DaCosta Kauffman

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    NationalStereotypes,rejudice,ndAestheticJudgmentsin the Historiographyf ArtThontos oCasto o fnrcnn

    Vhen I wasa qr:rduate tuderlt, n importanrprofessor,vho aterbecar.nchechiefcul'rltor f a major museumwherc wa soncealsoa fellow,used o dismiss fr fronrAustriaand surrounding egio's as schnitzcl"and arr f}om Germanyas kraut."Sootrafterward,wl'ren began eachir.rg, seniorprofessor nd chair of rhe de-partmetrtwhcrc I tcachspokc n a similarvcin aboucmy inrcrest n art ficlrn hesercgi

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    77 Thomas aCosta aufmann

    and apprehension: ut soon find the epithct o[reproach retortedon us."]Personal necdotes an thus serve o introducea more general nd long-

    standinsproblenr n the iteratureof art.This brief paper akesup this themc andconsiders, i rst , one important t r : rd i t ion of ar t history that t r ied to be freeofaesthetic rejudices. econd, t suggestsow this tr:rditionmay havebeen nitiatedasa responsco the employment of canons n art history,bLrt ha t art historiansassociated ith this schoolalso ailcd to escape i'om the snares f regionalandnatiolralprcjudices, nd thar thc tenacitl,of rhcscprejudices csult.s nly in partfronr the circumst:rncchat the c'l isciplincvas ilrn-red nd grew during an ageoftrationalism. inally, rn arqllmellt s rnrrdehat a more firndementalproblem s n-volved,one that haspersistedlom the tinre hat aestheticsirst became ntanglcdwith art historyand a kind of proto-anthropology,."vhenhc moclcrn orrnsof thesediscoursesn firctorigin:rtcd n th e cightccnthcentLlry.

    A rcmark attributed to thc Vicnncsc rrr histolian Alois Riegl providesago

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    establish.To exemplifyhis argument, (lombrich-who, it may also be noted,believed n trtrnshistorical tar.rclarcl.nd norms-adduced Vasari'.semarkson whatis now calledGothic architecture.

    Br-rtVasaridid not Llsc he word "(lothic." In the well-known passageGombrich cited,Vasari pokeof "anotherkind of work, calledGerman . . . whichcould well be calledConfusionor f) isorder nstead."8 asari 'segative cmarks rein kcepingwith thc kinds of categorieshat he established nd employed hrough-out the Vite.As iswell knowrr,Vasari cploycddistirrctions mong he typesof artmade n variouscit ies,betweenart in Florence nd art in Venice,berwee 'lirscandisegno nd Venctiart olorito.He also m;rlicd hat art ists ould be treated ccord-ing to national difllrenccs.Vasari's1-rositior.r.rot nly clcarly csulted rom a prejudicein favor of the ' Iuscan(and ts rc latec l ppearancesn Rome), but i t led to theneglect r dis;raragcn-rcr.rtf othcr ccntcrs, nd clcarlyof the art of oth er natiotrs.')This is fbr instance lsoevident nh is uita oFJacol'ro ontormo,whcrc one pointfbr cr i t ic ism is Pontormo'suscof ( lerman engrav ings: or therners,GermansinclLrdcd, rc to come to Italy to le:rrn rom Italian art, not the reverse.0

    Sirnilarexpressiorrsf aestheticudgmenthave r.rfbrmcd.r.ruchf the sub-sequcnt itcraturcof art. l)epenclingon one'spoint of view, he Venetian,Dutch,Clerman,Fre ch, or whatevcrplaccorrcmight l ike to promote suppli ed henormfor writers who respondecl o Vasari n creati ng heir owr.r egior.ralr nationalhistoriographies.ven he sortof art historywhich, ikc thework ofJohann oachim'Winckelmann,trcatcclnationalor local schoclls s constitutin g a sequence, ndwhich in the writ ings of later historians egarcledhis secluece as he resultof aprocess f evoh-rtion ltstyles,managed o cornbine his iclea f progress ith theassumpt ion hat some norm had been expressedn the h is tory of ar t . For'Winckelmann,and for n.rarry thers, t wasof co urse he art of ancientGreece, ndsubsequentlyhat of the Italian Renaissance.llTb e sure,other norms could alsobe posi ted:Johann Wolfgang von ( loethe thus turned Vasar ion his headbyg iv inga pos i t i ve a lue o Gorh ica rch i t cc ru r cnd deeming he lo th ica pos i t i v cexpression f Clermanness.r Subsequently,many art historians rom the time of theinstitutionalization of the discipline n the nineteenthcentury havesung he praisesof German art; mutatis mutandisart of other nations hasalsobeencelebratedwhenthe forms of their art wereestablished snormative.

