solids to settle outand could cause clogging. The maximum bend in thepipe should be no more than 45 degrees. Do not addmilking center effluent to sand-laden manure untilthe area of the manure handling system where sandsettling occurs.

Install gravity-flow pipes below the frost line, andload the storage structure from the bottom to preventfreezing. Before winter freeze occurs, make sure theend of a pipe is covered with 2 feet of manure whereit enters the storage.

104


During extreme winter weather, the manure in mostcold freestall barns is partially or completely frozen.Do not push manure that is partially frozen downgravity flow pipes. Stack frozen manure on a concreteslab near the building; use a push-off ramp, or haul tothe field.

Pipe SelectionEarly systems often used concrete culverts.

Problems with these systems have included absorp-tion of liquid by extremely dry concrete and loss ofliquid through leaking or misaligned joints.

Pipe used for gravity flow systems should meet thefollowing criteria:

■ Have a smooth interior.■ Be non-absorbent.■ Have watertight joints.

Smooth walled sewer pipe with joints capable ofwithstanding 40-psi internal pressure is recom-mended. Satisfactory pipes include PVC, high-density polyethylene sewer pipes, and smooth wallsteel pipes with welded joints. Storm drain culvertcan be used if coupled properly to keep sectionsaligned to prevent leakage. Leakage through thejoints can contaminate groundwater and decreasemoisture content, thus preventing proper materialflow. Have a reliable contractor properly prepare thetrench to provide vertical and lateral support for thepipe.

Reception Pit and PumpingPumping is compatible with any type of manure

collection method. Manure and milking centereffluent are collected in a reception pit located in thecenter or on the end of a freestall barn, Figure 8-5.The size of the reception pit depends on what role itplays in the overall manure management plan.Reception pits may contain hazardous gases. Pits alsoare potential drowning sites. See Safety page 107.

Some farms design reception pits to storagemanure for 7 days before pumping to a larger storage.This helps eliminate daily pumping. A reception pitalso can be designed to provide 7 to 30 days ofstorage. Periodically agitate and pump the manure toa long-term storage unit.

In cold climates, sizing the reception pit toprovide three to four months of storage eliminates theneed for pumping manure to a long-term storageduring sub-zero weather.

The type of pump required depends on the solidscontent of the manure. Select a pump that can handlemanure with bedding and is capable of developingenough pressure to lift manure from the bottom of the

pit to the highest point in the long term storage unitor the spreading equipment. A backflow valve may beneeded when pumping manure uphill.

A centrifugal chopper pump is commonly usedwith reception pits in freestall barns. Centrifugalpumps are not positive-displacement pumps becausethe impeller can slip in the liquid. Centrifugal pumpstypically cannot handle large solids. Pump perfor-mance depends on impeller design. Closed impellersare more efficient with water and very liquid manure,but cannot handle large solids. Semi-open impellerpumps can handle liquids with larger solids content.Select pumps that are removable to allow forservice and repair outside of the pit.

Positive-displacement pumps include screwpumps and piston pumps. Screw pumps handlemanure with high solids content, but it must be freefrom hard or abrasive solids. Do not operate screwpumps dry; always add a small stream of waterdirectly into the pump casing during operation.Piston pumps are used to move high-solids contentmanure to storage. They are commonly used totransfer lot-scraping or tie-stall and freestall barnmanure to storage. Plugging the discharge pipe cancause very high pressures, which can lead to pipedamage. Large diameter (10- to 15-inch) pipes aretypical and seldom plug. Therefore, release valves areseldom used for manure transfer. Additional informa-tion on pump characteristics is given in the ManureManagement publications from MWPS.

Manure StorageConsider all farmstead operations, building

locations, and prevailing summer winds whenplanning storages. Allow at least 100 feet between awater supply and the location of any part of a storage.

Figure 8-5. Reception pit and pump.

105

Chapter 8Manure


Locate manure storages at least 50 feet from themilking center. Check with milk inspectors, healthauthorities and water quality regulations for addi-tional separation requirements.

Evaluate site and soil conditions carefully toavoid contaminating groundwater and surface water.Avoid locating storages over shallow, crevicedbedrock, below the water table, in gravel beds, or inother areas where serious leakage can cause ground-water pollution. Depending on local pollutioncontrol regulations, keep the bottom of the storage atleast 3 feet above bedrock and at least 2 feet abovethe water table. Contact local regulatory agencies foradditional site requirements.

Locate, size, and construct storages for convenientfilling and emptying and to keep out surface runoff.Provide all-weather access and a firm base for thetanker loading area. Design roadways for drive-through loading to avoid backing or maneuveringthe tank wagon.

Slurry and Liquid StoragesSimilar to other storages, the required storage

capacity for slurry and liquid storages depends onregulations, number and size of animals, quantity ofmilking center effluent, amount of stored runoff andprecipitation, and desired storage time. Provideenough storage to spread manure when field, weather,and local regulations permit. In most climates, 10–12month storage capacity for all sources of manure isrecommended. If the storage receives only animalmanure, increase the storage volume to allow forwaterer wastage, ballast water, rain, and snow. Provideat least 1 foot of freeboard.

Below-ground Storage TanksLiquid manure can be stored in below ground

concrete tanks. Storage depth may be limited by soil

mantle depth over bedrock, water table elevation, andeffective lift of a pump. Tanks must be designed towithstand all anticipated earth hydrostatic and liveloads, plus uplift, if a high water table exists. Tomake agitating manure easier, some producers installpartition walls in the pits to separate the manure intosmaller volumes. Because there is a smaller volume ofmanure to agitate in individual compartments,producers can have a more uniform effluent beingremoved from the pit and applied to the land applica-tion area. Partition walls need to be designed towithstand different pressures that can result from onecompartment being emptied and the adjoiningcompartment being full of manure. See ConcreteManure Storages Handbook, MWPS-36, for designdetails for below ground storage tanks. NRCS officesalso can provide concrete tank designs.

When construction is completed, clean out foreignmaterial that could damage pumps. Before fillingwith manure, add 6 to 12 inches of ballast water tokeep manure solids submerged and to counteract theuplifting forces caused by external pressures.Keeping manure solids submerged can help reduceodors. The additional water needs to be consideredwhen calculating storage volume.

Earthen Storage BasinsEarthen basins are earth-walled structures at or

below grade that may be lined, Figure 8-6. They canprovide long-term storage at low to moderateinvestment. Depending on location and unloadingmethods, a clay, synthetic, or concrete liner may berequired. Earthen storages are designed and con-structed to prevent groundwater and surface watercontamination. Check with the NRCS office, or hire aqualified professional engineer to help evaluate sitesuitability, dike construction, bottom sealing, andbasin wall side slopes.

Figure 8-6. Earthen storage basins.

Concrete Access Rampand Bottom Pad

106


Be sure to obtain approval from the appropriateagencies before construction begins. Special permitsare required in many states. Some jurisdictions do notallow earthen storage.

In general, steeper banks conserve space (seeFigure 8-6), reduce the amount of rainfall entering thestorage, and leave less manure on the banks whenemptied. Inside bank slopes of 2:1 to 3:1 (run:rise) arecommon for most soils. Make the external side slopesno steeper than 3:1 for easier and safer maintenance.Make the embankment wide enough (at least 12 feet)for access by mowers and agitation equipment.Provide a concrete ramp and bottom pad at eachagitation and pumping location to protect the basinliner during unloading.

Above-ground Storage TanksAbove ground circular manure tanks are usually

short, large-diameter tanks resembling silos. They areexpensive compared to earthen basins and usually arenot used to store runoff or dilute manure. However,they are a good alternative where basins are limitedby space; high groundwater; shallow, crevicedbedrock; or where earthen basins are not acceptable.

Above ground liquid storages are 10 to 30 feethigh and 30 to 120 feet in diameter. They are made ofconcrete staves, reinforced concrete, preformedconcrete panels, and steel. Leaks from joints, seams, orbolt holes can be unsightly, but most small leaksquickly seal with manure. The joint between thefoundation and the sidewall can be a problem withimproper construction. The reliability of the dealerand construction crew are as important as the tankmaterial in ensuring satisfaction. See ConcreteManure Storages, MWPS-36, for details aboutdesigning concrete manure storages.

FillingManure can be transferred to below ground tanks

or earthen basins by pump, gravity, or tractor scrape.Above ground tanks are generally filled using pumps.With outside storages, locate collection pits andsumps where manure can be conveniently scraped in.Water, from parlor waste, may need to be added foreasier transfer.

Load storages from the bottom if possible. A crustwill form and help reduce fly and odor problems ifexcess dilution water is not added by flushing theparlor. Keep the inlet pipe about one foot above thebottom to prevent blockage and freezing and to keepgases from leaking back into the barn. Bottomloading pushes solids away from the inlet anddistributes them more evenly. Top loading a structureworks, but solids pile up around the loading point in

cold weather. Also, odor is more of a problem becausea crust does not form. Flies are often a problem withtop loading storages.

Agitation and UnloadingAgitate slurry and liquid manure storages by

diverting part or all of the pumped liquid through anagitator nozzle. Propellers are also used. The liquidstream breaks up surface crust, stirs settled solids, andmakes a more uniform mixture. Agitate and pump asmuch manure as possible, then agitate the remainingsolids and dilute if necessary. Diluting manure to 90%water (or 10% solids) may be necessary.

Agitation pumps include open- and semi-openimpeller, centrifugal chopper agitator pumps, andhelical screw pumps. Earthen basins usually areagitated with a three-point hitch or trailer-mountedhigh capacity manure pump mounted at the end of along boom. The pump is lowered down the ramp,placing the pump inlet under the manure surface.These pumps have a chopper and/or rotating augersection at the inlet to break the crust and draw solidsinto the pump for thorough agitation.

Above- and below ground storage and manuretanks usually are agitated with a submerged centrifu-gal pump. With silo storages, pumps can be mountedon the storage foundation. Large diameter tanks mayhave a center agitation nozzle. Locate agitation sitesno more than 40 feet apart in tanks without partitions(20 feet on center for vacuum pumps). With below-building storage, a 5-foot long by 6-foot wide annexcan be used. Locate support columns so they do notinterfere with agitation.

Long propeller agitators on trailers also are used toagitate earthen basin storages from various locations.This system requires large amounts of horsepower, butmay be more maneuverable than large pumps onbanks.

IrrigationIrrigation provides a convenient method to unload

liquid manure. Most irrigation systems can handleliquid manure with up to 4% solids, which is typicalof effluent from liquid-solid separators, effluent froma lagoon, or milking center effluent. Surface irriga-tion and big guns can handle liquids with highersolids content.

Surface irrigation is an effective method of manureapplication. It has low cost, low power requirementsand few mechanical parts. Do not use surface irriga-tion on land with more than 2% slope. Design andmanage the system to prevent runoff and erosion.

Sprinkler irrigation of manure must be managedcarefully. The applied manure does not readily

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Chapter 8Manure


infiltrate. Also, manure solids tend to clog soil pores.Surface runoff may be a problem, especially withexcessive application rates. Before irrigating, loosenthe soil surface with a disk, chisel plow, or aerationtool to improve infiltration. Plan to till the surface toincorporate manure. This helps reduce runoff, odors,and nitrogen loss due to volatilization. See SprinklerIrrigation Systems, MWPS-30, for more details onsprinkler irrigation.

SafetyLiquid manure handling systems can reduce labor

requirements in handling manure but can introducepotential hazards due to the toxic effects of manuregases. Outdoor and open-top manure storages alsocan be potential drowning sites. Fatalities haveoccurred due to manure handling accidents. Design-ers, sales personnel, and installers share in theresponsibility to educate the end-users of the dangersof manure pits. Provide warning signs and fences.

Toxic gases released during the agitation of liquidmanure are deadly. Dangerous concentrations ofhydrogen sulfide, the most toxic gas from liquidmanure storages, can be released due to agitation orcan accumulate in confined spaces. Ammonia, carbondioxide, and methane are other gases that can createhazardous conditions when handling or storingmanure. Consider the following safety points whenworking with liquid manure storages and handlingequipment:

■ Do not enter a manure pit without wearing aself-contained breathing apparatus or a maskwith supplied air and a safety harness with atleast two people standing by to assist in anemergency.

■ Use pumpout and agitation pumps and equip-ment that can be serviced outside a reception orpump pit. Do not enter a reception pit to repairor adjust equipment.

■ Remove people during agitation; providemaximum ventilation in the building.

■ If possible, move animals from the buildingbefore agitating manure. Reports of animaldeaths during agitation are common.

■ Protect tank openings and agitation ports withgrills and/or covers or fences.

■ Install railings around all pump docks andaccess points for protection during agitationand clean out.

■ Post signs near manure storages and agitationsites to warn of potential dangers. Possiblewarning statements for signs are Danger-Manure Storage, Danger-Toxic Gases, and/orKeep Out, Figure 8-7.

■ Keep all guards and safety shields in place onpumps, around pump hoppers and on manurespreaders, tank wagons, power units, etc.

■ Use fences to exclude animals and people,including small children who may crawl underor through fencing and gates.

Manure storage pits, storage tanks, and earthenbasins are potential drowning sites, especially forchildren and animals. Failure of slats or covers onpits can result in livestock drowning. Lack ofprotective barriers or railings around pit openingscan lead to accidents. A push-off platform or ramp canbe a site for the tractor scraper and driver to tumbleinto an open storage structure. All push-off platformsneed a barrier strong enough to stop a slow-movingtractor. Crusts on earthen storage basins can bemisleading. The crust may appear capable of support-ing one’s weight. It is usually thick at the edges andthin in the middle.

Prevent accidental entry by people, livestock, andequipment into earthen storages and open top tankswith a fence at least 5 feet high. Erect signs toidentify the potential dangers, Figure 8-7. Provide at

Figure 8-7. Danger sign to be posted around

manure storages.

Attention to safety detailsAttention to safety detailsAttention to safety detailsAttention to safety detailsAttention to safety detailscould save a life . . . it might be yours.could save a life . . . it might be yours.could save a life . . . it might be yours.could save a life . . . it might be yours.could save a life . . . it might be yours.

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least one lifesaving station that is equipped with areaching pole and a ring buoy on a line near eachliquid storage basin or open-top tank. Review thetotal manure management system from a safetyviewpoint during the design process. Also, make anannual safety inspection after construction. Thinkthrough each step of the collection system, storage ortreatment units, and the land application. Correct anyunsafe conditions immediately.

Semi-Solid Manure StoragesDairy manure can be stored and hauled as solid or

semi-solid if ample bedding is used and additionalwater excluded. Calf pens, maternity pens, and youngstock housing are heavily bedded, and manure isoften handled as a solid. However, combining heavilybedded manure with sufficient quantities of manurescraped from freestall or feeding alleys and precipita-tion results in a semi-solid mixture.

A picket dam may be used to allow rain water andmelted snow to flow away from a semi-solid storage,Figure 8-8.

Roofed storages were developed for dairy stallbarns where significant amounts of bedding aremixed with manure. Roofing provides an aestheti-cally pleasing structure that appears to be anotherbuilding on the farmstead.

Above ground roofed storages have a concretefloor as much as 3 feet below the existing grade,Figure 8-9. The roof protects collected manure fromrainwater and keeps the manure as dry as possible.Manure in storage encrusts, reducing odor and flybreeding problems. Scraping dry-yard manure to aroofed storage can help prevent leaching of nutrients.Provide a ventilating space between the top of thewalls and the trussed roof.

These storages are typically bottom-loaded with alarge diameter piston pump. Unload by liftinghorizontal planks out from a door in one end of thestorage. Manure then flows over the wall onto aconcrete slab outside the storage where a front-endloader fills a conventional spreader. Remove theplanks with a hoist supported from a beam above thedoorway.

Solid Manure StorageSolid manure storage can be used with loose

housing for heifers and dry cows. Provide for conve-nient filling with a tractor-mounted loader or scraper,elevator stacker, or piston pumping system. Unloadwith a tractor-mounted bucket. Locate storage foryear-round access so manure can be spread whenfield, weather, and regulations permit. Prevent surfacerunoff water from entering the storage.

Adequate storage capacity is needed for conve-nience, maintaining maximum fertility, and prevent-ing water pollution. Storage capacity depends onnumber and size of animals, type and amount ofbedding, and desired storage period. In cold climates,provide 180 days of storage; less storage capacity isneeded in warmer climates.

Provide convenient access for unloading andhauling equipment. Slope entrance ramps upward tokeep out rain and surface water. Provide a load-outramp at least 40 feet wide with a 10:1 slope (20:1preferred). A roughened ramp improves traction.Angle grooves across the ramp to drain rainwater.Concrete floors and ramps 5 inches thick are recom-mended. Slope the floor 2% (1/4 inch per foot).

Usually walls are concrete or post-and-plank.Provide one or two sturdy walls to buck against forunloading.

Odor ControlManure odors from dairy facilities originate from

three primary sources: the animal housing, manuretreatment and storage units, and land application.Odor control can be achieved by reducing odorousgas generation and emissions or by increasingdispersion to dilute the odors below the detectionthreshold. Odors and their control is a rapidlychanging topic.

Emissions from manure storage units can bereduced with covers. There are numerous materialsthat can be used for a cover. Permeable covers floaton the manure surface creating a barrier between themanure surface and the air, which reduces emissions.Manure that includes organic bedding (i.e., straw,sunflower hulls and wood shavings) will generallyform a natural crust that can serve as a cover for thestorage unit. Manure that does not include long fiberbedding (i.e., sand or paper) generally will not form anatural crust. Floating crusts can be added to manurestorages by blowing chopped straw onto the storedmanure. Wheat and barley are the most commonstraws used. Field experience suggests straw coversshould be 8 to 12 inches thick. They will last 2 to 6months, but occasionally sections will last for morethan a year on second stage lagoons that are notagitated or pumped. Other permeable materials, suchas geotextiles, that float can also be used as a cover.These inorganic and longer lasting materials may besuitable on units that are not annually agitated orpumped.

Impermeable covers simply capture the emissions,which need to be treated or burned. They can eitherfloat on the manure surface or be inflated. When usedon storage units that are annually agitated and

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Chapter 8Manure


c. Picket dam.

Figure 8-8. Storage using a picket dam.

a. Tractor scraper loaded.

b. Piston pump loaded.

Drain toHoldingPond

ConcreteRamp andBottom

Push-offBarrier

Loadout Ramp.Diagonal groovesTo drain precipitationtoward picket fence.

Flow

40 min

ConcreteRamp andBottom

Drain toHoldingPond Flow

From Pistonor PneumaticPump

2x6s, spaced¾" apart

40 min

Loadout Ramp.Diagonal groovesTo drain precipitationtoward picket fence.

Horizontal Supports,4x4s, see Table 8-10for spacing

HorizontalSupportspacing

Posts, see Table 8-10for size and spacing

Pickets, 2x6s, ¾" apart

Post spacing42

" min

Figure 8-9. Roofed above-ground storage.