    Normative assumptionsand in particular the classical anon were espe-cially what Riegl had in his sights.As Otto Pdcht suggestedn his acute analysis fRiegl, the implications of Riegl'swritings were that the classical ano n, and

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    absoluteaesthetic o rms in get-reral,ad becomcobsolete v the late nineteenthcentut'y.1r'heyhad to be dropped. Instead, t wa snecessaryo r-rnderstandhateachphase n history had ts owrl aesthcticdeals.Fo r rhis,as s rvellknown, Riegldevelopeclhe iclcaof Kunstu,ollen: achperiod and placehad its own Kunstwollen.Neverthelcss,hile eschewir.rgudgmentsand an approach o history ha tseemedo be basedo11 esthetic lejudices,Ricgl ernployecl onccptsof regionalor nationalconstauts hat also ely on stereotypes,nd n.ra.ynsinuatesuch preju-clices r-rto hc writing of history. In Dts Hol/andischeGruppenportrlr Riegl calledthe l )utch groLrp ort fa i t " the genre r r losr eprcsenrat ivef Ho l land\ r . rar io r . ra lstvle."raWhateverhe term may nrean lsewhcre,{icgl's roteanKunstwollenistheforcewhich drives stylistic changc n DasHollAndiscbeGruppenportzTl.r takcsonnat io r la l ,rnclv i th in rhc net iona l , cg iona l i r rnrsn thc genrcof por t r l i rurc .

    AlthoLrght nright bc argued hx Kunsht,o//cns tr 'reuristic nc lnot nec-cssarilya psycho[ogical crn'r, t iegl'suseof thc conccl-ltof Kurtstutollezzn thisparticularc:rse.s lircctlyusccl

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    writers of Riegl 's imc (he diecl n r9o5),as t had becn n the ninetecnrhcenrury,and his assumptions botrt hc psychology f pcopleswerecertainlynot restrictcdto his time and pl: rce I{icgl is,howevcr, m;rorranr br scveral easons. or Riegltideash:rvecontinucd to providc the basis br argurnents or thc existence f na-tional ancl ncialconstantsn art. Notions of natior.r:r lr racialconstants emainedimportant during thc twcntieth century or mru'ry icnr.reserofbssorshrough allthe Vienlra schools" Farthistory, ronr the "firstschool," o which Rieglbelongcd;to Otto l) i icl .rt, ans Sccll-nayr,nclKarl Maria von Swoboda n the second chool;to KouraclObcrhubcr n most rcccnt imcs. l :

    Rccently {icgl anclother scholar-sssociateclith the Vienna School ikeP:ichthavebccn tratrslatcclnto Irnglish; hcy havebcgur.ro receivern ncreasingamount of attcntiorr, n prrrtpcrh:rps ecauschcy may seem o ofler a wayof do-ing art historywhich appcars() cscapenrr.n ome raditionalacsthetic rejudices,and thus o give iccnsc o an cxpansion f the canon.rsWhi le i t hasalsobecomefashionablc o stress thcr aspccrs f rhin king about psychology nd style r.r ela-tion to art to bc fbund in th c work of Rieglancl ):icht,and to clvcrlook r downplaythe rnportance f thcir:rssLulptior)sbout he naturcanclefFect f r.rationalropcn-sities, ssumptic'rtrsbout nationalconstnllts cvcrthelcssonstitlrte he fbunclationof l{icgl's and fbllowing hirn, of l 'richr's nd Swoboda's) rgumenrs bourwhat isintrinsic ro "thc instirrctual nclsupra-ilrdividual atLlre f thc cvolurionof art." l ')I 'r icht's and other Vicnnesescholars') recognitior.r f sryles, hat is their useofwhat more nelrtrally, nclccdpositively, asbeenclescribcd y Hans-GeorgGadameras the employmentof herrncncuticprejudicc,lo n accounting or the origin andcharacter f clifl-erentorrnsof art rcl icsexplicitlyor-rhe ideaof r-rationalonstanrs,as was alreadycriticized n a rrcnchant revicw of r936by Mcyer Schapiro.Mostnotol'iously, hese:rssttt-t.t1-rtionsrehard to distinguish rom other sortsoFnation-alist ar-rd ven racialprejudices,and rhey had consequencesbr the opinions ofsomeof thosc rained n Vienr-rancluding art historianswho becameNazis,suchas DagobertFreyarrd Hans Sedln.ray r.rl' l 'he poinr is nei ther ro casr igarccholars f the Vienna Schoolnor romalign them all fbr the association f some art historian swith unsavorypoliticalmovements. I'hinking in rerms of national srereorypeservadedso much nine-teenth- and rwentieth-century hinking about art that it would require much morethan one paper to address t adequately.Neverthelesshe caseof Riegl and hisViennesesuccessorss instructive,becauset suggestshat evenwhere aestheticprejudiceof one sorr may seem o be absenr, hinking in