Table 8-10. Storage using a picket dam.Post and horizontal supports are rough sawn pres-sure-treated timbers. Pickets are pressure preservativetreated 2 x 6; rough sawn or surfaced. See Figure 8-8for the design layout.

PostPostPostPostPost Horizontal supportsHorizontal supportsHorizontal supportsHorizontal supportsHorizontal supportsPicketPicketPicketPicketPicket Size,Size,Size,Size,Size, Spacing, Spacing, Spacing, Spacing, Spacing, DistanceDistanceDistanceDistanceDistance Size,Size,Size,Size,Size, Spacing,Spacing,Spacing,Spacing,Spacing,

height, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ft in x inin x inin x inin x inin x in feetfeetfeetfeetfeet from top offrom top offrom top offrom top offrom top of inchesinchesinchesinchesinches inchesinchesinchesinchesinchespickets, feetpickets, feetpickets, feetpickets, feetpickets, feet

1-4 4x6 5 0-4 4x4 36

5 6x6 4 4-6 4x4 30

6 6x8 4 6-8 4x4 24

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pumped, the covers pose problems with temporaryremoval and reinstallation.

Odor and gas emissions during manure storageagitation and pumping can be significant. There areno widely accepted practices for reducing emissionsduring this period.

Odor and gas emissions during land applicationscan be reduced by direct injection of the manure intothe soil. Emissions from surface applied manure canbe reduced by incorporation within a couple of hoursafter application.

Collection and Storage of MilkingCenter Effluent

Milking center effluent (or effluent) is dilute andcontains milk solids, manure, grit, detergents,disinfectants, and sometimes feed. When dairy barnmanure is stored and handled as a slurry or liquid,milking center effluent can be included with theanimal manure. In such systems, milking centereffluent serves as dilution water to improvepumpability. Add milking center effluent at themanure collection point in the barn when gravity isused to transfer manure to storage. When sandbedding is used, add milking center effluent wherethe sand is expected to settle from the manure.

Consider a separate storage unit for milking centereffluent if manure is hauled daily or a semi-solidstorage unit is used. Toilet waste must be handled andtreated according to state or local requirements forhuman waste disposal.

Effluent handling, storage and/or treatmentsystems can be reduced in size and cost if sourcecontrol practices are initiated within the milkingcenter. Reduce volume with these strategies:

■ Use well water precooler discharge for wateringanimals, or wall and floor clean-up.

■ Use pipeline cleaning and sanitizing cycles (notrinse cycle) for wall and floor clean-up.

■ Use air injector wash manifold and wash sinklevel management to limit wash cycle volume.

■ Use water softener discharge for wall and floorclean-up.

Reducing the pollutant load in effluent is useful ifthe milking center effluent is to be applied inten-sively to a given disposal site or transported toapplication areas far away. Effluent pollutant strengthcan be reduced by the following practices:

■ Capturing drained pipeline milk and using it tofeed animals, or disposing with manure.

■ Using prerinse (3 to 5 gallons of water) toremove milk from the pipeline and using that

milky water to feed animals, or disposing ofmanure.

■ Using or improving cleaning water treatmentand then reducing detergent concentration.

■ Manually scraping parlor and holding areamanure to manure handling before washing.

■ Feeding colostrum, mastitic, or antibiotic milkto animals, or disposing of with manure.

Manure and milking center effluent storage unitsmust be located at least 50 feet away from themilking center. Before constructing any effluentstorage unit, consult local inspectors and otherregulatory authorities to determine the requiredseparation distances for the location.

Holding Tanks and PondsUse below ground storage tanks and earthen

holding ponds to provide separate milking centereffluent storage. Below ground tanks are generallyused for short-term storage until conditions allowspreading on cropland, pastures, or woodlots. Holdingponds often are sized to store milking center waste for8 to 12 months. Because tanks and ponds are notgenerally designed for aerobic conditions at thesurface, they will be odorous.

Septic Tank With Absorption FieldDo not use a septic tank with absorption field to

dispose of milking center effluent. Manure, milksolids, and soaps plug the absorption field. If a septictank is used for toilet room waste, use a minimum-size septic tank; a 500- to 700-gallon tank likely willbe the smallest size available. Use absorption fieldsonly in well drained soils. Consult the appropriateregulatory agency for additional septic systemrequirements for disposal of toilet room waste.

Settling Tank With Surface DisposalGrass filter strips can be used for surface disposal

of milking center effluent if solids are removed.Adequately sized settling tanks can effectivelyremove solids that float or settle. Provide a tankcapacity of at least 40 gallons per cow, but not lessthan 2,000 gallons. Make the tank twice as long as itis wide. The outlet baffle must be at least 5 feet awayfrom the inlet baffle; locate the inlet pipe 3 inchesabove the liquid surface in the tank. The tank eithercan be compartmented, or there must be 2 or 3 tanksin a series. Pump the tank when it is no more thanhalf full of solids.

Intensive application of pretreated milking centereffluent to sloping grass filter strips can be an effectivemeans of effluent treatment for small to medium size

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pipeline milking systems and small parlors (effluentgeneration less than 500 gallons per day). As effluentflows down a filter strip, it evaporates or seeps into thesoil. Fine solids and bacteria are filtered out. Organiccompounds are degraded aerobically (creating littleodor), and phosphorus and nitrogen are consumed byplants or tied up in the soil. Fine-textured soils ofmoderate permeability, sandy loam to clay loam, arerecommended. Tall fescue and reed canary grass aregood cover crops because they are moisture tolerantand develop thick ground cover, preventing erosion.Divert effluent flow until vegetation is fully estab-lished. Vegetation must be harvested periodically toremove trapped nitrogen and phosphorus.

Slope filter strips 2 to 6% to allow slow movementof effluent. Strips should be flat across their width toprevent channeling, Figures 8-10 and 8-11. Use stripsthat are approximately 12 feet wide to provide greaterhydraulic loading capacity and less stress on thevegetation. Long, narrow strips may be used in areaswith steeper slopes or greater topographical relief.Serpentine or switchback strips provide a greaterlength of flow. Effluent also can be dispersed acrosswide filter strips by delivering it to the top of thestrip through a concrete or gravel spreader, Figure 8-

10. Effluent can also be pumped out through anejector with a movable discharge nozzle that isrotated a quarter turn every 3 or 4 days.

The ability of soils to filter effluent is affected byhydraulic loading rate, effluent characteristics, soilpermeability, and soil management. Hydraulicloading must be managed to maintain soil aeration.Rest filter strips at least two days per week byconstructing two filter strips and using them alter-nately, Figure 8-11, or by dosing a single stripperiodically with pretreated effluent from a pumpchamber or siphon tank. Point source controlpractices and devices that reduce effluent volume andlimit milk and solids content are recommended toextend filter strip life and achieve adequate treatment.

Filter strips require surface water diversion to preventflooding and run-off during wet weather or spring thaw.Fencing is necessary to exclude livestock; minimizeequipment traffic on ridges and berms. Thick vegetationmats near effluent discharge points help insulate soilsduring winter and maintain infiltration capacity.

To prevent the discharge pipe from freezing whenliquid is pumped to the treatment area, install thedischarge piping on a uniform slope back to thepump. No check valve is used; liquid in the pipe

Figure 8-10. Grass filter strip. Figure 8-11. Two grass filter strips with

alternate dosing.

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drains back when the pump stops. In cold climates,elevate the discharge end of the pipe at least one footabove the gravel or concrete spreader to prevent icefrom blocking the end of the pipe.

Grass filter strips may not be allowed in someareas. Contact the NRCS about regulations and/or forassistance in designing grass filter strips.

Aerobic Lagoons for Milking Center EffluentAerobic lagoon treatment systems provide an

alternative for milking center effluent treatment andstorage on farms that use a daily haul or semi-solidstorage for animal manure. A lagoon used in thesesituations needs to be pumped out regularly.

Construct the lagoon 3 to 5 feet deep with 10square feet of surface area for each gallon of parlorwaste per day. For example, a facility that discharges2,000 gallons of effluent per day would need 20,000square feet of surface area for adequate aerobictreatment. Do not pump the aerobic lagoon empty.Leave 2 feet of liquid in the storage after pumpdown.Discharge liquid into the lagoon through a 4- to6-inch diameter pipe at about a 1% slope. Do notinstall the inlet pipe below the water line because thepipe may freeze shut. Install the inlet point at least20 feet from the edge to avoid lagoon bank erosion. Ifthe inlet pipe cannot be extended this far, installlarge rock rip rap (2 inches or larger) on the bank toavoid erosion.

Managing Lot RunoffLot runoff, whether from rainfall or snowmelt,

contains manure, soil, chemicals, and debris. Handle itas part of the manure management system, Figure 8-12.

Collecting Clean RunoffRunoff from roofs, drives (excluding animal

alleys), and grassed or cropped areas without live-stock manure is relatively clean and need not behandled in the manure management system. Divertclean runoff either away from the system to reducethe total volume or into the system for dilution. Usecurbs, dikes, culvert pipes, and terraces to divertclean water away from a manure area. For help withrunoff control, consult the local NRCS office.

Liquid-Solid SeparationA well-designed runoff collection system includes

three elements:■ Structures to collect effluent.■ A liquid-solid separation stage.■ A holding pond for the effluent from the

separator.

Liquid-solid separation is accomplished bygravity or mechanically. For dilute runoff material, asimple settling basin and screens are sufficient. Aftersolids are removed, spread as a fertilizer and soilconditioner. Composted manure solids have beenused for freestall bedding but udder health can be aconcern. Store liquid wastes from the separator in aseparate holding pond or in the main manure storage.If a separate holding pond is used, the effluent can beirrigated onto cropland or used to recharge a manurepit that is mostly empty.

Settling basins are effective gravity liquid-solidseparators and are used widely in runoff collectionsystems, Figure 8-13. Settling basins remove 50 to85% of the solids from lot runoff. Baffles and porousdams slow the flow enough so that settling occurs.Make the settling basin floor concrete to improvesolids removal following settling. Remove solids asneeded between runoff events. The settling basin maybe incorporated into the lower portion of the lot.Settling basins should be sized to contain 0.0017cubic feet of manure per pound of animal live weightper day. A 10 to 21 day retention time is recom-mended to settle solids. See the Manure Managementpublications from MWPS for more design informa-tion on liquid-solid separation.

Mechanical separators require a pump to deliver the

Figure 8-12. Lot runoff handling system.

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Chapter 8Manure


slurry or liquid manure to the separator and are moreexpensive than settling basins. Several types of mecha-nisms are used to separate solids from liquids, includingroller press, piston, screw press, stationary screen, andcyclones. The power requirements of a separatorcan be as large as 25 horsepower depending onseparator type.

Holding PondA holding pond temporarily stores runoff water

from a settling basin, Figure 8-14, or the effluent froma mechanical separator. A holding pond does notreceive roof water, cropland drainage, or clean waterfrom other sources. Use state requirements to deter-mine minimum storage time (usually 180 days). Basecapacity on inches of rainfall on a drained area, such

as a 25-year, 24-hour rainfall event. With additionalcapacity, emptying the pond can be timed to fit laborand cropping schedules without fear that anotherrunoff event will cause overflow. Pump before thestorage is full and when liquids will infiltrate into thesoil. Avoid spreading on frozen or wet ground.

A holding pond includes these important features:■ A design to allow it to receive runoff from a lot,

usually after the runoff has been through a settlingunit, or from lagoon overflow.

■ Interior banks of earthen dams that usuallyare no steeper than 2.5:1 (run:rise), depending onsoil type. To maintain sod and mow weeds, limitexterior slopes to no steeper than 3:1.

■ The ability to empty the pond by pumping,usually through irrigation equipment.

Figure 8-13. Settling basins.

a. Earthen sidewall settling basin.

Figure 8-13b. Concrete settling basin.

114


Vegetative Infiltration AreaLot runoff treatment by vegetative infiltration is

practical and economical when land is available. Asettling basin to remove solids is essential. Theinfiltration area is a long, 10- to 20-foot wide channelor a broad, flat area. For uniform distribution, slopethe first 50 feet 1% to move the runoff rapidly awayfrom the lot and settling unit before further settlingoccurs. The rest of the area should be nearly flat (lessthan 0.25%) with just enough drainage to preventwater from standing. The runoff must travel throughthe vegetative area at least 300 feet before entering astream or ditch. Vegetative infiltration areas may notbe allowed in some areas. Inquire of the properregulatory agencies before installing one. See theManure Management publications from MWPS, orcontact the local NRCS office for more detailedinformation on vegetative infiltration areas.

Land Application and UtilizationLand application of dairy manure and effluent

helps build and maintain soil fertility, improve soiltilth, increase water-holding capacity, and reduceerosion effects. Runoff or dilute manure provideswater as well as nutrients for crop production. See theManure Management publications from MWPS formore information on manure land application andutilization.

Preparing for EnvironmentalEmergencies

Disaster can strike even the best-managed farm.Advance planning and training is essential tominimize manure-handling emergencies, such as adischarge or spill. This process will also help toprepare for other emergencies such as fire, medical, orweather. Two phases of the planning and trainingprocess should include preventing and reacting to amanure spill.

Preventing Manure SpillsWhenever manure is stored, transported, or applied

to land there is a potential for an accidental manurespill. Manage and design manure-handling systemsto minimize the chances of a spill and to fail safely ifa failure occurs within the system. Proper manage-ment and system design will help lessen the odds ofan environmental emergency.

For all operations manure handling systems:■ Identify key areas and components of the system.■ Develop a checklist and inspect the system on a

monthly basis.■ Correct or repair necessary components of the

system.■ Keep a copy of each month’s inspection report

in an organized area such as a filing cabinet orbook binder.

For all outdoor storages:■ Inspect gravity and recycle lines for signs of

dead vegetation that may indicate a discharge.■ Prevent any excess surface runoff water from

entering the storage.■ Maintain the appearance area around the

storage.■ Identify environmentally sensitive areas (such as

surface waterways or tile inlets) on or near theoperation.

■ Study the drainage patterns on and near theoperation.

■ Determine the point at which the dischargemight enter surface waterways or tile inlets onand near the operation. For some operations,manure may travel long distances beforeentering a ditch or stream. In other cases, thestream may be nearby, demanding a much fasterresponse.

For earthen storages such as lagoons:■ Inspect the area around an earthen storage and

note any evidence of wet spots that mayindicate leakage.

Figure 8-14. Holding pond.Vertical dimensions in the figure are exaggerated toemphasize slopes. The steepest exterior side slope is3:1 (run:rise) 4:1 if it is going to be mowed. Interiorside slope varies from 1:1 to 4:1 depending on the soilconstruction characteristics. Make the berm at least12' wide if agitation equipment will travel on top.Provide an emergency spillway in undisturbed earthnear the holding pond dam. Make it 1' to 2' below thetop of the dam. Overflow from liquid storages is apotential pollutant; therefore, it must be controlled.Run the spillway overflow to secondary treatment orto a grassed disposal field.

12 min Drive1 minFreeboard

12.5 min

13 min

Diversion TerraceFence Around Storage

Earthen Dike Construction,inside bank slope depends on soil type.

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■ Maintain adequate vegetation on the berm toprevent erosion.

■ Check for berm damage from burrowinganimals.

■ For lagoons, install pumpdown stakes thatclearly indicate pump start and pump stoplevels.

For manure application:■ Verify adequate land area is available for

manure application each year.■ Test nutrients in manure every 2 to 3 years and

soils receiving manure every 3 to 5 years, thencalculate application rates based on soil andmanure tests, and crop utilization.

■ Inject to reduce odor, decrease the chance forrunoff and help conserve nutrients. If surfaceapplying then till manure into the soil within 24hours.

■ Identify and provide protection forenvironmentally sensitive areas, such as streams,and tile inlets.

■ Monitor application closely and stopapplication before runoff occurs.

■ Do not apply manure before, during, orimmediately after a rainfall event.

■ Equip pumps handling manure with anautomatic shutdown if pressure drops in thepiping system.

■ Never leave a pump unattended, especiallywhen irrigating effluent.

■ Document application area and rates.■ Document crop yields.

Developing a Written Emergency Action PlanLiquid manure or effluent has the highest

potential to negatively affect surface or ground waterduring the time of a spill because of the difficulty incontainment. An Emergency Action Plan is a commonsense plan that will help personnel make the rightdecision during an emergency. Having a writtenEmergency Action Plan is important because awritten plan:

■ Communicates clearly to family and/oremployees specific actions to be taken incase of an emergency.

■ Shows responsible preparation.■ Protects the producer and others against

environmental damage.■ May be required by the state.

The written Emergency Action Plan should beposted prominently in each building, in the em-ployee area, and next to all phones. Train andperiodically review the procedures listed in the planwith all personnel working with the operation. Theplan should be reviewed and undated annually toreflect any changes in the operation. The writtenformat of the Emergency Action Plan should describeprocedures and/or methods to do the following:

1. Eliminate the source of the spill. For example,if a lagoon overflows due to a heavy rainfallevent then action needs to be taken to stop anydischarge. One possible action would be toincrease the elevation of the top of the berm.

2. Contain the spill, if possible, and minimizemanure movement off the farm or down-stream. If manure has leaked from a lagoonthen a berm may have to be constructed toprevent manure from flowing to areas thatcould affect ground or surface water.

3. Provide contact information for key individu-als who can assist in implementing theemergency action plan. These individuals canassist personnel unfamiliar with the plan orpersonnel needing assistance to implement theplan. In addition to implementing the Emer-gency Action Plan, these individuals can helpdetermine the amount of personnel and equip-ment necessary to correct the problem.

4. Assess the extent of the spill. Note any obviousdamages.

5. Contact appropriate agencies as soon aspossible. In many states the Department ofNatural Resources is the contact agency. Thestate may require individuals to report anyspills that could affect ground or surface water.If a spill that affects ground or surface water isnot reported promptly, regulatory fines areusually higher.

6. Clean up the spill and make repairs. Keepwritten records on the method of clean up andthe type of repairs performed to prevent futurespills. The contact agency may offer sugges-tions on clean up procedures and repairmethods.

Figure 8-15 shows an example of an EmergencyAction Plan. Contact an extension engineer or aconsulting engineer for more information ondeveloping Emergency Action Plans and emergencyaction strategies.

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Figure 8-15. Example Emergency Action Plan.

Emergency Action PlanEmergency Action PlanEmergency Action PlanEmergency Action PlanEmergency Action Plan

EmergencySituation: Farm Name& Location:

In Case of an Emergency:1. Implement the following first containment steps:

2. Assess the extent of the emergency and determine how much help is needed.

3. Contact the farm’s emergency response team leader:

Name: Phone: Name: Phone:

4. Give the team leader the following information:■ Your Name ■ Farm Identification■ Description of emergency ■ Estimate of the amounts, area covered, and distance traveled.■ Has manure reached surface waters or major field drains?■ Is there any obvious damage: employee injury, fish kill, or property damage?■ What is currently in progress to contain situation?