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    thus having ecourseo other sortsof prejudice,not just of a neutralhermeneutickind, may determine he shapeof arguments bout historyand aesthetics.

    Furthermot'e,lthoughdiscussion f dre instinctualnatureof artist icevo-lution" is :r post-Enlightenn.renthenomenon,questions aised n relation o thewrit ings of Riegl and th c Vienna School ead o consideration f an issue ha t isalready reselrtn the eighteenth entrlr\,,when the modern discourses [art his-tory and acsthetics cre founded. Some of the first works of the eighteenthcentury,l ike that o f the Abbd clu Bos, which marked out a space or the aesthcr ic nrelatior.ro worksof what came o bc called hc visr-ralrts,by defining a separaterealmo[finc arts, el icdou the rclationof tastean d it s expressionrr artist icprod-ucts o nation, conccived san underlyingconstrurt. ike thc better-knownworkof Montesquieu,Abbd du Bos e aboratec l lc lercl imatologicalnot ions olt heoriginsof nationalcharacrer.)u B

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    and tastc, rncl or rcasonshat can be said o be derived iom physicalcauses. umestates:l am apt to suspecthe nesroes o Lre aturally nf-erioro the whites.Therescarcely verwas a civil izecl :rt ion of that complcxior-r, or evenany individualeminent either n action or speculation.Such a uniform and constantdifferencecould r.rot appcrr, n so manycountriesand ages,f naturehad not madean origi-nal distinctionbetween hcsebrcecls f mcn."la BccauscHumc suggestshat thesedcbilit ies f what he calls negroes" re evealed o m:rtterwhat society r land heyinhabit, hey must be regarded s nnatequalit ies,what c:rnbe called he results fracialdiflcrcnccs.Conscclllcnt ly hcrc hasbccrrnrr-rch iscussior.rf Htrmet racism.rs'fhcse icleas, trcl n efl-ect rangcof similarstercotypcd otior.rs aunt the:restheticrlrd,perhapsnrore surprisingly, he cpistcn.rologicaldcasof ImmanuelKant. lt iswcll known that Kant rcsponcledo Hunre's estheticheories. hroughther.n e li l

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    appearby chance,or are bound rvith a cerrain necessity o clin-rate "ob dieseNationalunterschiedeufhllie . . oder nrit eirrcrgewissen otwendigkeit an dasClima gebunclen evr-r").: 'readinc hese emarks,which wele published r-r her76os, r.rhe ight of hisar"rteccdenromrnents f ry57on physical eography, ow-eve ',allows br thc hypothesishat he belicvecl,ikc nranyother thinkers ncludingdu Ros, hat thesediflbrences .ray avc depenclcd n climate. Kanr alsc'r ade state-ments deme:rrringNegroes n his Beobdchtungeniberdas GeJi.ihl esSchiinenundEr/tabenenllrthe 7(ros hat firl lorv hoseof Hurnc, whom he citcs,and press orthe ideaof racialconst:lr.rrs.r')

    Thc Kritik der reiuen V'crnunfialso bricfly brings up rhe issue ofVolksc/ tarahtrr .n his t l iscussion f thc regulat ive seof ic icasKanr menrionsVolltscharahtcrs a possiblc casot.tbr thc clif 'ferorcesf opinion that insightfulmen may havc. Eithcr peo;rlc sceclif-fcrenccss clcrivine from Volkschtrakter,decisivc nd inheritecl listinctions f f irnril iesrncl accs, r all differences remerelythe cstr l t f chancc.