5. Available equipment/supplies for responding to emergency:Equipment/supplies Contact Person Phone Number

6. Contacts to be made by farm’s emergency response team leader:Organization Contact Person Phone Number

7. Additional containment measures, corrective measures, or property restoration measures.

Date:

117

Planning the Feeding SystemWhen planning a feeding system, prepare a scale

drawing of the farmstead showing existing buildings,utilities, and characteristics such as the following:

■ Feedlots.

■ Silos.■ Feed storage.■ Fences.■ Power lines.■ Water supply.

TTTTThe choice of feeding system depends on the goals of the feeding programand the capabilities of the systems under consideration. Common goals include:

■ Reducing labor.■ Reducing feeding time.■ Increasing feeding flexibility.■ Improving animal nutrition.■ Reducing feed loss.

Design requirements for a feeding system are determined by:

■ Group size.■ Ration(s) fed.■ Type of handling and mixing equipment.■ Design, location, and size of the feed storage structures.

Feed ingredients change with time; provide some flexibility in storage and han-dling facilities to accommodate changes in rations and future expansion.

Generally, the greater the degree of mechanization, the larger the initial cost andoperating costs for repairs and energy. However, mechanization helps improve the dietdelivered and reduces physical labor.

Knowledge of dry matter intake is essential to provide a nutritionally balancedration. If feed is not weighed as it is delivered, only an estimate of dry matter intakecan be made. If only grain is weighed, forage intake must be estimated. But, if forageand grain are weighed, the dry matter intake is known if all of the feed is consumedand moisture content is known.

Cows have individual preferences for different feedstuffs, and given the opportu-nity, cows will consume feedstuffs based on those preferences. Thus, individual cowsmay or may not consume a balanced ration if left to their own preferences. The highestassurance cows will consume a balanced ration comes when feedstuffs are delivered asa total mixed ration (TMR). The lowest assurance that cows will consume a balancedration occurs when feedstuffs are fed separately

Cows on pasture selectively graze an uncontrolled pasture. The quantity or quality offorage consumed is unknown, making it difficult to balance the grain ration. However,rotational grazing of pastures improves the knowledge of forage quality consumed, andestimates of DM intake can be made. Challenges still exist for balancing the ration.

Chapter 9Feeding FacilitiesDavid Kammel, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Wisconsin

118

Chapter 9Feeding Facilities

■ Drainage patterns.■ Structures.■ Roads/drives.

Determine the fate of existing buildings (use as is,remodel, tear down, replace) and equipment (use as is,modify, upgrade, replace in the future).

Allow room for future expansion; a system basedonly on present needs is difficult and expensive toexpand. A rule-of-thumb for planning is to projectneeds five years into the future and then double.

Forage StorageForages are the largest volume feed ingredient.

The trend is to increase the use of ensiled forages dueto convenience, ease of mechanization, reduced labor,and improved quality. At least two silage storagesmust be available to allow flexibility in controllingforage use in the feeding system.

Silo design and management affect the quality ofensiled forage. Measuring storage losses is difficult;values shown in Table 9-1 are estimates. In somecases, little dry matter loss occurs, but substantialfeeding quality loss can occur.

Size the silage storage unit to ensure adequateface removal can be achieved. Silo bags, tower silosand silage piles are appropriate for small to interme-diate size dairies. Consider bunker silos, and largerpiles for intermediate to larger dairies. Operatorpreference, ration, annual costs, and feeding circum-stances affect storage selection.

Horizontal SilosHorizontal silos cost less per stored ton than

upright silos but can have higher storage losses.Wind, rain, snow, birds, and rodents are problems. Forlarge herds, horizontal silos provide a more economi-cal storage than upright silos and usually can befilled and unloaded more quickly. Use bunkers and

Table 9-1. Estimate of silage harvesting and storage losses.Based on Forages: The Science of Grassland Agriculture, 4th edition.

Silo typeSilo typeSilo typeSilo typeSilo type MoistureMoistureMoistureMoistureMoistureaaaaa FieldFieldFieldFieldField FillingFillingFillingFillingFilling SeepageSeepageSeepageSeepageSeepage GaseousGaseousGaseousGaseousGaseous TTTTTopopopopop Feed OutFeed OutFeed OutFeed OutFeed Outbbbbb TTTTTotalotalotalotalotal - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Dry matter, % - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Conventional towerConventional towerConventional towerConventional towerConventional tower 80 2 1-2 7 9 3 1-5 23-2870 2 1-2 1 8 4 1-5 17-2265 4 1-3 0 8 3 1-5 17-2360 6 1-3 0 6 3 1-5 17-2350 8 2-4 0 5 3 1-5 19-25

Gas-tight towerGas-tight towerGas-tight towerGas-tight towerGas-tight tower 70 2 0-1 1 7 0 0-3 10-1460 6 1-2 0 5 0 0-3 12-1650 8 2-3 0 4 0 0-3 14-1840 11 2-4 0 4 0 0-3 17-22

Silage BagsSilage BagsSilage BagsSilage BagsSilage Bagsccccc 80 2 1-2 2 6 2 1-5 14-1970 2 1-2 0 5 2 1-5 11-1660 6 1-2 0 5 2 1-5 15-20

TTTTTrench or bunkerrench or bunkerrench or bunkerrench or bunkerrench or bunker 80 2 2-5 4 9 2 3-10 22-32(no cover) 70 2 2-5 1 9 9 3-10 26-36

60 6 3-6 0 10 12 5-15 32-49

TTTTTrench or bunkerrench or bunkerrench or bunkerrench or bunkerrench or bunker 80 2 2-5 4 9 2 3-10 22-32(covered) 70 2 2-5 1 7 3 3-10 18-28

60 6 3-6 0 6 4 5-15 24-37

StackStackStackStackStack 80 2 3-6 7 10 11 3-10 36-46(no cover) 70 2 3-6 1 11 19 3-10 39-49

60 6 4-7 0 6 6 5-15 51-64

StackStackStackStackStack 80 2 3-6 5 8 2 3-10 23-33(covered) 70 2 3-6 0 7 4 3-10 19-29

60 6 4-7 0 6 6 5-15 27-40

Wrapped SilageWrapped SilageWrapped SilageWrapped SilageWrapped Silage 70 2 1 0 8 5 1-5 17-21BalesBalesBalesBalesBales 60 6 2 0 7 5 1-5 21-25

50 8 3 0 6 6 1-5 24-28a Avoid ensiling hay crop above 70% moisture and above 60% moisture in wrapped bales to prevent clostridial fermentation.b For trench or bunker silos and silage stacks, feed out losses are 3 to 5% with good management on concrete floors. Use 4 to 6%for asphalt, 6 to 8% for macadam, and 8 to 20% with earth floor assuming good face management. With less than goodmanagement, add up to 7% additional loss.

c University of Wisconsin estimates.

119


stacks on level sites and trenches on sloping sites.Sidewall heights usually are 8 to 14 feet, and widthsare 20 to 60 feet.

Chop corn and hay at 3/8-inch theoretical cutwith 65 to 70% moisture content (wet basis), for cornsilage and 60 to 65% moisture for hay silage.Horizontal silos adapt readily to feed wagon distribu-tion and to high speed unloading with tractorloaders. Maintain a hard surface floor in the silo andat the approaches to allow easy access by tractor andloader. Slope the floor for drainage out of the silo.

Minimize surface exposure during filling; fill oneend full as quickly as possible, Figure 9-1. Pack6-inch thick layers of silage in horizontal siloscontinuously with a tractor while filling. Use aweighted-wheel tractor with lugged tires, rolloverprotection, and seat belts. Use extreme care whenpacking silage in a horizontal silo. Consult anExtension Safety Specialist for information onpacking techniques and recommendations.

Shape the silage surface to shed water. Cover with6-mil plastic and weight down with tires laid side byside, limestone, bags of sand, or other material tokeep the plastic from billowing and pumping air intothe silo, Figure 9-2. If using tires, one option is toslice the tires in half. This reduces the number of tiresand minimizes the amount of water trapped in thetire. It may be necessary to tie the tires together toprevent the tires from sliding down steep slopes.

When feeding off the face, remove only what is tobe fed that day. Disturb as little of the remaining faceas possible to minimize exposure to oxygen, whichincreases spoilage, Figure 9-2. When removingsilage, break off silage with a downward movementof the bucket.

Silage BagsHorizontal plastic silage bags can be used for

long-term storage or for emergency storage,Figure 9-3. Bags vary in length from 100 to 300 feetdepending on diameter and the manufacturer. Bagscan be partially filled, closed, and later completelyfilled. Portable bagging machines fill 8-, 9-, 10- and12-foot diameter bags. Keep bags tightly closedbecause billowing plastic pumps air over the silage,increasing losses. Moisture content of silage rangesfrom 50 to 70%. Higher moisture content can causefreezing problems.

Bags are not reusable and must be protected frompunctures. Common causes of spoilage are tears orholes made by rodents or animals or impact byequipment, splits at the seam, punctures from objectson the ground, and weather damage. Use tapesupplied by the bag manufacturer to seal any Figure 9-3. Horizontal plastic bags.

Figure 9-1. Filling horizontal silos.Caution: Tractor may roll over during packing if doneincorrectly, causing injury, and possibly death. Useextreme care when packing. Consult an ExtensionSafety Specialist for information on packing tech-niques and recommendations.

Figure 9-2. Unloading horizontal silos.Unload bunker silos for minimal spoilage losses.Keep face vertical.

Table 9-2. Minimum feed rate for forage.

Feed rate, in/dayFeed rate, in/dayFeed rate, in/dayFeed rate, in/dayFeed rate, in/daySilo typeSilo typeSilo typeSilo typeSilo type Hot weatherHot weatherHot weatherHot weatherHot weather Cold weatherCold weatherCold weatherCold weatherCold weatherConventional stave/poured 4 2

(top unloading)

Oxygen limiting 2 2(bottom unloading)

Silage bag 6 4

Silage stack 6 4

Horizontal silo 6 �

120


punctures to reduce spoilage. Plastic may berecyclable.

A firm, well-drained site is essential for year-roundaccess. Orient bags north-south to promote melting ofsnow and drying on sides. Provide a 5% slope awayfrom the bags for good drainage. A fenced and pavedstorage area is recommended for self-feeding,loading, and unloading in poor weather. A speciallydesigned feeding fence can be used to self-feed bags.A prepared and paved site may be used for bags andlater converted to bunker storage by adding walls.

Upright SilosUpright silo types include poured concrete and

concrete stave silos with top unloaders or air limitingsilos with bottom unloaders. They are commonlyused to store forage and grains. Upright silos withunloaders offer protection from the weather andpossible complete mechanization of silage handling.Upright silos require tight walls and sealed doors. Aroof and plastic seal over the silage reduces storagelosses.

Upright silos with top unloaders cause feeding tobe interrupted during filling so the unloader can beraised.

Air limiting silos offer more flexibility becauserefilling does not interfere with the unloader orfeeding. Air limiting silos usually have lower storagelosses but higher field losses because of low harvest-ing moisture content. Close the unloading hatchbetween unloadings to prevent air entry and silagespoilage. Top spoilage that occurs between fillingwill be hidden as the sludge mixes together withsilage during unloading. This loss may be difficult todetect. Many air limiting silos are being converted totop unloading silos or are being abandoned due inpart to the high maintenance cost and replacement ofthe unloaders.

Silage PilesSilage piles, Figure 9-4, work well for emergency,

temporary, or long-term storage. For silage piles withno walls, keep the slopes on the sides shallow enoughto drive and pack in both directions. Poorly packedsides result in large spoilage losses when packing isonly done in one direction. They can be used as ashort-term solution prior to building permanenthorizontal structures. Corn silage piles are fairlysuccessful with material at 70% moisture. With silagepiles, use the management practices recommended forhorizontal silos. Provide a firm base and access to thepile to provide year-round access to the feed whenused for long-term storage.

Several other methods for retaining silage pile

sides include using silage bags, round bales, andadjacent horizontal silo walls. When using silage bagwalls, remove silage from the pile and from theadjacent bags uniformly. The silage between the bagsshould be the same material as that in the bags. It isdifficult to remove the silage between the bagswithout damaging the bags and causing the silage inthe bags to spoil prematurely. Using an adjacenthorizontal silo wall for one wall of a pile improvesthe ability to pack the pile. The slope of the silagepile wall should allow packing in both directionsparallel and perpendicular to the horizontal silo wall.Round bale walls should be avoided. They can shift,possibly causing a tractor rollover.

Dry Hay StorageIndoor hay storage preserves quality and reduces

dry matter losses compared to outside storage,Figure 9-5. Provide indoor storage in areas with morethan 20 inches of annual rainfall.

For outdoor storage, provide a gentle slope and atleast a 1-foot space between stacks or bales topromote drainage and air movement. Divert surfacerunoff away from storage areas. Locate haystacks nearfeeding areas. The amount of spoilage (as much as50%) depends on the stack or bale quality, storagemethod, and local rainfall. Elevate bales off theground to prevent wicking of moisture into the bale.

Grain and Concentrate StorageGrain is the second largest proportion of feed in

the ration. Store dry grains in bins. Use upright silosto store high moisture grains such as shelled corn orground ear corn. Use roller mills to roll shelled cornor cob corn. Silo bags also can be used to store highmoisture grains. Horizontal silos can be used forlarge volumes of high moisture grain. Dry feeds suchas commodity feeds are stored in commodity barns.

BinsGrain can be stored at harvest or bought when

needed. To allow storing different grains, usingfresher grain, and having more flexibility, the biggestbin should not exceed half of the total volume of theannual grain requirements of the operation. Forfreshly harvested grain, equip storage bins withaeration to cool grain. Smaller bins are needed ifgrain and other feed ingredients are purchased asneeded. Feed stored in commodity bins experiencesless shrink (loss) than feed stored in sheds. See GrainDrying, Handling and Storage Handbook, MWPS-13, and Managing Dry Grain in Storage, AED-20, formore information on bins and grain handling.

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Figure 9-6. Hopper bottom bins.Center draw-off bins work best for whole grain andfree flowing materials. The steeper sloped sidedraw-off bins are for ground feed.

Side Draw

Figure 9-4. Silage pile.Drive-over silage pile for temporary storage.Provide a firm base and access.

Figure 9-5. Dry hay storage.Do not stack bales against sidewalls unless building isdesigned for the loads imposed. Indoor hay storagehelps preserve quality and reduce dry matter losses.

Rectangular Bales

Round Bales

Hopper bottom bins permit gravity unloading ofstored materials before and after processing, Figure9-6. Side draw hoppers are for materials that tend tobridge, such as concentrates and ground feeds. Steepside slopes allow these materials to flow more freely.Center draw unloading can cause a dent to form inthe sidewall because of uneven distribution ofmaterial. Limit bulk feed tank capacity for off-centerunloading bins to 20 ton.

Commodity StorageMany commodity feed ingredients flow to some

degree and can be handled with conventional convey-ors and hopper bottom bulk storage bins. Pelletedfeeds have improved handling characteristics.

Whole cottonseed, in particular, does not flow andcannot be moved with augers or stored in conven-tional bins where gravity flow is required. Cottonseedcan be transported with belt or pneumatic (vacuum)conveyors, but these are relatively expensive and notpractical for most farms.

The characteristics of commodity feeds vary fromtime to time depending on moisture content, type ofprocessing at the originating plant, and length andtype of storage. Due to the inconsistency andunpredictability in handling characteristics of by-product ingredients, flat storage is often the bestchoice.

Feed costs can be reduced by purchasing commoditiesand by-product feeds. Many of these feeds can bepurchased in 10- to 20-ton loads at a substantialsavings on cost and trucking. Losses from commoditysheds have been higher than losses from bins.

Center Draw

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Commodity storage sheds, such as the one shownin Figure 9-7, are a popular method of storing feedingredients in bulk. Commodity storage sheds aredivided into storage bays. Each bay will typicallyhold 1 to 2 trailer loads of ingredients. For example,the storage shed shown in Figure 9-7 can holdapproximately 1 1/2 trailer loads of cottonseed andmost other loose by-products, and 2 trailer loads ofpelleted ingredients. Plan for enough space to receivea load of feed ingredients before the bays are com-pletely empty. The number of bays required willdepend on the quantity of feed that is purchased on aregular basis.

To properly design the commodity shed, checkwith the hauler on the type of trucks or semi-trailerbeing used to deliver feed materials and the methodof unloading the feed from the vehicle. There arefour main methods of unloading from a truck orsemi-trailer:

■ Dumps. The front end of the box raises out theback allowing the feed material to slide into thebay or onto the pad in front of the commodityshed where the feed material is pushed into thebay. If the vehicle is backed into the shed, thenenough space must be provided to allow thefront end of the box to tip up. This may requirean eave height of 20-feet or more.

■ Walking bottoms. The vehicle is backed intothe shed. A conveyor on the trough floor movesthe feed material into the bay.

■ Hopper bottoms. The feed material is dumpedfrom underneath the trailer onto the concretepad in front of the shed. The feed material isthen pushed into the bay. Feed also can bedumped directly into a portable conveyorthat transfers the feed into the commodityshed.

■ Unloading ramp. A fixed unloading ramp isused to allow a front end loader to drive into avan box.

Designs similar to Figure 9-7 have been usedsuccessfully by many producers. These designs use amonoslope building with an open front. Buildingsare typically 30 to 36 feet wide, but buildings shouldbe no less than 24 feet wide. Bays are typically 16feet wide, but should be no less than 12 feet wide.The eave height should be 12 to 20 feet dependingon equipment and loader reach height. The concretefloor slopes 2% toward the building front. Anoverhang of 4 to 6 feet can be used to protect feedfrom rain and snowfall and offers some additionalprotection from wind blown snow and rain.

Provide a 20 to 24 foot wide concrete slab thelength of the building in front of the building fortraffic. The size of the concrete slab should be largeenough to unload a semi-trailer load of feed and haveroom to push the feed into one of the bays with atractor or skidsteer loader.

Design these buildings to withstand the loads of theproduct and the loads caused by loader tractorspushing into walls. Wall construction consists of a4- to 8-foot high poured concrete retaining walls withan additional 4 to 6 feet of stud or post frame wall cladwith plywood or tongue and groove plank on top ofthe concrete stub wall. Other wall construction optionsinclude poured concrete walls or concrete precastmovable wall panels of any desired height. The wallcan be constructed with post frame or stud wall cladwith tongue and groove planking or plywood but issubject to damage by the loading operation.

Another popular option for walls is the use of heavyprecast concrete blocks. Local concrete suppliers mayhave available 2- by 2- by 4-foot precast blocks thatweigh approximately 1 ton each. These blocks areformed to allow some interlocking between blocks andare stacked up to 3 or 4 high to form walls 6 to 8 feethigh. Caution must be taken not to stack the blockstoo high since the blocks may not provide enoughhorizontal loading support for walls over 8 feet highand could tip over. Low-cost bin walls can also bemade from precast highway dividers.