    Iu Kant'sopinion both sidcs n thc argtrnrcnt verlook he clccper auses,antl v iervs f thc Lrni ty r nrr-r l t ipI ic i tyf naturcnraybc recor. rc i lec ly reason.. j rKrrntmay thuswith cqLranimiry rcrc lybc rcPrescr. r t inehc unresolved 1-r inionsof others, ncl ry ing o cxplaindi f lcrenccsn a nrannerwhich woulc luot be con-tingentor historical,mtrch n thc nrrrnncr f his ar-rthropology.)n rheorhcr har.rcl,f):rgobcrtFrc;', vhown.\,:rs rcntionccl, rwcntieth-ccr)rury roponcnrof a raci.srgeography nil historyof rrrt,maclc cfi 'rcnce o this passagend readpart of it tobolster risown llrslrmcnrs htr Vtlhscltardkterht(l racialbasis.r:

    Whcthcr i t thercforc s thc casc hat rrrc i .stdca.s bout rhe rraturcofltational harncter rcalsoalreacly r)ticipetcdn thispassaecy Kant-gvcn rhoughKant characteristicallyalls br reason o adjrrclicarencl ecor.rcileiffcrenccs fopinion-Kant'.s atithrofrology ic{ 'clvorr gcneralizationsbout nationalcharac-tcr, a ucl Kant did nrakc assrtnrptions bout racialdif l irence. Racewas a subiecrthat cngagecl ant ir.r ther wrirings: 're lcvored work spccificalll,o thc topic ofracialdif lLrcrlces. He scctns o havc rclieved, n contrrrst vith his pupil J

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    Stereotypes,rejudice,ndAestheticudgments 9

    'l'heseideashavca pertinence or art history,aswcll as or aesthetics. anttthinking about r-rationalharactcr l irectly nvolvcs rrt. In his tracton ar.rthropol-ogy Kant says hat the Italian character s rcvcaledn its taste br art. Kant'.s atior .ralstcreotypingwas r.r irct ong clcpcndent n and implicated n his considerarionsof art and beauty. n the fbr-rrth ectionof h is Beobacbtungenf the r76os Kant hadalready ist irrguishedctwcennationalcharacterist icsn asmuch as heydepcncledor.r ist inct belings f the sublimcand beautif l l .r( 'Consistentwith thc remarks ewas to mirkc in his Anthropo/ogic,K'ant for cxample stateci hiit Italian geniushaddisplayedtsel fchic f ly n music ,pei rr r ing, cu lpturc , nciarchi tecture.J 'n thec

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    B0 Thomas DaCosta Kaufmann

    arisen n thc generations hat fbllowed Hume, Kant, and tVinckclmann. Thispaperhashoweversugeestedhat even hose hinkerswho stresseddisinterestedintercst" ascharacteristic f the beautiful, ike Inrmanuel Kant, or-sor-rghtbr astandard f taste ndependent f timesand peoples,ikc Humc, werecaughtup ina categoriz-ationf peoples trdnationswhich ir.rformec{heir notions of tastean dits expressionn thc arts.

    It is opcn to debate f the entanglement f these eliefi n stereorypicalndracia l ist h inking d iscrounts he val ic l i ty of ph i losoph ica larguments aboutaestheticheories. ut it certair.rlyualifieshc universal laimsof thesc hcories, ndin the leastmakes heir applicability roblcmatic.'iyl 'hiss particularly hc c:rsebrarguments bouthistorv hat rvotrldbe buncled pon thcir ;rremises.'hisproblemisevirlent n l:rrge trctchcs f ninetce nth- r 'nclw,crrticth-centuryhought hat derivefrom or usesuchnotions, vhich .nay llow or prejudice, ot iust of a hcrmet.rerrtickincl,and for'l.rcrsone lirstc, rs t rvc r.', o conrc n thrc,ugh he backdoor.