Feeding Total Mixed RationsThe continuing trend has been toward feeding

Total Mixed Rations (TMR) to individual groups ofanimals. All forages, grain, and supplements aremixed into a homogeneous mixture prior to feeding.When feeding TMR, provide for feeding separategroups according to their nutritional requirements.For example, a milking herd can be separated intoproduction level groups with each group receiving adifferent ration.

High initial capital investment and problems withanimal grouping may preclude retrofitting anexisting facility unless major remodeling/expansionis planned. For extensive remodeling and newfacilities, TMR can:

■ Maintain the ratio of feed componentsand nutrients.

■ Reduce digestive upsets.■ Improve palatability of low quality

roughages and by-products.■ Include hay if it is ground.■ Allow mechanized feeding.

123


Prepare the TMR with a stationary or mobileweigh/mixer as part of the total feeding system.Weighing allows for accurate selection of the rightamount of each feed ingredient and for maintaining afeed inventory.

Mobile SystemsThe mobile TMR system uses a trailer- or

truck-mounted weigh/mixer for assembling, weigh-ing, and mixing the feed ingredients and deliveringthe TMR to the feed bunk or other feed deliveryequipment, Figure 9-8. The unit moves between thedifferent feed storage areas and the different animalfeeding areas.

Mobile mixers are more flexible than stationaryones; feed storage location is less critical, and cowscan be fed at remote sites. Mobile feeding systems aretime and cost efficient for herds of 100 cows or more.

Stationary SystemsFigure 9-9 shows a stationary mixer for TMR

feeding where the mixing or blending equipment is ata specific site. All feed ingredients must be conveyedto the stationary mixer. After mixing, the ration isdelivered to the animals by conveyors or feed carts.The stationary system is common for small herds (lessthan 90 cows) that depend on upright silos andmechanical conveyors for moving feed, Figure 9-13.

Figure 9-7. Commodity storage sheds.The size of each bay depends on the quantity of feedstored. Front opening height is dependent on loaderreach height.

CommodityStorage Bins

2% Slope, ¼"/ft

Slope 2%

1612

min

1220

30 36

Permanent orTemporaryBin Walls

24 20 min)

4 6 Overhang

Concrete SlabSlope 2%

( / “ per foot)14

312

Figure 9-8. Mobile TMR flow chart with scattered feed storages and animal feeding areas.

HighMoisture

Corn

By-Productsand/or

Supplement

OptionalSupplement

Storage

HorizontalSilo

Haylage

HorizontalSilo

CornSilage

Roller Mill

Auger

Feed BunkFeed Bunk Feed Bunk Feed BunkFeed Bunk

MilkingHerd #3

Heifers Dry Cows MilkingHerd #1

MilkingHerd #2

Front EndLoader

AugerFront End

LoaderFront End

Loader

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Table 9-3. Mixer sizinga.

Group SizeGroup SizeGroup SizeGroup SizeGroup SizeFeedings/dayFeedings/dayFeedings/dayFeedings/dayFeedings/day 1010101010 2020202020 5050505050 7575757575 1 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 0

- - - - Mixer Working Capacity, ft3 b - - - -

11111 60 120 300 450 600

22222 30 60 150 225 300

33333 20 40 100 150 200aAssumes 50 pounds dry matter (DM) feed ration intake percow per day with a 50% moisture content (MC), i.e. wet bulkdensity of feed ration is 17 lb/ft3. 100 pounds wet feed per cowper day divided by 17 lb/ft3 bulk density equals 6 ft3 of feedration per cow per day.

bCheck with manufacturer to determine working capacity ofthe mixer.

Batch MixingAdequately mix forages and concentrates before

putting them in the bunk. Top-dressing is notrecommended because animals will sort out feedsthey do not like.

In batch mixing, a recipe is followed, and feedingredients are added one at a time until the requiredweight of each specific ingredient is reached and thebatch is complete. The mixer size depends on thegroup size and the number of times each group is fed,Table 9-3.

The struck or level capacity of a mixer is the totalvolume of the mixing compartment. Mixers are ratedfrom 60 to 90% of the struck level capacity of themixer depending on the manufacturer. A goodestimate of a mixer required in an operation would beto buy a mixer based on 60 to 70% of the struck levelcapacity of the mixer.

Overloading mixers beyond their rated capacityincreases the mixing time required to provide auniform mix. In tumble mixers, free space is neededto allow ingredients to tumble. Overloading an augermixer causes some feed to be thrown out of the mixer.

The time required to fill and unload the mixerdepends on the conveying equipment used to deliverfeed to and from the mixer. The order of addition ofingredients varies depending on the type of mixer.Consult the manufacturer’s recommendations for the

Figure 9-9. Stationary feeding system.

High Moisture Shell Corn LiquidFat

MineralPremix

ProteinSupplement

Mixer andScales

Corn SilageHaylage

Roller

SiloTank

Bags BinSiloSilo

Unloader

Conveyor

FeedBunk

Pump andMeter

FeedCart

FeedWagon

Drive-byFeed Bunk

Feed Manger

By Hand AugerUnloader

Conveyor

Unloader

mixer. A separate accumulator box overhead topreweigh bulky materials for the next batch speedsup feeding from upright silos. If there is room, silagecan be allowed to accumulate at the base of the chute.The chute should be able to be raised to allow silageto be scraped out with a loader.

Premix small quantities of ingredients to eliminateaddition of small single quantities of feed. Com-pletely mix the ration before delivering it to theanimals. Typical mixing time ranges from 3 to 6minutes. Consult the mixer manufacturer to deter-mine the minimum mixing time.

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Figure 9-10. TMR mixers.

Including long dry hay in a TMR is difficult. Theamount of long hay that can be used in a ration islimited by the ability of the mixer to blend the dryhay into the ration, and is usually small. The maxi-mum amount of long dry hay that can be incorpo-rated into a mixer is approximately 10% of theweight capacity of the mixer. Chop hay beforedelivering to mixer if more dry hay is needed.

TMR MixersSeveral designs of mixers are available. Auger, reel,

tumble, and ribbon mixers are the most popular designs,Figure 9-10. All do a satisfactory job if not overfilledand if the recommended mixing time is followed.Follow manufacturer’s recommendations for loading.

ScalesScales are required on a mixer to weigh the ration.

Electronic digital readout scales use load cells toweigh ingredients in the mixer and are accurate to0.25% when properly calibrated. Dust and moisturecan cause malfunctions if the unit is not sealedproperly. Beam scales, a mechanical means ofweighing, are accurate to 1% and can withstand thebuilding environment. Fluid scales are simple, butnot as accurate, and can be used to read at remotelocations from the mixing site as can electronicscales. Elevate the mixer 6 to 12 inches off the floorto prevent dirt and feed buildup from causinginaccurate scale readings. Spring scales for smallamounts of ingredients such as salt, vitamins, andadditives can be used to weigh these materials beforeadding them to the batch.

Platform scales should also be considered on largefarms. They are used to maintain data on feed invento-ries. Trucks and wagons are run over the scale to recordall feeds entering and leaving the farm. Reconcilingfeed inventory becomes very important as farmsincrease in size and purchase more feeds or sell backtotal mixed rations to other farms in the area.

Continuous MixingWith a continuous mixer, ration components are

metered onto a feed conveyor to yield the desiredration. Silage is usually monitored with an in-lineweighing device. Adjust concentrate and supplementrates to the silage flow rate. If silage is metered byvolume, check the flow rate often—bulky, highmoisture material does not flow uniformly. Check theflow rate of any metering system at least once a day.Accumulator boxes are used to meter a volume offorage or grain. They can greatly increase the speedof the batch mixing process.

Feed Center DesignThe feed center encompasses all the conveyors,

mixing equipment, and feed storage. Design the feedcenter for efficient silage handling into the mixer.Locate the bulk and supplement storage for easyaccess by the delivery truck and easy addition to thecomplete ration. Minerals, salt, and other smallquantities of bagged or bulk ingredients also requirespace in the feed room. A 10- to 12-foot eave heighton the feed room allows room for overhead conveyorsand inclined conveyors to elevate feed into the mixer.A 12- to 14-foot eave height is required for mobile

d. Ribbon.

c. Reel.

b. Tumble.

��

126


mixers. Allow approximately 3 feet of space around astationary mixer. This allows the mixer to be accessedby a set of stairs or ladder for filling the mixer or forconveyors. Provide an appropriate rail for the stairs/ladder accessing the feed mixer and provide a barscreen over the area where materials enter the mixer.

Mobile Feed CenterA mobile scale-mixer is often used in combination

with horizontal silos and a commodity barn. Also,with a mobile feed center, forages and high moisturegrains can be stored in upright or horizontal silos,Figure 9-11. Store dry grains and concentrates in flatbulk storages or hopper bottom bins. Use the sameequipment to unload horizontal silos and flat storagebays into the mixer. Plan for future herd expansion.Provide space for additional storage and expansion ofthe feed center building. Provide an adequateroadway for mobile equipment, Figure 9-12.

Figure 9-11. Feed handling center with mobile mixer.Provide a building over the processing area to protect equipment. The building can alsobe used for feeder wagon storage.

OverheadHopper Bin

Roller Mill

Mixed FeedStorage

Commodity Barn

Sila

ge B

ags Horizontal

Scale

Silos

40Concrete Slab

Concrete Slab

40 30

120

150

Supp

SiloHMC

Tractor andLoader

Mobile Scale Mixer

Stationary Feed CenterLocate conveying and processing equipment and

the stationary scale mixer in a separate feed centerbuilding, Figure 9-13. Separate the feed centerbuilding and feed storages from the barn by at least50 feet to reduce interference with natural ventila-tion. The feed center should be placed on the leewardside of a naturally ventilated building.

This separate feed center allows loading a mixedbatch into a feed wagon for delivery to animals atother locations. Store forages and high moisturegrains in upright silos and dry grains and concen-trates in bins with unloading devices. Rationcomponents added in small amounts (minerals andvitamin pre-mixes) can be stored in sacks andweighed on a separate scale before being added tothe scale mixer for blending. A conveyor delivers themixed batch to a mechanical bunk feeder in the barn,lot, or feed wagon.

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Conveying ForageForage is the largest proportion of the ration. The

volume of forage fed must be considered in thesystem design. Handling forages, including dry hayor silage, requires large quantities of material to bemoved in a short amount of time. A variety ofconveyors and bunk feeders are on the market, eachwith its own characteristics.

Belt ConveyorsBelt conveyors handle forage gently, but are

expensive and generally unsuitable for steepinclines. Textured belts allow conveyors to beinclined up to 40 degrees. Belt conveyors havehigher capacity per horsepower than augers. Beltspeed can be as high as 300 fpm moving largevolumes of feed quickly.

Belt feeders are filled from the end, and a plowattachment pushes feed off the continuously runningbelt into the bunk or manger. There are several stylesof plows including a floating plastic blade and arotating brush. Plows can be set to push feed off oneor both sides of the feeder. The belt feeder can bemounted close to the ceiling for in-barn feeding.Automatic controls can move the plow to feed up to12 lots. Distribution is uniform along the bunklength with little separation of the feed.

Chain and Flight Conveyors/FeedersDouble chain flight conveyors, like those for ear

corn or baled hay, are low cost. Capacity decreases asflight depth or speed decreases and as flight spacingor conveyor incline increases. Chain and flightconveyors have speeds of 150 to 200 fpm. Theconveyors are typically 25 to 60 feet long. Single

chain and flight conveyors are low cost and oftenused to convey forage from a silo unloader or elevatefeed over a short distance. A reversing motor on theconveyor offers the ability to move feed in oppositedirections.

A bunk feeder or mechanical cart/wagon deliversforage to the cows. A scale under the belt conveyorweighs forage and/or grain prior to delivery. Grainalso can be metered through a calibrated tippingbucket or auger. The ration is blended, but there islittle control of the proportions. Little to no physicallabor is required.

A chain and paddle similar to a gutter cleanermoves forage around the bunk. Feed can be deliveredto any point on the feeder. The amount of feeddelivered is controlled by allowing the chain to makeseveral trips around the bunk or manger. For cowswith neck chains, there is a hazard of chains becom-ing entangled in the chain or paddle if the system isoperated while the cows are eating.

Shuttle FeederSeveral types of shuttle feeders using belts, chains,

or a moving trough are available. The shuttle feederuses a reversing motor and conveyor to move feedback and forth from a central fill point. Distributionis uniform over the length of the bunk, and there islittle separation of fine and coarse material. The unitcan be used in either an outside feed bunk or sus-pended from the ceiling for in-barn feeding. This typeof feeder would be best used in barns where cows facein and have a common feed alley because only onefeeder would be needed. In outside feed bunks, theconveyor can be designed to feed several lots ofcattle by splitting the bunk.

Figure 9-12. Cross-section of an adequate roadway.Note: Layers placed individually then compacted.

Figure 9-13. Feed center for stationary mixer

system.

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Auger Conveyor and FeederU-trough augers are used for horizontal conveying

of large volumes. Consider them for hard-to-maintainlocations, such as overhead augers. They operate atslower speeds, which increase auger life. U-troughaugers do not work well at inclines over 15 degreesbecause the enclosure does not hold feed in theflights. Open auger feeders distribute feed unevenlyalong the bunk length. Enclosed augers distributefeed more uniformly and provide a mixing action asthe material moves through the tube.

Auger Conveyors for GrainAugers convey grain at any angle from horizontal

to vertical and can be stationary or portable. They arerelatively low cost and come in many diameters andcapacities. Compared with other conveyors, augersgenerally have low capacity per horsepower, espe-cially for wet grains. For example, compared with dryshelled corn, high moisture shelled corn requiresnearly twice the horsepower for half the capacity.Augers are commonly used to remove high moisturegrain from a silo.

The flex auger or coreless auger is a high tensilespring auger that rotates in an enclosed PVC tube. Itis used to move high and low moisture grains andconcentrates. A variation of the flex auger is a devicein which the auger is pushed along the tube length bya gear drive meshing into the flights.

Feed Carts for GrainPowered carts are popular alternatives to convey-

ors. Carts can be used to deliver forage or concen-trate. The self-propelled carts dispense feed usingaugers or chain aprons. Unloading can occur at thebottom or top of the cart depending on the bunk ormanger construction.

A computer-controlled grain cart can meter grainby using proximity sensors to control feed deliveryrate accurately to one-tenth of a pound. Also avail-able is a computerized dual feed cart that can meterfeed accurately to one-tenth of a pound and can beprogrammed for a capacity of 400 cows. Feed cartswith a capacity of 30 bushels that weigh and mix aTMR also are available.

Electronic FeedersSupplemental concentrate feeding is needed for

operations where dividing cows into feeding groupsis not possible. A computer-controlled concentratefeeder feeds cows on a selective basis. Computer-

controlled feeders can be used to feed all or part ofthe required concentrate.

Selective feeding systems have individualfeeding stalls. Each cow wears a device that identi-fies her to a computer as she approaches the feeddispenser. A computer, programmed to the portionsof the cow’s daily concentrate, apportions the cow’sdaily concentrate allotment. When the cow leavesthe stall or eats the allotment, the feeder stops. Thedispensing rate is slow enough to allow the cow toeat all the feed that is delivered. The computerrecords any unused allotment which is madeavailable the next time that cow enters the feedingstall. Some feeders divide the daily allotmentamong four or more periods to ensure multiplefeedings. Daily feed consumption data can beprinted out for each cow, assisting the producer withrecord keeping.

Advances in electronic technology in the past 10years have provided the opportunity to control andmonitor the concentrate intake of individual cowshoused and fed in groups in freestall barns. A numberof available systems can allocate up to three concen-trate sources or ingredients to each cow. An elec-tronic feeder:

■ Permits control and allocation of concentrateto each individual cow based on herrequirements.

■ Provides a system of monitoring the actualconcentrate intake of a cow.

■ Allows a cow to consume her concentrateallocation in a number of small mealsper day.

■ Offers the potential to feed specialsupplements and varied proportions ofthree concentrates to individual cowsin the herd.

■ Can be used to gradually increase ordecrease the concentrate allocation forindividual cows.

■ Requires frequent electronic feedercalibration to monitor and adjust concentratedelivery rates for individual cows based onmilk production, body condition and age.

■ Bases concentrate feeding schedules onassumed forage intake, which may, in fact,be less than desired.

■ Requires time and labor to formulateindividual rations for each cow.

■ Cannot determine total dry matter intake.■ Allows individual cows to select the ratio of

forage to grain consumed.■ Cannot force a cow to eat her daily allotment

of grain.

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Feeding Dry HayDry hay must be chopped or ground to be incor-

porated into a TMR. Otherwise, if dry hay is to befed, make separate provisions. Various types of hayfeeders are available for outside lots. Feeding panelsor fences reduce the amount of hay animals pull intothe animal area and waste.

In a freestall barn, space for a hay feeder can becreated by omitting a few freestalls. Allow for 6inches of feeding space per cow when feedinglimited quantities of hay in a self-feeder. In freestallbarns with drive-through or fenceline feeding,distribute hay along the manger daily.

Feed ProcessingShrink is a term used to describe feed losses. For

harvested feeds like forages these losses include fieldand storage losses that are normal in the harvest andstorage of forages. But they may also include reallosses in quality due to wind, rain, tracking andvarmint damage.

For purchased feeds, shrink usually describes lossesbased on the difference of the quantity purchased to theamount actually fed. Some of these losses may be reallosses due to wind, rain, tracking, birds, and varmints.Another apparent loss can be the result of workerindiscretion. The worker may approach the mixer withonly slightly more material in the bucket of the loaderthan called for by the ration. Rather than returning theremainder to the storage, the worker may dump it intothe mixer, in addition to the prescribed amount. Othersmay be perceived losses because weigh back of rationsdoesn’t account for animal intakes. In fact it is difficultto determine the true amount of shrinkage on the farmunless all quantities of feeds are reconciled. Records ofthe quantity of feed entering the farm and the quantityof feed used in the rations must be reconciled todetermine the true shrink.

Most farms have some type of feed processingequipment as part of the feeding system. As farmsincrease in size and feedstuffs change, demand foron-farm processing may increase.

Roller mills are usually used in conjunction withhigh moisture shelled corn or high moisture cob cornfrom upright silos. Soybeans and barley also are runthrough a roller mill to crack the seed.

Hay mills shred and screen solid bales of hay orstraw. They are expensive, have a capacity of 6 to 20ton per hour through a 1-inch screen, and require 25to 150 horsepower. Bedding choppers for smallsquare bales can be used to grind small quantities ofhay for mixing in a batch mixer.