    l 'his pa;rcrha.srttcrnpteclo suggesthat thc prolrlenr f discntlnglingarthistory lorn acsthctic rejLrdiccstlunrbratc.l v Ricglanclhis blkrwers pel)s p onto a larger nd older -ssue:hcth.-facsthctic rtluesu.rd cliefi can be disentangledfionr othcr rlotio n.\ hat rrlso ely on stereotypcs .l 'hclc arc ways hat tlrcy can be.Btrt ir would [.re ecc.ssaryo cnrpkrl.tl if]ircnt anthropologicalanclgeogrephicalprenrises ncinrcthoclshan rl.roschat havcofrcn bcerr n oprcrationn the histori-ographyof'art. b plrt ir .ur()rbcr iry: rlstcad f an enthropo-lleographyf art, inchesensc f lrL icdrich tarz-el, gtbgnrytltie;untaincof art, fcrllorvingn a traditioncstatrl ishedy PaulVidal de a BIache, enrrrinso bc claboratccl.l l

    I . Sc t r h r ' suu r rn r ry r r . l en ] c r t i ngan t l ( i h l i s t i anc V i l l an - ( , en t loss i ,Ne t ion : r iS re rco t l ' pcs -AnIn t roc luc r ion . hc l l o l c and S ign f i c r rncc f -N, t t i o r t l lS tc rco typcst r I l r te n . r t i on l l I { c la t ions ; nlrr tcrdiscipl inalyApproach," in ' l i ' rcse Walas,cd. , Stcrtot.yptstnl Ntt i r ,ns (, racow: lntcrnationr l( ,u l turel ( icntre, r995), r-27.z. Vof eirc, h-ssay n' l ' r rstc," n ( lher lcs larr ison, )aul Wootl ,: rr tc1rtson iaigcr-,'ds. ,Art in ' l -hnr.yr(r4ll r8r5:An Arttltolory o. f .lhnging 1zl,:as()xfirrcl: Blackwcll, zoor), 53r.3. David Hunrc, "()f the Standardol'J'este," n F.ugcneH MillcL, l)auid Hune. Ess,tys[ora/. Poliricaland Littrary ( lncl ianapol is: ibertv Cl lessics,9[l5), z7.4. ' fhcre hasbccn an increasingitcrr ture on Ricgl. ' l 'h is ccount fbl !ows hc perceptive enurks by()tto P: icht, 'Alois Ricgl, " republ ishecln Ji i rg ()bcrh:r ic lacl-rer,r tur Rosenauer,lertraut Schikola,

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    Stereotypes,Prejudice,and Aesthet ic Judgments B