Tub grinders usually are PTO-powered with a75- to 100-horsepower tractor. A large tub rotatesslowly and feeds a constant supply of roughage to ahammermill in the floor of the grinder. After theroughage is screened, it can be piled on the ground orloaded in a wagon for distribution. A tub grinder isusually fed with a front loader and handles 10 to 12ton per hour. Processing rate depends on roughagemoisture content, screen size, and power available.

SafetyConsider safety in the design of the feeding system.

A control center for motor switches allows easy accessand monitoring of equipment. Provide head spacebelow conveyors to reduce head injury. Keep shieldsin place to prevent accidental injury. Use skid resistantsteps with handrails or a ladder to fill the mixer.Provide an appropriate rail for the stairs/ladderaccessing the feed mixer and provide a bar screen overthe area where materials enter the mixer.

Locate emergency shutoffs on conveying andmixing equipment. Install properly sized electric wiringand motors; ground equipment as required. Dust andmoisture can cause corrosion of equipment andpotential shock hazard. Wiring should follow the localcode for high moisture environments. Keep the feedroom and mixing area clean of trash and debris. Provideventilation to reduce moisture, dust, and gases.

Silo gas or the absence of oxygen are very realhazards in any type of upright silo. Never enterupright silos alone; always use proper breathingequipment. When using breathing equipment checkwith the manufacturer or sales company for instruc-tions on where and how to use the equipment.

Augers are a major farm hazard. Manufacturers putsafety shields on exposed auger drive assemblies andgrates over auger intakes to keep hands, feet, andclothing from contacting the auger flighting or beingcaught between the flighting and housing. Do notremove safety shields.

Anyone in a grain bin, when the unloading augeris running, risks being pulled down through the grainand suffocating. A knotted safety rope hanging nearthe center of the bin is not adequate protectionagainst the tremendous pull of unloading grain.Never start machinery before locating children andco-workers.

Disconnect power to the unloading auger beforeentering a bin. Place lockouts on switches thatcontrol auger or unloader motors before entering thestorages. Spoiled or wet grain sometimes bridges overthe auger and inhibits unloading. Never walk on thebridge because it may collapse. Break up the bridge

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with a long pole from the outside. Wear an effectivedust mask when exposed to grain dust. In particular,avoid breathing mold dust from spoiled grain.

Sizing SilosCrop moisture is an important consideration in

determining silage needs and acreage requirements.But silos should be sized based on a dry matter, DM,basis for each type of forage desired. Silage is usuallybetween 50 to 70% moisture content. Having two ormore silos in a feeding system increases handling andmanagement flexibility.

The dry matter factor, DMF, converts moist silageto dry matter content. Estimate the percent as-harvested moisture, and select the DMF from Table 9-4. Corn silage is usually stored at about 65% andhaylage at about 50% in upright silos. In horizontalsilos, corn silage is stored at about 70% and haylageat about 65% moisture content.

Annual silage needs, length of silage storage time,feed type, and inventory dictate the number of silosan operation needs. Annual silage needs should bebased on DM intake. When calculating the number ofacres needed for a particular forage crop, assume 15%dry matter handling loss from harvest to storage andan additional 10% dry matter handling loss fromstorage to feed delivery. See Table 9-1 for storage loss

estimates. Dry matter loss will increase if properstorage and handling methods are not employed.

Upright SilosUpright silo capacity depends on height and

diameter. Select the maximum diameter for uprightsilos from Table 9-5 using the minimum height andton of DM. Silos with greater height and smallerdiameter that meet the needed storage can also beused. If silage is stored at 65% moisture, determinesilo size from Table 9-6 without converting to ton ofDM. In addition to being able to store the quantity of

Table 9-4. Dry matter factor, DMF.To convert from wet ton to ton of dry matter, divide bythe DMF. To convert from ton of dry matter to wet ton,multiply by the DMF. DMF = 100 / (100 - % moisture).

Moisture, %Moisture, %Moisture, %Moisture, %Moisture, % DMFDMFDMFDMFDMF30 1.43

40 1.67

50 2.00

55 2.22

60 2.50

65 2.86

70 3.33

75 4.00

80 5.00

Table 9-5. Upright silo capacity, ton DM.Capacities allow 1' of unused depth for settling in silos up to 30' high and 1' more for each 10' beyond 30'height. To determine silo capacity in “wet ton”, multiply silo capacity value, dry matter, by the DMF value fromTable 9-4. Capacities rounded to nearest 5 ton. Adapted from 1994 ASAE D252.1 DEC93.

SiloSiloSiloSiloSilo Silo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameter, ft, ft, ft, ft, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ft 1212121212 1414141414 1616161616 1818181818 2020202020 2222222222 2424242424 2626262626 2828282828 3030303030

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ton - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

20 10 15 20 25 35 40 45 55 65 75

24 15 20 25 35 45 50 60 70 85 95

28 20 25 35 45 55 65 75 90 105 120

32 25 30 40 50 65 80 95 110 125 145

36 30 35 50 60 75 90 110 130 150 170

40 30 45 55 70 90 105 125 150 175 200

44 35 50 65 80 100 125 145 170 200 230

48 40 55 75 95 115 140 165 195 225 260

52 65 85 105 130 155 185 220 255 290

56 70 95 115 145 175 205 245 280 325

60 80 100 130 160 190 230 275 310 355

64 140 175 210 250 300 340 390

68 155 190 230 270 325 370 425

72 295 350 400 460

76 315 375 425 490

80 335 390 455 520

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forage needed, make sure daily removals satisfy thefeed off rate of Table 9-2.

Horizontal SilosHorizontal silo capacity depends on width, height,

length, and packing density. Provide enough width toaccommodate equipment during packing andremoving silage, but minimize the width to reducespoilage on the face and top. Packed silage willusually have a density between 30 to 50 pounds asfed per cubic foot.

The following factors can affect dry matter loss ina horizontal silo:

■ Moisture content (too wet or too dry).■ Length of cut.■ Length of time required to fill silo, that is, how

long the surface is exposed to air and rain.■ Packing method and thoroughness of packing.■ Condition of silo walls and floor.■ Effectiveness of cover in excluding oxygen,

precipitation, and avoiding air spaces betweencover and silage surface.

■ Method used to remove silage (improperly used front-end loaders increase rate of DM decomposition).

To determine silage needs and to calculatehorizontal silo size, base calculations on the follow-ing criteria:

Daily Silage Needs: Consult a dairy nutritionist orfeed specialist to help calculate average daily DMneeds for each forage crop to used. Add another 10%to the calculations to compensate for handling lossfrom storage to feed consumption.

Face Removal Rate: For design purposes, use aface removal rate of at least 12 inches per day. Thiswill provide some leeway if feeding needs changeover the year due to a change in the number ofanimals fed, feed quality, or ration fed. Face removalrates should never go below 6 inches per day duringthe summer and 4 inches per day during the winter,Table 9-2. Minimum removal rates are most criticalwith hay crop silages and become more important asmoisture content and density decrease.

Silo Sidewall Depth: Sidewall depths of 8 to 14feet are considered most practical. These depthsmatch sizes of commonly available precast panels.Typically, sidewalls have an 8:1 slope, and the silageis packed with a rounded top. Because of variationsin packing, horizontal silos are usually designed byassuming vertical sides and a flat top. Do not stacksilage taller than the unloading equipment can reach.When common silo walls are used, surface runofffrom the plastic covers should be diverted so as tokeep water from entering the silage at the walls.

Silo Width: A width of at least 16 feet is needed tofacilitate packing. To increase labor efficiency,

Table 9-6. Upright silo capacity, wet ton.Silage at 65% moisture, wet basis. Capacities allow 1' of unused depth for settling in silos up to 30' high and 1'more for each 10' beyond 30' height. Capacities rounded to nearest 5 ton. Adapted from 1994 ASAE D252.1 DEC93.

SiloSiloSiloSiloSilo Silo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameter, ft, ft, ft, ft, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ft 1212121212 1414141414 1616161616 1818181818 2020202020 2222222222 2424242424 2626262626 2828282828 3030303030

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ton - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

20 35 45 60 75 95 115 135 160 185 210

24 45 60 75 95 125 150 175 205 235 275

28 55 75 100 125 150 185 215 255 295 340

32 65 90 115 150 185 225 265 310 365 415

36 80 105 135 175 215 265 310 370 430 490

40 90 125 165 205 255 305 365 430 495 570

44 105 145 185 235 290 350 420 490 570 655

48 120 160 210 265 330 400 475 555 645 745

52 185 235 300 370 450 530 625 725 830

56 205 265 335 410 495 590 695 805 925

60 225 290 370 455 550 650 780 885 1,020

64 405 495 600 715 850 970 1,115

68 445 545 650 775 925 1,055 1,215

72 835 1,000 1,145 1,310

76 895 1,075 1,220 1,395

80 955 1,120 1,300 1,485

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design for a bottom width of 30 feet, provided a6-inch removal rate can be maintained. This will helpin positioning the transport vehicle near the silage andminimize loader travel time. This is especiallyimportant when the silo length exceeds 75 feet. Tomaintain labor efficiency in smaller operations, it maybe important to reduce the sidewall depth or reduce thefeeding rate to keep the silo width at least 16 feet.When making the decision about silo width, rememberthat feed quality is more important than labor effi-ciency. Keep the design face removal rate above 6inches per day when adjusting for width.

Storage Period: Providing quality feed at alltimes should be a high priority in all operations.Consider using a separate bunker that is shallowerand narrower for warm weather.

Silo Length: The silo length is determined bymultiplying the face removal rate by the storageperiod. If calculated lengths are much over 150feet, then using multiple horizontal silos should bea consideration because of labor efficiency. An-other reason to use multiple horizontal silos maybe the construction limitations of the site where thesilos are located. Multiple horizontal silosprovide more flexibility of materials stored andfaster filling. Designing horizontal silos that sharea common wall may cost less than one long silo.

The size of horizontal silos, including silage bagsand silage piles, can be estimated using Tables 9-7through 9-11. For design and management guide-lines, refer to Managing and Designing HorizontalSilos, AED-43.

Table 9-7. Horizontal silo capacity, ton DM.Silo assumed level full 14 lbs DM/ft3 density. Capacities rounded to nearest 5 ton.

Silo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ft 2020202020 3030303030 4040404040 5050505050 6060606060 7070707070 8080808080 9090909090 1 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 0

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ton dry matter/10' length - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

8 10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 55

10 15 20 30 35 40 50 55 65 70

12 15 25 35 40 50 60 65 75 85

14 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

16 20 35 45 55 65 80 90 100 110

18 25 40 50 65 75 90 100 115 125

20 30 40 55 70 85 100 110 125 140

Table 9-8. Horizontal silo capacity, wet ton.65% moisture; 40 lb/ft3 or 50 ft3 = 1 ton; Silo assumed level full. Capacities rounded to nearest 5 ton. To calculatecapacity of other silo sizes, multiply silage depth, ft, by silo width, ft, by silo length, ft, and divide by 50 cu ft/ton.

Silo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ft 2020202020 3030303030 4040404040 5050505050 6060606060 7070707070 8080808080 9090909090 1 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 0

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ton dry matter/10' length - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

8 30 50 65 80 95 110 130 145 160

10 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

12 50 70 95 120 145 170 190 215 240

14 55 85 110 140 170 195 225 250 280

16 65 95 130 160 190 225 255 290 320

18 70 110 145 180 215 250 290 325 360

20 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400

Table 9-9. Horizontal silo capacity.Assumes 65% moisture, 40 lb/ft3 density (14 lb DM/ft3). Capacities rounded to nearest 5 tons.

Silo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftSilo floor width, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ft 1616161616 2020202020 3030303030 4040404040 5050505050 6060606060 7070707070 8080808080 9090909090 1 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 01 0 0

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ton - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

8 150 185 280 375 465 560 655 745 840 935

10 185 235 350 465 585 700 815 935 1,050 1,165

12 225 280 420 560 700 840 980 1,120 1,260 1,400

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Sizing Dry Hay and Straw StoragesIndoor hay and straw storage helps preserve quality

and reduce dry matter losses. Store hay and straw nearloading or feeding areas. Hay and straw storage shedscan be sized using Tables 9-12 and 9-13.

Table 9-12. Hay and straw densities.

MaterialMaterialMaterialMaterialMaterial ftftf tf tf t33333/ton/ton/ton/ton/ton lb/ftlb/ftlb/ftlb/ftlb/ft33333

LooseLooseLooseLooseLooseAlfalfa 450-500 4-4.4Non-legume 450-600 3.3-4.4Straw 670-1,000 2-3

BaledBaledBaledBaledBaledAlfalfa 200-330 6-10Non-legume 250-330 6-8Straw 400-500 4-5

ChoppedChoppedChoppedChoppedChoppedAlfalfa, 1-1/2" cut 285-360 5.5-7Non-legume, 3" cut 300-400 5-6.7Straw 250-350 5.7-8

Table 9-13. Hay shed capacities.Shed has 20' high sidewalls.

Small Square,Small Square,Small Square,Small Square,Small Square,Shed width, ftShed width, ftShed width, ftShed width, ftShed width, ft BaleBaleBaleBaleBale ChoppedChoppedChoppedChoppedChopped

- - - - - - - Ton/ft of length - - - - - - -24 2.0 1.930 2.6 2.336 3.1 2.840 3.4 3.148 4.0 3.7

Table 9-11. Silage piles.Assumes 70% moisture content, 40 lb/ft3 silage density(12 lb DM/ft3). See Figure 9-4 for pile details.

Average pile width, ftAverage pile width, ftAverage pile width, ftAverage pile width, ftAverage pile width, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ftDepth, ft 2424242424 2828282828 3232323232 3636363636 3838383838 4242424242

- - - - Ton dry matter/10' length - - - -

4 6 7 8 9 9 10

5 7 8 10 11 11 13

6 9 10 12 13 14 15

7 10 12 13 15 16 18

Table 9-10. Silage bag capacities.a

BagBagBagBagBag BagBagBagBagBag HayHayHayHayHay CornCornCornCornCorn GroundGroundGroundGroundGround GroundGroundGroundGroundGround ShelledShelledShelledShelledShelledDiameterDiameterDiameterDiameterDiameter LengthLengthLengthLengthLength SilageSilageSilageSilageSilage SilageSilageSilageSilageSilage Ear CornEar CornEar CornEar CornEar Corn Shelled CornShelled CornShelled CornShelled CornShelled Corn CornCornCornCornCorn

(feet)(feet)(feet)(feet)(feet) (feet)(feet)(feet)(feet)(feet) (T(T(T(T(Tons)ons)ons)ons)ons) (T(T(T(T(Tons)ons)ons)ons)ons) (Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels) (Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels) (Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)(Bushels)8 100 80-90 90-100 2,000 3,100 2,600

150 120-140 140-150 3,200 5,000 4,100200 170-180 190-200 4,300 6,800 5,735

9 135 120-140 130-160 3,500 5,500 4,300150 150-170 160-190 3,900 6,100 4,800200 190-210 220-240 5,300 8,400 6,600

10 150 240-260 260-280 6,000 9,400 7,400200 300-320 345-365 8,200 13,000 10,000250 375-395 430-455 10,250 16,250 12,500

12 200 360 410250 440 520300 530 620

aThese quantities are only approximations. Actual quantities will vary with moisture content and length of cut.

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Table 9-14. Commodity storage densities and

storage requirements.Based on Proceedings: Alternative Feeds for Dairyand Beef Cattle, and American Feed Industry Associa-tion publications.

DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription Density,Density,Density,Density,Density, StorageStorageStorageStorageStoragelb/ftlb/ftlb/ftlb/ftlb/ft33333 Vol., ftVol., ftVol., ftVol., ftVol., ft33333/ton/ton/ton/ton/ton

Alfalfa meal, dehydrated, 13% 16-18 111-125

Alfalfa meal, dehydrated, 17% 18-22 91-111

Barley, ground 24-26 77-83

Barley, malt 30-31 65-67

Blood meal 39 52

Bone meal 50-60 33-40

Brewers dried grain 14-15 133-143

Brewers grain, spent, dry 25-30 67-80

Brewers grain, wet 55-60 33-36

Calcium carbonate 75 27

Corn distillers dried grains 18 111

Corn distillers dried soluble 25-26 77-80

Corn, whole shelled 45 44

Cottonseed hulls 12 167

Cottonseed oil meal 37-40 50-54

Cottonseed with lint 18-25 80-111

Cottonseed, delinted 25-35 57-80

Dairy, concentrates 43 47

Dried beet pulp 11-16 125-182

Dried citrus pulp 21 98

Hay, loose 5 400

Hay, pressed 8 250

Limestone 68 29

Malt sprouts 13-16 125-154

Milo, ground 32-36 56-63

Oats, rolled 19-24 83-105

Oats, whole 25-35 57-80

Phosphate, tricalcium 21 95

Rice, hulls 20-21 95-100

Sorghum, grain 32-35 57-63

Soybean hulls, ground 20 100

Soybean hulls, unground 6-7 286-333

Soybean meal (solvent) 42 48

Soybean oil meal (Expeller) 36-40 50-56

Soybeans, grain 46-48 42-43

Wheat middlings (std) 18-25 80-111

Wheat, ground 38-39 51-53

Sizing Commodity StoragesIn most cases the amount of storage needed for a

particular ingredient will be a multiple of the unittruck capacity plus a cushion of 25 to 50% depend-ing on purchasing and transportation arrangements. Asemi-trailer truck’s capacity is about 24 ton. For

Table 9-15. Storage capacity for round grain bins.Capacity does not include space above eave line.Based on 1.25 cu ft per bushel.

Depth of grain, ftDepth of grain, ftDepth of grain, ftDepth of grain, ftDepth of grain, ftDiameterDiameterDiameterDiameterDiameter, ft, ft, ft, ft, ft 11111 1111111111 1313131313 1616161616 1919191919

- - - - - - - - - - - - Bushel - - - - - - - - - - -

14 125 1,375 1,625 2,000 2,37518 203 2,200 2,635 3,250 3,85021 277 3,050 3,600 4,400 5,30024 362 4,000 4,700 5,800 6,90027 458 5,050 5,950 7,300 8,70030 565 6,215 7,345 9,040 10,73536 814 8,950 10,600 13,000 15,45040 1,005 11,050 13,050 16,100 19,100

dense products such as grain, cottonseed, soybeanmeal, and pelleted ingredients, one truck load willnearly equal the semi’s weight capacity. For lessdense products, like brewers and distillers grain,experience shows that truck volume is the limitingfactor; the load will contain 20 to 22 tons of material.

Example 9-1. Sizing commodity storage.Determine the commodity storage required for a semiload of soybean meal.

Solution:Solution:Solution:Solution:Solution:Assuming the semi capacity is 24 ton, storage need perton of soybean meal is 48 ft3/ton, Table 9-14. Allowing25% extra storage, the storage required for soybeanmeal is:

24 ton x 48 ft3/ton x 1.25 = 1,440 ft3

A 16-foot wide by 30-foot long bay will be filled about3 feet deep (1,440 cu ft/(30 ft x 16 ft)).

Sizing Grain StoragesGrain can be stored at harvest or delivered when

needed. The biggest bin is not always the least costlyper bushel of storage. Bins should not exceed half ofthe total volume of the operation. Size the bin usingTable 9-14. See Grain Drying, Handling and StorageHandbook, MWPS-13, and Managing Dry Grain inStorage, AED-20, for more information on drying,storing and aerating grain. Ground shelled corn,ground ear corn and whole-shelled corn can also bestored in upright silos. Select silo size from Tables9-16 and 9-17.

135


Table 9-16. Upright silo capacity for ground shelled corn.For 30% moisture grain and 68 lb/bu (1.25 ft3/bu) density. Capacities allow for 1' of unused depth and arerounded to the nearest 5 ton and 10 bu. Capacity increases 5% with moisture contents between 25%-35%.Capacity also varies with fineness of grind and filling procedures. Values based on no settling or compaction ofmaterial. Because some settling and compaction will occur, these values should be considered minimums.DM = dry matter.

SiloSiloSiloSiloSilo Unit ofUnit ofUnit ofUnit ofUnit of Silo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameterSilo diameter, ft, ft, ft, ft, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ft measuremeasuremeasuremeasuremeasure 1010101010 1212121212 1414141414 1616161616 1717171717 1818181818 2020202020

2020202020 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton 40 60 80 105 — — —TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM 30 40 55 75 — — —BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel 1,200 1,730 2,370 3,100 — — —

2828282828 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton 60 85 115 150 170 190 230TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM 40 60 80 105 120 135 160BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel 1,700 2,470 3,330 4,370 4,930 5,530 6,830

3636363636 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton — 110 145 190 215 245 300TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM — 75 100 135 150 170 210BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel — 3,170 4,330 5,630 6,370 7,130 8,800

4444444444 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton — — 180 235 265 300 365TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM — — 125 165 185 210 255BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel — — 5,300 6,900 7,800 8,770 10,800

5252525252 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton — — — 280 315 355 435TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM — — — 195 220 250 305BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel — — — 8,200 9,270 10,400 12,830


Table 9-17. Upright silo capacity for ground ear and whole shelled corn.For 30% moisture shelled corn and 27% kernel moisture (32% blend moisture) ear corn and 60 lb/bu (1.25 ft3/bu) density. Capacities allow for 1' of unused depth and are rounded to the nearest 5 ton and 10 bu. Capaci-ties increase approximately 5% with moisture contents between 25%-35%. Capacities also vary with finenessof grind and filling procedure. Values based on no settling or compaction of material. Because some settlingand compaction will occur, these values should be considered minimums. DM = dry matter.

SiloSi loSi loSi loSi lo Unit ofUnit ofUnit ofUnit ofUnit of Silo diameter, ft Silo diameter, ft Silo diameter, ft Silo diameter, ft Silo diameter, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ftheight, ft measure measure measure measure measure 1010101010 1212121212 1414141414 1616161616 1717171717 1818181818 2020202020

2020202020 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton 35 50 70 95 — — —TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM 25 35 50 65 — — —BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel 1,200 1,730 2,370 3,100 — — —

2828282828 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton 50 75 100 130 150 165 205TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM 35 55 70 90 105 115 145BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel 1,700 2,470 3,330 4,370 4,930 5,530 6,830

3636363636 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton — 95 130 170 190 215 265TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM — 65 90 120 135 150 185BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel — 3,170 4,330 5,630 6,370 7,130 8,800

4444444444 Wet tonWet tonWet tonWet tonWet ton — — 160 205 235 265 325TTTTTon DMon DMon DMon DMon DM — — 110 145 165 185 230BushelBushelBushelBushelBushel — — 5,300 6,900 7,800 8,770 10,800



136


137

WaterTotal water requirements include water for

consumption and spillage, sanitation, parlor andmilking system cleaning, cooling sprays, milkcooling, and fire protection. Water consumptiondepends on animal size, activity, diet, lactation,production, and season of the year. Estimate normalanimal drinking water needs from Table 10-1.Animals experiencing heat stress conditions oftenconsume twice their normal drinking water require-ments. See Table 8-5 to estimate milking center waterusage. Size the water supply system to meet maxi-mum instantaneous and daily needs.

Grade A milk rules require water supply wells to becased and properly sealed to reduce the risk ofcontaminants entering the water supply. In mostinstances, the well casing must extend 18 inches ormore above ground level.

Depending upon location, a surface water supply(e.g. spring) may be approved for use in a dairyoperation. The spring must be enclosed to reduceentry of dirt and prevent direct access by animals.

Check with the local health department, milkinspector, or milk market field specialist for localrequirements. Some states require at least an annualanalysis to verify water quality. A contaminated watersupply causes elevated bacteria counts in milk andmay pose health problems for both people andanimals. Safety characteristics of water sources arelisted in Table 10-2. Refer to Private Water SystemsHandbook, MWPS-14, for additional information onwater sources.

StorageA water system’s pressure tank provides a small

amount of storage. The storage volume is usually 10to 30% of the tank size, which provides smallamounts of water without starting the pump. Thestorage also helps satisfy water demand during short,peak use periods.

AAAAAll the planning and designing that goes into a dairy facility can be wasted ifthe utilities are not properly designed to meet the needs. Utilities for dairy

facilities include:

■ Water for sanitation, cow cooling, and drinking.■ Electricity for milking and milk cooling, water pumping and heating, feed

handling, lighting, heating, and ventilating.■ Gas for heating and water heating.

Provisions must be made for times of drought, high water usage, and poweroutages. Always check with the insurer, milk inspector, power supplier, localbuilding official, and electric power supplier, where applicable, for informationon approved construction practices before making major changes or installingnew utilities.

Chapter 10UtilitiesJoe Zulovich, Extension Ag Engineer, University of Missouri

Table 10-1. Water requirements.

UsageUsageUsageUsageUsage gal/hd-daygal/hd-daygal/hd-daygal/hd-daygal/hd-day

AnimalsAnimalsAnimalsAnimalsAnimals aaaaa

Calves (1 to 1.5 gal per 100 lb) 6-10Heifers 10-15Dry cowsb 20-30Milking cowsb 35-50

Sprinkler SystemSprinkler SystemSprinkler SystemSprinkler SystemSprinkler System 10-20aDuring periods of heat stress (hot weather) drinking water intakecan easily reach twice the highest amount in each size category.(From Chapter 28, Large Dairy Herd Management, 1992).

bCows drinking from a water trough may consume at the rate of6-7 gpm.

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Chapter 10Utilities

Consider intermediate water storage under theseconditions:

■ Water source and pressure tank cannot deliverthe required peak flow rate.

■ Water sources do not sufficiently meet peaktwo-hour capacity (the largest volume of waterneeded in any two hours).

■ Standby power is not available. In this instance,elevate the water storage tank for gravity feedto waterers.

Intermediate water storages are usually concrete,fiberglass, plastic, or steel tanks. Protect the storagefrom contamination. When the water source candeliver the required flow rate the majority of the time,size the intermediate water storage for two hours ofpeak flow. Dairies using rural water systems shouldhave a minimum of 4 to 6 hours of peak flow storage.

A two-pump system commonly is used for inter-mediate water storage when the water source andpressure tank cannot deliver the required peak flowrate. The first pump (usually the well pump) has a lowlevel cut-off and a capacity slightly less than thewater source’s production level to prevent pumpingthe source dry. This pump fills an intermediate waterstorage with water for peak use periods. A secondpump draws the water from the intermediate water

storage and forces it into a pressure tank. Size thesecond pump to provide the peak use flow rate. If thewater source tends to decrease or dry up for shortperiods, size the storage to meet the operation’sminimum requirement for one day’s total water usage.

Fire protection requires large quantities of water tobe available on short notice. For fire protection,provide 1,200 to 6,000 gallons of intermediate waterstorage to maintain 10 to 50 gpm of water flow fortwo hours.

DistributionProvide a minimum of one watering space (1 cup

or 2 feet of tank perimeter) for every 15 to 20 cows.Provide a minimum of two waterer locations pergroup of cows. (See Chapter 4, section on CrossAlleys, page 40, for more information on locatingwaterers.) During hot weather, 15 to 25% of a groupshould have access to drinking water to compensatefor heat stress. Additional waterers can be locatedalong the outside of outside cow alleys in a freestallbarn to provide this additional water access in hotweather. Finally, locating a watering tank near theexit of the parlor is beneficial because cows tend toprefer to drink a significant amount of water immedi-ately after milking. Size waterers so water does notstand for more than a few hours at a time. Consider

Table 10-2. Safety characteristics of water sources.Water treatment may be needed to remove undesirable minerals.

TTTTTreatment usuallyreatment usuallyreatment usuallyreatment usuallyreatment usuallyrecommended torecommended torecommended torecommended torecommended tobe safe forbe safe forbe safe forbe safe forbe safe for

SourceSourceSourceSourceSource Primary usesPrimary usesPrimary usesPrimary usesPrimary uses SafetySafetySafetySafetySafety DOMESTIC useDOMESTIC useDOMESTIC useDOMESTIC useDOMESTIC useDrilled well (properly located) Domestic and livestock Usually best of all sources None, unless subject to

contamination

Dug, jetted, driven, or bored well Domestic and livestock Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination

Spring Domestic and livestock Subject to contamination Automatic chlorination

Cistern (untreated water) Domestic, livestock, and Subject to contamination Automatic chlorinationfire protection and filtration

Farm pond Livestock and fire protection Subject to contamination Automatic chlorinationand filtration

Stream or lake Livestock and fire protection Subject to contamination Stream notrecommended fordomestic use withoutextensive treatment

Controlled catchment Domestic and livestock Subject to contamination Automatic chlorinationand filtration

Hauled water Domestic Good if hauled from safe None if safely stored,source in safe but chlorination iscontainers desirable

Community water system Domestic, livestock, and Good if properly None by user, but iffire protection maintained stored underground,

chlorinate

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Chapter 10Utilities

Figure 10-1. Unit waterer.

float-operated waterers for a fresh supply of water andcontinuous overflow waterers for pasture locations.Water quality must be good. Potable water is best.Clean waterers regularly.

Plumbing in livestock facilities encountersspecial corrosion and freezing problems. Use PVC,CPVC, or polyethylene pipe with nylon fittings andstainless steel fasteners whenever possible toimprove corrosion resistance. Check with themanufacturer for the proper temperature and pressurerating of each type of pipe before installing.

Overhead pipes in naturally ventilated buildingsare generally not recommended and will require extrameasures to prevent freezing. Insulation of pipesalone usually will not prevent freezing in naturallyventilated buildings. Both heat tape and insulationare required to prevent freezing. If heat tape is notused, the piping system delivering water to watererswill require a loop configuration to allow water tocontinuously circulate in the delivery system. Drainwater systems in unused buildings. Use antifreeze toprotect traps that cannot be drained.

Buried lines solve most freezing problems but aredifficult to repair. Frost penetration varies from 3 to 6feet in the Midwest. The frost depth can increase by2 feet in locations with compact soil, such as underdriveways and animal traffic areas, and in areas where

snow cover is blown away or removed. Whereunderground pipes are brought to the surface, runthem through a larger diameter, rigid plastic pipe toprotect them from abuse and to provide a warmed airfilm around the waterline. See Figure 10-1. Heavilyinsulated, nonheated frost-free waterers are commer-cially available with large diameter pipes to preventfreezing. They generally remain ice-free if waterentering them is above 40 F and at least one tank fullof water is consumed every four to six hours. Theirsuccess depends on the design, weather conditions,and number and size of animals drinking.

All waterers must have a way to prevent water fromback siphoning. Use either an anti-back siphoningdevice in the water line or an air gap between the waterinlet and the maximum water level. Include anti-backsiphoning devices on all hose bibs. See Private WaterSystems Handbook, MWPS-14, for information ondesign of pipes, pumps, and water supplies.

Install all waterers on concrete slabs to reducemud. Extend the slab away from the waterer at least10 feet in each direction. Slope concrete 1/4 inch to1/2 inch per foot away from the waterer for gooddrainage. Waterer installation details and guidelinesare shown in Figure 10-1. Equip all waterers with adrain to facilitate regular cleaning. Select waterersdesigned to allow easy cleaning.

Rain tight FusedSwitch box

Secure Ground Wireto Frame of Waterer,Neutral Conductor,Shell of Switch,Ground Rod, andEquipotential Planein Concrete Pad

Wire in Non-metalic ConduitGround Rod Clamp

8' Ground Rod

Type "UF" Wire orNon-Metalic Schedule 40Conduit, 2 conductorsPlus Ground Wire.

Lay slack to avoidFrost Damage.

Commercial Waterer

Float Valve and Cover

See Mfg's InstructionsFor Wiring Waterer.

Bolt Ground Wire To Frameof Waterer and GroundingTerminal in Switch.

4" to 6" Gravel Fill

6" Tile in Southern States,12" Tile in Northern States,Extend 3 Min. Below Frost Line.

Pressure Water Supply withShut Off Valve.

Insulation

Hot

Neutral

Ground

(½"/ft)

Optional Step,6" to 8" Wide x 6" to 8" High x5" Platform.

Heating Cable forCold Climate, 30 to 40watts/sq.ft. Locate 1"Below Surface.

6"x6" #10 Wire Mesh Connectedto Electric Grounding System

Provide stopand WasteValve to DrainLine in SevereClimate.

4% Slope

4" min

18"

26"

140

Chapter 10Utilities

Install a fused disconnect switch for each waterer.Use a waterproof switch and a corrosion resistant boxwith appropriate fittings. Fuse only the hot wire witha fuse 25% larger than the total amperage rating ofthe waterer. Locate the switch on a pole or othersuitable surface within sight of and within 50 feet ofthe waterer.

Enclose all wires mounted on a service pole innon-metallic conduit. Seal the top of the conduit, orextend it into a weatherhead to keep water out.Extend the conduit at least 24 inches into the ground.Install all switches and other electrical equipmentwhere they cannot be damaged. Careful sizing ofwiring for waterers is important for reliable and safeoperations. All electrically heated waterers must havea grounding conductor as part of the electrical cable.A ground rod alone does not provide adequateprotection. Install and connect equipment to anequipotential plane if possible. See the Farm Build-ings Wiring Handbook, MWPS-28, for more informa-tion on equipotential planes.

Pipe and Pump SizingSize pipes and pumps to provide water required

during the peak three-hour period. Estimate totalwater requirements from Tables 8-5 and 10-1. Whenestimating water volumes for the peak three-hourperiod, include water:

■ Consumed after feeding.■ Used for milk cooling.■ Consumed during and after milking.■ Used for washing the milking system (e.g. pipes,

weigh jars, bulk tank).■ Used for washing the parlor and holding area.■ Used for flushing gutters.■ Used to sprinkle cows during holding, after

milking, and in the freestall barn. Use a feedline sprinkler system.

Select pipes from Table 10-3 based on thefollowing guidelines:

■ Maximum pressure loss from pressure tank tobuilding: 5 psi.

■ Maximum pressure loss from pressure tank toany isolated fixture: 10 psi.

■ Maximum pressure loss per 100 feet of mainsupply line: 1 psi.

■ Maximum water velocity: 4 feet per second (fps)to prevent water hammer.

Design pumps to provide the flow required toovercome the total system head during the peak,three-hour period. Total head includes:

■ Pressure loss due to friction.■ Pressure losses through elbows, T’s, Y’s, and

transitions.■ Elevation differences between pump source and

point of use.■ System operating pressure.

System operating pressures of 45 to 50 psi arecommon for farm water systems. If a single pump is to beused to supply the total farmstead, other on-farm waterneeds (e.g. house, other livestock buildings), must beincluded in determining pipe size and pump capacity.

Table 10-3. Pressure loss in pipes due to friction.Table includes pressure losses in pipes less than orequal to 1.0 psi/ 100' due to friction. See Private WaterSystems Handbook, MWPS-14, for pressure losses inpipes greater than 1.0 psi/100' due to friction. Lossesare for straight lengths. Losses do not include bendsor transition sections. ��

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141

Chapter 10Utilities

Refer to Private Water Systems Handbook, MWPS-14,for more detail on sizing water pipes and pumps.

ElectricalThis section outlines general materials and

methods for electrical equipment and wiring in dairyfacilities. It does not cover wiring from the powersupplier to the buildings or sizing of buildingdistribution panels. Electrical power requirementsvary greatly depending on the size of the herd andelectrical equipment used, such as silo unloaders andfeed mixing/milling equipment. Refer to the FarmBuildings Wiring Handbook, MWPS-28, for addi-tional wiring requirements.

To ensure proper wiring, consult the followingsources:

■ The local power supplier to help plan andinstall the distribution system.

■ A licensed electrician, who has previouslyworked with dairy equipment and supplies, tohelp plan and install distribution panels andmotor circuits, select conductors and fixtures,and verify compliance with state and local codes.

■ Electrical equipment suppliers for dust- andmoisture-tight fixtures and wiring required fordamp and wet buildings. Plan ahead becausesome of this equipment may have to be orderedfrom electrical wholesale supply stores.Suppliers can list voltage and current needs ofequipment.

■ Insurance companies to determine coveragerequirements.

■ Local building officials where applicable.

Wherever possible, provide service through asingle service entrance panel with enough circuitbreakers to meet present needs and some futureexpansion. If multiple service entrance/distributionpanels are required to meet the needs of the installa-tion, install a separate main disconnecting switchahead of the multiple panels. Each distributionpanel is then wired as a subpanel from the maindisconnects.

Article 547 of the National Electrical Coderequires all electrical equipment used in livestockfacilities to be corrosion resistant, waterproof, anddustproof. Light fixtures must be watertight. Use onlyType UF cable or appropriate conductors in non-metallic conduit. Surface mounting (i.e., not recessedinto or concealed in walls or ceiling) of all electricalequipment is recommended and is required by someinsurance companies.

LightingProper lighting can improve cow performance and

management and provide a safer and more pleasantwork environment. Lighting-system performancecharacteristics include light intensity or illuminationlevel, photoperiod or duration, color characteristics,and uniformity.

Illumination LevelsIllumination levels are measured using a light

meter. Light intensity is expressed in footcandles (fc),which has units of lumens per square foot. Lumensare the amount of light put out by a light source. Inthe metric system illumination level is expressed interms of lux, where 1 fc equals 10.76 lux. Therelation between lumen output from a single light orbank of lights and the illumination level belowdepends on many factors, but distance between thelight and the illuminated area is one of the mostimportant.

Table 10-4 lists recommended illumination levelsfor different areas in a dairy facility. Excessivelighting is uneconomical and wastes energy.