    Metltodiscltesu Krrnsrltistori:clrtn)raxis.Ausge Lilt lrt Scltruy'azMunich: Prestel, 9t-), r4 r 5z (origi-nal ly ; rubl is l rc i l s 'Ar t l l is tor i : rnsand Ar t ( l r i t ics \ / [ : Akr is Riegl , "Bur l ington las, tz int o5 [r9( r3] :r88- l_r ) .5. For introcluctions o Schlosser nc lhi s thotrghtsecF.cluarcl.rchnit, "Juliusvon Schlosserrti66 rq;8),"i r r Hcinr ich Di l ly , cd. . .4 l tnr is t r r Mol l rnt r KuustgcstL i t l , t rBer l in: D iet r ich Rienrcr ,199o) , io- f )2;Artrrr Rtrscnaucr ,Ju l iusr ' , rn Schlosser , "n ' l ' l te [ ) i r t ior r , t r .y ,of 'Ar t :nc l l . re r r r ic lcs ontr r incd n thetttrnrtrcroi krir istlr llcithtt t(r, no. .1 \\,'inrcl rglill) dcvotcrl to Sclilosstr on thc fifiicrh annivcrsaryof his dcath. I ) r ichr , Ricgl , " r5o1. , lsopoints to thc cor r t r rs t rc twecnRicgl rnd Schlosser .6. fulius von Schloss.'r, I )ir Kunst- unrl WunrJcrhanrnrrn der Spiitrenaisstnce.Flin btiraq zur ()schichtedesSarnnt /u , rsezsr9ol i ; znci cd. , Breunsc l lveg: Kl i r rkharc l t nd Bic lrnann, r978) .7. F. .H. ( lonrbr ich, "Norrn enc l 'onn. ' l -hc Stv l is t ic -ategor ics f Ar t H is tory : rnc l heir ( ) r ig ins in[{crr:risserrcccleals," cprintctlin Norn au d lirnt: .\tur/ir 'su t/tcArt of't/tt ]lenaissant (r.7(r(r;-onclon:Ph r i c l r n , 97 r ) , l r 9 l i .f l . As t rans lr r r t ' t ln ib id. , l . i .1 .9. I ror Veser i 'src : Iur )cnt f - f i r rc ign:r r t is ts , cc i iorg io [ ]onsr rnt i , ( l l i ar t is t i s t r iu l ic r i nc l lc Z/rcdc lVesari,"irr lVMri StorioqnJittArtista(Atti dr l (.lottttstolntenmzionaknel IV(.)enrtnariodellaMorte)(F lorer rcc :nst i tu to naz ionalc i s t r rc l i u l r in ls inrentr r , ,776) ,717-14. .ro. I r r r r - t l rc rost rcc t l ) t t rcunrrcntof Vusar i 's r i t if l )ontor rno, ee l l izabeth t i l l iod, I )ontonno,Rronzino, anrl A//rn'i. A ( ,,:ttur oq o/ l'lorcrdnc Art (Ntw I I rn,cnand l lntlon: Yelc Urr vcrsitv I'ress,zool).u. S ce rrnst I l. ( ionrbrich, I{rtrst uu d litrtst'ltr itt. Wir[rrng rrril Vhndlungtiner lr lr (( '.oloun : l)unront,r97t l ) . ) r ig inal ly pLrhl ish.c l s dus o. f )nqr ts : at t l r l te i r [n l , / t ( t o i l ,4r r (Ncv \brk : ( .oopcr UnionSchool of Ar t at rc l \ rchi tcc turc , 97r) .rz. Iirr tliis lroittt, sc c Ilans llelting, I) it I)tunth,'tt urtl ibt Kunst, Ein Schutitr iqts lr lr (Munich:Detr tscherKunstvcr lag, 99z) , r5.r3. ) : icht , Ricgl , " r44t .r4. Alois Riegl, "l)as htrll: inclischcCiruppenporrrrir,"./al,rbuchdt r leuusthistoristbenatnmlungende salk'rhiiclttstotKtistrhauvs zi. nos. l- 4 (l9ou), 7r-278.r5. Wolfgeng Kerr rp, lnt roduct ion" ( t rans. ) lv ic l I l r i t t ) , in A lo is Riegl , Zr , 'Group l )or r ra inr ra JHolland, trans. F.r 'elvnM. Kain (l-os Angcles: (lctrv RcseerchCenter fo r the Histoly of Art and theHumanit ics , r999) , r+.r6. SeeAlcris Riegl, Hitoriscbc Gramnatik der bildenden Ktinstr, ed. Karl M. Swoboclaand C)tto Picht( ( l raz and Cologne, t .166) ,q5-6o. Spec i l ic efercncc s hcrc made to a passage n p. to: 'An denFranzosen rwiess ich inr lz . Jh. Der Vor tc i l c lc rBc inr ischung inesTropfensant ikcnsBlures . . . "Even though these cnrarksarL-rlken from the m;rnuscriptof an r,rnpublishcd ook proiect, nd RiegltideasoFtcnchengecl, here is no reason o dor-rbt hat thcsc comments represenr Uegl's hought at

    werc rvr i r tcn.