PhotoperiodCows respond to the day length or total hours of

light called the photoperiod. The use of artificiallight sources in combination with natural daylight toextend the lighted period is known as photoperiodcontrol. Research has determined that providingdairy cows with a continuous 16-hour lighting period

Table 10-4. Recommended illumination levels

(ASAE, 1997)

WWWWWork Area or Tork Area or Tork Area or Tork Area or Tork Area or Taskaskaskaskask Illumination level (fc)Illumination level (fc)Illumination level (fc)Illumination level (fc)Illumination level (fc)

Freestall feeding areaFreestall feeding areaFreestall feeding areaFreestall feeding areaFreestall feeding area 20

Housing & resting areaHousing & resting areaHousing & resting areaHousing & resting areaHousing & resting area 10

Holding areaHolding areaHolding areaHolding areaHolding area 10

TTTTTreatment and maternity areasreatment and maternity areasreatment and maternity areasreatment and maternity areasreatment and maternity areasGeneral lighting 20Surgery 100

Milking parlorMilking parlorMilking parlorMilking parlorMilking parlorGeneral lighting 20Operator pit 50

Milk roomMilk roomMilk roomMilk roomMilk roomGeneral lighting 20Washing area 100Bulk tank interior 100Loading platform 20

Utility or equipment roomUtility or equipment roomUtility or equipment roomUtility or equipment roomUtility or equipment room 20

Storage roomStorage roomStorage roomStorage roomStorage room 10

OfficeOfficeOfficeOfficeOffice 50

142

Chapter 10Utilities

followed by 8 hours of darkness results in:■ A 5 to 16% increase in milk production.■ An increase in feed intake of about 6%.■ No negative reproductive performance of

cows.■ A possible enhancement in the reproductive

development of heifers.

Proper lighting improves cow movement, observa-tion, and care. Cows move more easily throughuniformly lit entrances and exits. Cows can be moreeasily observed and cared for in properly lit areas.Sick cows can be spotted more easily with adequatelighting.

Research indicates that providing more than 16hours of light per day does not stimulate additionalmilk production.

Color CharacteristicsSunlight is made up of light at different wave-

lengths that produce different colors (e.g., rainbows).The color characteristic temperature (CCT) and colorrendition index (CRI) are used to describe colorcharacteristics of artificial lights. The CCT describesthe color of the light using a Kelvin temperaturescale that ranges from 1,500 to 6,500 K. Lights withCCT values closer to 6,500 K produce a whiter lightthat more closely approximates sunshine.

The CRI indicates a light’s ability to render thetrue color of an object. CRI values range from 0 to100. Lights with higher CRI values produce light thatrenders a truer color. Lights with lower CRI valuesproduce some color distortion. Table 10-5 lists CCTand CRI values for common light sources.

UniformityLight level uniformity is important for visually

difficult tasks. Non-uniform illumination producesbright and dark spots including shadows. Unifor-mity requirements are not established for dairyfacilities. Uniformity generally increases byinstalling more lamps and decreasing the distancebetween lamps. Some non-uniformity is acceptablebecause installation of an excessive number oflamps is too expensive. Tables 10-5 to 10-7 are basedon economical lamp distribution and sizing.

LampsThree types of lamps are common:■ Incandescent (standard and tungsten-halogen).■ Fluorescent.■ High intensity discharge (high pressure sodium,

metal halide, and mercury vapor).

Select lamps based on light output, initial andoperating costs, energy efficiency, maintenance. Alllighting fixtures must be watertight.

Incandescent LampsStandard incandescent lamps come in a wide range

of sizes and have a relatively low initial cost.Consider them when light is needed for short periodsand when they are turned on and off frequently.Standard incandescent lamps have outputs rangingfrom 6 to 24 lumens per watt, making them the leastenergy-efficient electric light source. They also havea relatively short life (750 to 2,500 hours). Dust- andwater- tight fixtures with a heat resistant globe tocover the bulb are required.

Tungsten-halogen lamps generally produce awhiter light than standard incandescent lamps, aremore efficient, last longer, and have less lamp lumendepreciation over time. Because the filament isrelatively small, tungsten-halogen lamps often areused where a highly focused beam is desired.

Fluorescent LampsFluorescent lamps are widely used because they

produce three to four times more light per watt thanstandard incandescent lamps and a longer operatinglife. Fluorescent lamps come in different forms,standard, high-light-output, and compact. Usewatertight fixtures.

Standard 32-watt T-8 fluorescent lights are usuallyused when they can be placed 7 to 8 feet above thelighted area. High-light-output (HLO) 32-watt T-8fluorescent lights are used if the lights must beplaced higher, up to 12 feet above the lighted area.Compact fluorescent lights can be used to replaceincandescent lights when the existing fixture meetsthe National Electric Code safety requirements forlivestock buildings, but tube fluorescent lights

Table 10-5. Color characteristic temperature and

color rendition index values for common lights.

Lamp TLamp TLamp TLamp TLamp Typeypeypeypeype Color CharacteristicColor CharacteristicColor CharacteristicColor CharacteristicColor Characteristic Color RenditionColor RenditionColor RenditionColor RenditionColor RenditionTTTTTemperature (K)emperature (K)emperature (K)emperature (K)emperature (K) IndexIndexIndexIndexIndex

IncandescentIncandescentIncandescentIncandescentIncandescent 2,500 to 3,000 100

HalogenHalogenHalogenHalogenHalogen 3,000 to 3,500 100

FluorescentFluorescentFluorescentFluorescentFluorescent 3,500 to 5,000 70 to 95

High IntensityHigh IntensityHigh IntensityHigh IntensityHigh IntensityDischargeDischargeDischargeDischargeDischarge

Mercury Vapor 20 to 60Metal Halide 3,700 to 5,000 60 to 80High Pressure

Sodium 2,000 to 2,700 40 to 60

143

Chapter 10Utilities

provide the best life cycle cost option for newconstruction.

Fluorescent bulbs come in different diameters. T-8bulbs are 1 inch in diameter while T-12 bulbs are 1.5inches in diameter. T-8 lamps are recommended overthe older T-12 lamps because T-8 lamps are moreenergy efficient.

The color characteristic temperature of fluorescentlights depends on the bulb installed in the light. Thelast two digits in the bulb number indicate the CCTof a fluorescent bulb. For example, a fluorescent bulbwith the number F32 T8 SP41 means that it is a 32-watt fluorescent T-8 (1-inch diameter) bulb with aCCT of 4,100 K.

Fluorescent lights have ballasts that start and keepthe bulbs lit. Electronic ballasts are recommendedbecause they are more energy efficient, generate lessheat, have a longer life expectancy, and operate andstart at colder temperatures (0 F) than other ballasts.Fluorescent bulbs also last longer when electronicballasts are used. Magnetic and electromagneticballasts are not recommended. They generate morewaste heat, can hum or click, and cause light flicker-ing at cold temperatures. Magnetic ballasts haveoperating and starting problems at temperatures of 50F and below. They can also produce harmonicdistortions, which can affect electronic equipment(i.e., computers). Electromagnetic ballasts haveoperating and starting problems at temperatures of 40F and below.

High light output (HLO) fluorescent fixtures areavailable with electronic ballasts. HLO lightsgenerally put out 33% more light with only an 8%increase in energy usage. They are more expensive,approximately 20%, and are generally used onlywhen either extra lumens are needed or the fluores-cent lamps need to be mounted between 9 and 12 ftabove the lighted area.

High Intensity Discharge (HID) LightsMetal halide, high pressure sodium, and mercury

vapor lights are part of a group of long lasting highintensity discharge lights. They are used to lightlarge areas for extended periods of time.

HID lamps require time to start and warm up beforebecoming fully lit. Start time varies from lamp tolamp, but the average warm-up time is 2 to 6 minutes.HID lamps also have a “restrike” time, which meansthe lamp cannot restart for several minutes (5 to 15minutes) after a momentary power interruption thatextinguishes the lamp. HID lamps are used wherelamps are left on for extended periods of time (notswitched on and off intermittently).

Metal halide lights put out a fairly white light

with a CCT value up to 5,000 K and CRI values up to80%. Their use in dairy facilities is growing.

High-pressure sodium lights put out a gold oryellowish light with a CCT value up 2,700 K andCRI values up to 60%. The lower CCT and CRIvalues can lead to some color distortion. High-pressure sodium lights are widely used in dairyfacilities.

Mercury vapor lights give off a bluish light andhave been used commonly as yard lights. They arenot recommended for use in dairy facilities becausethe mercury in burned-out lights is an environmentalhazard, they are less energy efficient, their outputdecreases with time, and their CRI values are lowerthan other options.

Mounting Height and Separation DistancesMounting height and the separation distance

between evenly distributed lamps lighting a largearea impact average illumination levels and unifor-mity. Illumination levels decrease rapidly withincreasing distance from the light source. Excessivelyhigh mounting heights waste light by dispersing itover too large an area. Excessive separation distancesdecrease illumination uniformity. Table 10-6 listssome typical mounting heights for select lights thatproduce an average illumination level of 20 fc. Arule-of-thumb is to have separation distances between1.2 and 1.7 times the mounting height.

Locate and mount lights to minimize shadows. Infreestall barns with trusses, mount lights at or belowthe bottom chord so that the truss members do notblock the light from reaching the feed bunk andfreestall areas. In milking parlors and stall barns,

Table 10-6. Typical mounting heights and horizontal

separation distances for select lights to produce

an illumination level of 20 fc.

LampLampLampLampLamp MountingMountingMountingMountingMounting SeparationSeparationSeparationSeparationSeparationTTTTTypeypeypeypeype heights (ft)heights (ft)heights (ft)heights (ft)heights (ft) distance (ft)distance (ft)distance (ft)distance (ft)distance (ft)Standard fluorescentStandard fluorescentStandard fluorescentStandard fluorescentStandard fluorescent

(32 W, T-8) 7 to 8 10 to 16

HLO fluorescentHLO fluorescentHLO fluorescentHLO fluorescentHLO fluorescent(32 W, T-8) 9 to 12 12 to 20

Metal halide and HighMetal halide and HighMetal halide and HighMetal halide and HighMetal halide and Highpressure sodiumpressure sodiumpressure sodiumpressure sodiumpressure sodium

175 W 11 to 14 24 to 28250 Wa 14 to 24 24 to 30400 Wa 20 to 35 25 to 40

a Typical for 96- to 112-foot wide freestall barns with 12 footsidewalls and a 4:12 roof slope.

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mount fluorescent lights below structural membersand other equipment to minimize shadows.

Metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps canbe either mounted directly (i.e., hard-wired) to astructural member or suspended on a sturdy chainusing a hook, cord, and plug (HCP). HCP mounting iscustomary in freestall barns and allows heightadjustment to improve light distribution and unifor-mity. An eyebolt is preferable to a simple hook whenattaching the chain to the building to prevent thechain from unhooking and the lamp falling. A safetyclip on the lamp is also recommended.

Consider installing extra light fixtures, such asprotected compact fluorescent lights, at waterers andleaving these lights on 24 hours per day to encouragedrinking during both light and dark periods. Alsoconsider installing a standby lamp with batterybackup in freestall barns to provide emergency lightfor employees during a power failure.

Other factors generally not considered in lightingsystem design include building surface reflectivity,light loss through open sidewalls (nighttime), lightloss due to dust and dirt accumulation, and decreasedlight output with increasing lamp age. Prompt lightreplacement and periodic cleaning will minimizelight loss over time.

Lighting ControlsLights in naturally ventilated freestall barns can

be controlled automatically with a timer and aphotocell in series or a timer alone to provide the 16hours of continuous light recommended for themilking herd. The timer and photocell in series is themost energy efficient. The timer turns the lights onand off at set times, while the photocell overrides thetimer (turns the lights off) when there is sufficientnatural sunlight.

Naturally ventilated freestall barns often haveample natural light during midday. Light levelsduring early morning and evening hours willtypically fall below the 10 footcandle minimum. Setthe timer so that the lamps come on during earlymorning, late evening, and nighttime hours. Thephotocell needs to be shielded from both interior andexterior lighting to work properly. Position thephotocell so that sunlight does not strike it directlyat daybreak. If the freestall barn is oriented so that thesidewalls run from east to west, then position thephotocell below the overhang on the northwestcorner. Two-phase timers allow for a manual override.A timer alone can be used to turn the lights on andoff to provide 16 hours of light. In this case the lightsare on even if there is plenty of sunshine.

Lighting DesignSelect lamps that have appropriate mounting

heights for the area being lit, Table 10-6. Use Table10-7 to determine the number of lamps need tolight an area needing either 10 to 20 fc (i.e.,feeding area, resting area, holding area, equipmentroom, and storage room). Use uniform separationdistances to increase light uniformity. Energyefficient high wattage lights can provide the sameaverage light level with fewer fixtures than lowerwattage lights. Frequently this reduces equipmentand installation costs, but increases separationdistance, which can decrease light uniformity andincrease shadowing.

Provide at least two lighting circuits in eachbuilding. Install light switches near building androom entrances. Provide at least one light fixture foreach maternity or calf pen. Locate switches outsidethe pen.

In the milking parlor provide 50 fc of light in theoperator pit and 20 fc of general lighting in themilking parlor. The operator pit lighting can beprovided with a continuous row of fluorescent light(32W - 4 lamps) along the length of the operator pitmounted 8 feet over the pit floor. Select bulbs with acolor rendition index of 80 or above. Avoid mountingother equipment below the lights to reduce shadow-ing and interference with the lighting. The 20 fc ofgeneral lighting can be designed using lamp informa-tion and data in Table 10-7. Use watertight lights.

In the milk room provide one fluorescent lights(32W -4 lamps) over the outer edge of each wash vatand an additional light (32W - 4 lamps) per174 square feet of floor area. Install lights near thebulk tank to light the tank interior but away frombulk tank openings to minimize chances of brokenglass falling into the tank. All lights must be water-tight with gasketed, shatterproof diffusers. Consult amilk inspector for special lighting regulations ofbulk tanks.

Safety And Electrical CodesLights installed in dairy barns should meet

National Electric Code (NEC) requirements(NFPA 70, 1996) for use in agricultural buildings.Be sure to follow all applicable state electricalcodes too. Use UL approved fixtures not UL listedfixtures. Dairy barns are damp and dusty so lightsinstalled should be watertight and constructed ofcorrosion resistant materials (Article 547). Wiring indairy facilities should also meet NEC requirementsfor agricultural buildings (Article 547). To minimizethe potential for fire and stray voltage, a knowledge-able and qualified electrician should do all wiring.

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Electric MotorsUse totally enclosed farm duty rated motors in

environmentally controlled buildings, in feedprocessing rooms, and on equipment subject to dustand moisture accumulation. Use totally enclosed, air-over motors for ventilating fans—the air stream coolsthe motor.

Provide overload protection for motors in addi-tion to the circuit breakers or fuses. Also, install afused switch with a time delay fuse at each fan sizedat 125% of the motor’s full load current. Locate thefused switch adjacent to or within 10 feet of thecontrolled motor or fan. Wire each ventilating fan ona separate circuit; if one circuit fails, fans on anothercircuit will come on. Have a certified electrician doall wiring. See the National Electrical Code Hand-book and Farm Buildings Wiring Handbook,MWPS-28, for specific wiring requirements.

Standby PowerStandby generators reduce the risk of losses due to

power outages. A standby power system requiresthree elements:

■ A transfer switch to isolate the farm system frompower lines.

■ A generator or alternator to produce alternatingcurrent.

■ A stationary engine or tractor PTO to run thegenerator.

Select either a full- or a partial-load system. A full-load system must handle the maximum running loadand peak starting load of the farmstead or dairyinstallation. A partial-load system carries enoughload to handle only vital needs and is usuallycontrolled manually. The maximum running load andpeak-starting load may include the electrical loadsfor milking, milk cooling, and mechanical feedingequipment. After milking is complete, these loads areturned off, and other loads are turned on. Select agenerator that will have the capacity to operatecontinuously for an extended period (about oneweek).

Tractor-driven generators are common and aregenerally the most economical. During heavysnowfall, getting the tractor to the generator can be aproblem. If short duration outages are critical,consider an engine-driven unit with automaticswitching. If an engine-driven unit is located inside abuilding, ensure the space is properly ventilated toremove engine exhaust and excess heat. Considersoundproofing the room containing the engine-driven unit to minimize noise effects on the remain-der of the building. Operate engine-driven units atleast once a week and tractor-driven units everymonth to ensure they will function when needed.Frequent running also keeps the battery charged onengine-driven units and ensures starting whenneeded. During these regular operation cycles,operate the generator or alternator long enough and

Table 10-7. Indoor lighting design values.

Lamp TLamp TLamp TLamp TLamp Typeypeypeypeype Lamp SizeLamp SizeLamp SizeLamp SizeLamp Size Floor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per Fixture Floor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per FixtureFloor Area (sq ft) per Fixtureto provide 10 fcto provide 10 fcto provide 10 fcto provide 10 fcto provide 10 fc to provide 20 fcto provide 20 fcto provide 20 fcto provide 20 fcto provide 20 fc

IncandescentIncandescentIncandescentIncandescentIncandescent aaaaa 100 W 52 26

FluorescentFluorescentFluorescentFluorescentFluorescent aaaaa 32 W – 1 lamp, 4' long 87 4432 W – 2 lamps, 4' long 174 8732 W – 4 lamps, 8' long 348 174

High Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure Sodium 150 W b 656 328(Reflector + Refractor) 250 W b 1,128 564

400 W c 2,050 1,025

High Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure SodiumHigh Pressure Sodium 150 W b 512 256(Refractor only) 250 W b 880 440

400 W c 1,600 800

Metal HalideMetal HalideMetal HalideMetal HalideMetal Halide 150 W b 250 125(Reflector + Refractor) 250 W b 828 414

400 W c 1,350 675

Metal HalideMetal HalideMetal HalideMetal HalideMetal Halide 150 W b 201 101(Refractor only) 250 W b 667 333

400 W c 1,088 544a Mounting height is 8 feet above the feed manger surface.b Use with mounting heights of 10 to 15 feet.c Only use 400 W lamps if mounting height is over 15 feet.

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with sufficient load to cause it to warm to normaloperating temperature.

Install a double throw transfer switch at the mainservice entrance just after the meter so the generatoris always isolated from incoming power lines. Thisswitch keeps generated power from feeding back overthe supply lines, eliminates generator damage whenpower is restored, and protects power line repaircrews. Contact the power supplier for assistance insizing and installing a transfer switch.

Sizing a standby power unit is difficult. For a partial-load system, sum the starting wattage of the largestessential motor, running wattage of all other essentialmotors, name plate wattage of essential equipment, andwattage of essential lights. When sizing standby electricgenerators, consider the power requirements of futureexpansion and equipment needs.

For more information about standby generators,contact the local power supplier. Some powersuppliers will offer a reduced electric rate if thefarmstead can be an interruptible customer. Thesavings can pay for a larger capacity generator.

Electric FencesElectric fencing is a low cost and effective way to

accomplish the following tasks:■ Managing pasture and rotation grazing.■ Salvaging grain and roughage left in a field.■ Protecting calves and heifers from predators.■ Constructing temporary lanes.■ Extending life of old line fences.■ Protecting hay and silage stacks or other feed

supplies.■ Adding safety to bull pen or pasture fences.■ Stopping animals from crowding fences.■ Lowering costs of lot fences.

Solar chargers, batteries, or 115-V electricalservice powers fence chargers. Use 115-V chargers ifpower is available. Combination units also areavailable but are more expensive. Check with thefence charger manufacturer, and select a unit withoutput characteristics matched to the length of fenceto be energized.

Fence chargers emit current intermittently, notcontinuously. The on time is 1/10th of a second orless, 45 to 55 times a minute. The shock is sharp, butshort and relatively harmless.

Select a charger listed by UL or the U. S. Bureau ofStandards. Notice of approval will be printed on thecontroller near the name plate. Homemade chargerscan and often do kill people and animals.

Another type of electric fence charger provideshigh voltage (1,000 to 2,000 V) and high amperage(30 to 40 A). The line is pulsed 55 times a minute foronly about 1/3,000,000 of a second. The units chargemany miles of clean, well constructed electric fence.

Lightning ProtectionInstall lightning arrestors at electrical service

entrances to control voltage surges on electricalwiring. Provide a lightning arrestor at each servicepanel. Always mount arrestors on the outside ofpanels. Because arrestors can explode and discharge ashower of sparks due to a nearby intense lightningstrike, mount lightning arrestors outside if possible. Ifan arrestor is mounted on an inside panel, keep thesurrounding area free of combustible materials toreduce the risk of fire.

In addition to lightning arrestors on servicepanels, install surge or spike arrestors to provideadditional protection for electronic equipment suchas milking equipment controls, equipment withmicroprocessor controls, some feed weighingequipment, computers, and computerized feeders.

Lightning protection for buildings is usually asystem of lightning rods with metal conductorsattached to several grounds. Install lightning rods 20feet on center and within 2 feet of the ends of a gableroof. Fasten the metal conductors to the roof andwalls at 3- to 4-foot intervals. Drive the ground rod atleast 8 feet into earth which remains moist. Usealuminum lightning rod cable on buildings clad withaluminum roofing or siding. Use copper cables within18 inches of the soil and wherever the cable will beagainst painted or galvanized steel. Special fittingsare available and should be used to interconnectaluminum and copper cables and control corrosion.Locate the ground rod at least 2 feet away from thebuilding. A location at or beyond the eave or dripline is desirable. Install both the ground rod andcable at least 8 inches beneath the soil surface tominimize the risk of damage. Connect lightning rodground rods to the electrical system ground rods.Always interconnect the two systems.

Metal clad buildings with a continuous connec-tion between roofing and siding can be partiallyprotected by grounding the siding unless there isflammable insulation directly beneath the roofing.However, most insurance companies require lightningrods on metal clad buildings as well. Install at leasttwo grounding cables (on opposite corners) on metalclad buildings up to 250 feet long; add another cablefor each additional 100 feet of length or fraction thereof.

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Make sure the lightning protection installer hasqualified for the Master Label designation fromUnderwriter’s Laboratories. Use only UL listed equip-ment when installing a lightning protection system.

Heating DevicesThe milking parlor is the main area of concern

when considering heating. Use radiant, floor, unitspace, or a central heating system to heat the parlor.When operating heaters that use a petroleum basedproduct as the fuel to produce heat, the operatorneeds to have a working knowledge of how thesystem works in addition to heater venting and safetyrequirements. The products of combustion must beventilated to the outside. Where a chimney is notused, increase the ventilation rate. If a chimney isused with a building negative pressure ventilationsystem, consider a powered chimney fan to preventcombustion gases from being drawn into the buildingby the exhaust fan.

Heating SourcePropane (LP gas), natural gas, and fuel oil are

commonly used to heat buildings and water. Propaneis more commonly used in dairy operations becausemany sites are remote and have no access to naturalgas. Careful planning is the key ingredient todesigning a propane, natural gas, or fuel oil systemthat operates efficiently and safely.

PropanePropane (LP gas) is less expensive than electricity

but generally more expensive than natural gas. It hasthe advantage of being available anywhere a fuelstorage tank may be located.

To maintain propane as a liquid, it is stored inspecial containers designed to withstand highpressure, but most gas appliances require gas deliv-ered at low pressure. A UL listed, first-stage regulator,

or pressure reducing valve, located at the supply tankand a second regulator located at the appliance areused to reduce the pressure to a level that accommo-dates gas appliances. In some instances, a thirdregulator or pressure reducing valve is installedwhere the gas line enters a building. To be usedsafely, regulator vents must be pointed downward orbe protected from the elements. They must not bepainted or otherwise blocked.

Because propane is heavier than air, leakingpropane can settle in low areas of buildings and canpose a risk of explosion and fire. To reduce the risk ofpropane seeping into a building and the risk of adeadly explosion in the event of a fire, propane tanksmust be properly located. Table 10-8 shows spacingrequirements for propane tanks. The pressure reliefvalve discharge must be at least 10 feet from anypotential source of ignition, e.g., bulk tank compres-sors, and any ventilation air inlet.

Tanks should be positioned parallel to buildingssince tank ends detach during an explosion. Use propermaterials when installing propane systems. Use pipingof wrought iron or steel (black or galvanized), brass, orcopper. Seamless copper, brass, or steel tubing can beused. Make sure all piping or tubing complies withNFPA 58, Storage and Handling Liquefied PetroleumGases and NFPA 54, The National Fuel Gas Code. Allpiping must be suitable for a working pressure of 125psi. Flexible hose may be used on the low pressure sideof the second regulator. This is common practice whereheaters are hanging from the ceiling and may have atendency to swing when bumped. This hose must beAGA (American Gas Association) approved and shouldbe preceded by a shut-off valve. Only appropriatelytrained persons are allowed to install and servicepropane systems and associated equipment.

Natural GasNatural gas is an economical fuel in those areas

where it is available. Gas is delivered to the point of

Table 10-8. Spacing requirements for propane tanks.National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) minimum spacing requirements.Separation distances listed also apply to tanks and large pieces of equipment using propane.

Rated TRated TRated TRated TRated Tank Capacityank Capacityank Capacityank Capacityank Capacity,,,,, Minimum distance between tank and building (ft) Minimum distance between tank and building (ft) Minimum distance between tank and building (ft) Minimum distance between tank and building (ft) Minimum distance between tank and building (ft) Separation distance between Separation distance between Separation distance between Separation distance between Separation distance betweengallonsgallonsgallonsgallonsgallons Above GroundAbove GroundAbove GroundAbove GroundAbove Ground UndergroundUndergroundUndergroundUndergroundUnderground T T T T Tanks (ft) Above Groundanks (ft) Above Groundanks (ft) Above Groundanks (ft) Above Groundanks (ft) Above GroundLess than 125 gal 0 10 0

126-250 10 10 0

251-500 10 10 3

501-2,000 25 10 3

Over 2,000 gal 50 50 5

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use via a pressurized pipeline system. Installing apressure reducing valve or regulator near the gasmeter reduces pressure.

Natural gas is lighter than air and is odorless,however, a fragrance is added to the gas to aid in leakdetection. Care is necessary to protect a natural gassystem to minimize the risk of damage to gas lines dueto vehicle traffic or the digging of trenches or holes.Use proper materials when installing piping andassociated equipment. Persons having appropriatetraining and experience should do installation andservice. Systems must comply with the most currentedition of NFPA 54, The National Fuel Gas Code.

Fuel OilWhere fuel oil is used as an energy source for

heating water or space heating, the ventilationopenings requirements are the same as for propane ornatural gas fire equipment. All heating devicesshould be vented to the outside via a chimney orhave a vent constructed in accordance with theapplicable codes. Pre-fabricated vents should be ULlisted for use with the equipment served. Never useany fuel in a heating system other than the one forwhich the equipment is designed.

Use only approved tanks for storage of fuel oil. Ifinstalled indoors, the total tank capacity may notexceed 660 gallons. If two tanks are installed (e.g.,two, 275- gallon tanks), they must be interconnectedat the outlet and via a 2-inch cross connection crossline above the tanks. The tanks must be at least 5 feetfrom the flame of any heating device and must beinstalled so as to not obstruct access to safety orshutoff switches, valves, etc. Install the tank on rigid,non-combustible supports. Slope the tanks towardsthe outlet end at least 1/4 inch per foot. A shutoffvalve is required immediately adjacent to the burnersupply pipe connection at the bottom of the tank. Avent with at least a 2-inch diameter must extend fromthe tank to the outside of the building. The fill pipemust extend to the outside of the building.

Venting HeatersInstallation of an unvented heater must be

accompanied by a continual source of combustionair. Unvented heaters include salamander keroseneheaters, hanging unit heaters, gas-fired radiant orcatalytic heaters, etc.

Minimum requirements are:■ Mechanical ventilation system providing a

CONTINUOUS airflow of at least 4 cfm per1,000 BTU/hr of heater capacity.(NOTE: Timer controlled fans do not satisfy thisrequirement.)

■ Two permanent outlets opening directly to theoutside. One must be within 12 inches of theceiling and one must be within 12 inches of thefloor. Minimum size for each opening is 1square inch per 2,000 BTU/hr of heater capacity.The minimum opening size is 3 x 3 inches.(NOTE: Periodic opening of parlor entrance/exit doors does not meet these requirements.)

■ Use fan forced chimney venting in rooms usingnegative pressure ventilation to avoid drawingfumes from the heater or from down the chimneyinto the room.

Minimum ventilation openings are required tohelp ensure complete combustion and minimize therisk of carbon monoxide poisoning.

Heater SafetyGas heaters for either air or water used in dairy

facilities give off carbon monoxide fumes duringcombustion. Gas water heaters should be properlyvented. Monitor the effectiveness of venting closely.Use forced venting in space where negative pressureis used for ventilation because the negative pressureof the ventilation system may bring flue gases backinto the building.

All heaters should have control devices that stopfuel flow or shut down heater operation if necessary.

■ If fuel does not ignite within approximately oneminute of electrical ignitor operation, the fueland fan should shut off.

■ If the gas supply is depleted, a manual resetflame sensor should shut down the heater.

■ If no air is moving through the unit beforeignition, a sensor that detects air movementshould deactivate the ignition circuit.

■ If airflow through the unit stops during opera-tion, the main fuel valve is closed.

■ If the temperature at the air discharge or at theburner becomes too high, the main fuel valve isclosed.

■ If the blower motor becomes overloaded,electrical overload protection should activate toprevent overheating and motor damage.

■ If there is loss of electrical power, there shouldbe a full shut down of the burner.

To ensure continued safe and efficient operation,install items properly and then maintain them well.Use a totally enclosed motor on the heater fan. Placeflame arrestors on the gas lines that lead to heatingunits or generator engines. Mount regulators 18inches or higher above ground with the vent facingdown.

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Establish a regular maintenance schedule. Clean theheating elements, fan blades, and output louvers toenhance complete fuel combustion and heatingefficiency. Totally disconnect electric power beforecleaning, and be sure no moisture remains in the

electrical boxes before restoring power. Inspect electri-cal wiring and fuel line connections annually. Check LPgas regulators, usually mounted on the exterior ofbuildings. Make sure debris, or snow and ice are notcovering the device or plugging the vent opening.

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151

Index

A

AlleysCross 1, 37, 40Drive 1, 38, 83Feeding 1, 38, 83Width 1, 37

B

Bedded Pack 21Bedding 16, 33-34, 92-97Bins 120-121, 134-136Bird Control 84, 90Brisket Boards 29Bunks 35-36

C

Calf Housing 14-20Calf Hutches 14-15Chutes 72Commodities 134Commodity Storage 121-122, 133-134Concentrates 120-122Concrete 34-37Construction, Building 58-63, 87-90Conveyors 127-128Cooling

Facilities 81-84Milk 57-58

Counter-slope Barns 21Cross Alleys 1, 40

D

Doors 90Drains 59-60Dry Cow Housing 42-45

E

Electric Fence 146Environment

Building Ventilation 75-90Cold Housing 14-15Hot Weather Management 80-81Warm Housing 14Cold Weather Management 80

ElectricalFences 146Grounding 60-62Lighting 60, 141-143Stray Voltage 60-63

Emergency Action Plan 114-116

F

Feed Center 125-126Feeding

Alleys 1, 38, 83Bunks 35-36Electronic 128Facilities 117-136Fences 2, 13, 35-37Mangers 35-37Mobile 38-40, 123, 126Stationary 123, 126Space 2, 13, 35-36Total Mixed Rations (TMR) 117,

122-125Fences

Electric 146Feeding 2, 13, 35-37

Filter Strips 110-112Floors

Construction 59Slip-resistant 34-35Slopes 35

Flushing, Manure Handling 100Footbaths 70Four-Row Freestall Barns 39-42Freestalls 27-35

Base and Bedding 33-34Neck rails 33Partitions 33Reference Point 29-32Sizing 1, 13, 29-32Types 28-29

Freestall Housing 20-26Four-row 38-40Limited Bunk Space (Six-row) 40Two-Row 38-40Two-Row (Heifer) 20-21Two-Row Graduated (Heifer) 21Two-Row Gated (Heifer) 21Dry Cows 42-45

FuelHeating Oil 148Natural Gas 147-148Propane 147

G

Grain Storage 120-122Gravity Flow Channel 98-99Groups, Management 3, 7-8, 12-13,

67-68

H

Hay and Straw 122, 129-133Headgates 71-72Heating

Devices 147-148Rejected Heat 54-55

Heaters 87, 147-149Holding Area 50-52Holding Pond 113-114Horizontal Silos 118-119, 131-132Housing

Calf (up to weaning) 14-17Dry Cows 42-45Heifer (6-24 months) 20-26Milking Herd 27-35Replacement 11-26Transition (3-5 months) 17-20

Hutches 14-15

I

Infiltration area 114Insulation 87-89

J, K

L

Lighting 60, 141-143Lightning 146-147Liquid-Solid Separation 112-113Lot runoff 94-96, 112-114

M

Management Groups 3, 7-8, 12-13,65-66

Mangers 35-37Manure Handling

Collection and Transfer 97-104Flushing 100Gravity Flow 98-99, 102-104Land Application 114-115Scraping 97, 102Slotted Floors 97-98

Manure Management 91-116Manure Production 3, 92-96Manure Spills 114Manure Storage 93-94, 104-110Maternity Area 42-43Milk Heat Recovery 58Milk Room 53

152

Milking CenterFacility 47-53Holding Area 50-52Milk Room 53Office 53Parlors 47-50Storage Room 53Utility Room 52

Milking equipment 56-58Milking parlors

Flat Barn 48Herringbone 48Parallel 48Rotary 48-49Side Opening 48Others 49

N

Neck Rails 33

O

Observation Areas 66Operators Pit 51-52

P

Palpation Facility 73Parlors 47-50Pasture 45Pens

Heifer 2, 20Maternity 2, 42-43, 71Special Needs 2, 66-71

Personnel Passes 42

Q

R

Rapid Exit Stalls 50Reception Pits 104Remodeling 8

Replacement Housing 11-26Roads 126-127Rodents 90Roofs 80Runoff 94-96, 112-114

S

Safety Passes 72-73(See also Personnel Passes)

Scraping, Manure Handling 97, 102Separation Facilities 66Septic Tank 53-54, 110Settling Basin 112Settling Tank 110-112Silage Bags 119-120Silage Piles 120Silos

Horizontal 118-119, 131-133Upright (tower) 120, 130-131

SiteSelection 6-8Layouts 6-8, 37-42

Six-Row Freestall Barns 40(Limited Bunk Space)

Slip-resistant floors 34-35Slopes

Alleys 39Floor 59

Space RequirementsResting 2, 13, 27-34Feed and Water 3, 15, 37-38,

140-142Special Handling Areas 65-73Separation Facilities 66Stall Base 33-34Standby Power 145-146Storage

Feed 117-122, 129-136Grain 120-122, 134-136Hay 120, 133Manure 93-94, 104-110Silage 118-120, 130-136

Stray Voltage 60-63Super Hutches 17-19

T

Total Mixed Rations (TMR) 17,122-125

Transition Housing 17-20Treatment Areas

Facilities 13, 66-71Pens 67-68Stalls 67-68

Toilets 53-54

U

Upright Silos 120, 130-131Utilities 137-149Utility room 52

V

VentilationAttic 87Eave, ridge, wall openings 77-80Manure Pit 87Milking Center 55-56Mechanical 14, 84-86Natural 76-84Troubleshooting 84

W

Walls 58-59, 88-90Water Supply 58, 94, 137-141Waterers 37Windows 90

X, Y, Z

References

National Fire Production Association

Batterymarch ParkQuincy, MA 02269:

■ National Electrical Code

American Society of Agricultural Engineers

2950 Niles RdSt Joseph, MI 49085-9659:ASAE Standards

■ Lighting for Dairy Farms and Poultry Industry,EP344.2 DEC93.

■ Milking Machine Installation: Construction andPerformance, S518.2 JUL96.

■ Tower Silos: Unit Weight of Silage and SiloCapacities, D252.1 CEC93.

Iowa State University Press

2121 State AvenueAmes, IA 50014:

■ Forages: The Science of Grassland Agriculture, 4th ed.

MidWest Plan Service

Iowa State University,122 Davidson Hall, Ames, IA 50011-3080:

■ Grain Drying, Handling and Storage Handbook,MWPS-13.

■ Private Water Systems Handbook, MWPS-14.■ Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook, MWPS-18.■ Farm Buildings Wiring Handbook, MWPS-28.■ Sprinkler Irrigation Systems, MWPS-30.■ Mechanical Ventilating Systems for Livestock

Housing, MWPS-32.■ Natural Ventilating Systems for Livestock Housing,

MWPS-33.■ Heating, Cooling, and Tempering Air for Livestock

Housing, MWPS-34.■ Farm and Home Concrete Handbook, MWPS-35.■ Concrete Manure Storages Handbook, MWPS-36.■ Managing Dry Grain in Storage, AED-20.■ Managing and Designing Horizontal Silos, AED-43.■ Using All-Weather Geotextile Lanes and Pads, AED-45.

National Food and Energy Council

409 Vandiver West,Ste 202Columbia, MO 65202:

■ Electrical Wiring Systems for Livestock and PoultryFacilities

NRAES: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and

Engineering Service

152 Riley-Robb HallCornell University,Ithaca, NY 14853:

■ Planning Dairy Stall Barns, NRAES/NDPC-37.

University of Missouri Extension

344 Hearnes CenterUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO 65211:

■ Proceedings: Alternative Feeds for Dairy & BeefCattle, National Symposium, September 22-24, 1991,St. Louis, MO.

Dairy FreestallHousing and Equipment

MWPS-7 Seventh Edition, 2000

Dairy Freestall - Iowa State University

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