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    17.'l'hcsc dcasof these scholarsare treated n ch:rp.3 of'l'homas l)aCosta Kaufmar.rr.r, he PlaceoJArt. Toward a Geography .fAr t (Chicago rrnd l-onclon: Universitv of Chicago I'rcss, fbrthcomingIzooz] .18. Rcccnt tr:rnslations of Riegl incltul,e Problctnsol S4,/e. oundations.for a Hitor.y of'Ornam?nt, tr'rt1s.Evc lyn Kain, annotat ionsand int ro. L)av id Castr io t : r , rcfaccHcnr i Zcrner (Pr inceton:Pr incetonUniversiry Prcss, 99z); 'l'he ()roup lbrtraitun'o.f'Ho//and. :r::rts. cit.; Pricht, 7.l te )ractirc of'Art Histor),.Ref lec t ionsn Method. t rans. [ ) : rv id l ] r i t t , in t lo . ( ihr is topher S. Wcrod ( l .ondon: I - larvcy Mi l lerl)ubf shcrs, 999); fbr other authors of thc Vicnna School, scc 'l'/tt Vioma .\choo/Reader;Po/itis andArt Historical Mtthod in thr rg1os,ed. Ohristophcr S. Vooc1(Ncw York: Zonc llooks, zooo).19 .Of. Kenrp, "lntroduction," t4 r5. Woocl, r.r is "lntroduction" to Pricht, T/te 'ractice f'Art I{istor],t5, ra iscs hc problcr r rof n l t ional constunts , nd l) ; icht ' .sesp()nsco Mcyer Schapiro 's r i t iquc (sccbelow) , bt r t p i lsses)ver his ccntra l ssuc n f : rvorof ot l rc r considclat ions.zo. Harts-(lcorg ( iaciarlcr-,Tnth an l fulttharl(Nov Yrrrk: (lrossroed, r9llr. z35fLzI . l ) l icht ' r inrsc l f as, t l rc , rc ly : t lv l t lcf t l rc problenrof thr useof ' the ic lca f 'n : r t ional onstants n thcI9 los, seeMcthodischcsur hunsthis tor is tLtn)mris, r39, and nror-c xpl ic i t lv .subscc lucnt lyn r ( )7r ,ib id. , zqg; ) : icht ' .swn cursoryclcfcrtsc f thc conccpton cnrpir icalbascs gainst ts " r r r t ional is t " r i t -ics bcgs hc quest ion,uncldocs not i l l rswcr ssucs 1- l i is tor ice l lc { in i t ionof thc net ionalanclc thnicrubr icswhich hc cont inucc l o usc.zz. Abbd.|can-Brptiste du l\os. lll.flcxio tts itiquu srrr a polsic u sur ht pt'irtture,preficc l)onriniclueI) is i rat , ( r7r9 l rcpr int , I )ar is : i . , , lc N. i t i , , r r r i lc uprr icrrrc lcs JcaLrx-Arts,991) , ;z f f .23. L)aviclHtrrnc, "()f Netional (lhalacters," in iilrr l,s fulou/, lblit intl rtnl Littntr.y, r97 f}.; the quo-t r t ion is f ronr r9 l l .24. Ib id. , 2olJ ) . ro.z; . See with rc f i rcnccto pr i :v ious i tc raturc) o lrn Irnrncrn,rrhr,Hurnc ' .sl l .cv isc t l{ac isr r , ". fourna/o. f ' rhe is toryof ' ldus i1, no. 1( . lu lv Scptcnrbcr 992) :4ur lJa) .t (r . Ir

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    Ocntury Stulies 8, no . :1 . 7l 9t ; I anr gratefirl to Michcl lc Foa fbr this and other references. hi spoi t r t hasalso: t l readvbcct t obscrved, vi thout nruch f i r r ther discussior . rr Kant 's re lat ionhcrc toHunrc

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    84 ThomasDaCosta Kaufmann

    4r. lbid. , 2.L, .g. ,whcre qr:al i t ics f Neapol i tansand Sici l ians rc ment ioned.42. Cf . Frev, l) ic Ennvicklung nar ionalerSt i lc, " 3 , but whcthcr or not this n-ray e relatcd o thenew (in t l- rc ighteenth cnrury)anthropological onccptu:r l iz: r t ion frace, asFreycharacter ist ical lyclaims n his ef fbr ts o grounclhis own racial ist hinking, is t . tot o c lear.43.Onc way rhar hc univers:r l laimsnr ight havcbcen saved s by thc quest ion ablc la inr hat thosewho weredcnigrated verc n lact of a di f fcrcntspecieshart he human. l 'his is an argumcnt hat hasbeenrepcatcdly sedby various brrns of racisr liscoursc:cc, br examplc, hc discussionn ]mmerwahr,"Hurnc's RevisedRacisnr."44. I -heher i tagc f Ratz-el nciVidal dc Ia l l lachc n art history,and many othcr issr:es clun.rbratedhere,as wcll as crrhcrsuggestions irr rrpproachcs, rc cliscusseclLrthcr in Tlte P/arc of Art:'fou,ard aGeographyol Art.