Providing structural support to the cell, the cytoskeleton also functions in cell motility and regulation

Mechanical supportMaintains shape

Fibers act like a geodesic dome to stabilize and balance opposing forces

Provides anchorage for organelles Dynamic

Dismantles in one spot and reassembles in another to change cell shape

Introduction The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers

extending throughout the cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton

organizes the structures and activities of the cell.

The cytoskeleton also plays a major role in cell motility.This involves both changes in cell location and

limited movements of parts of the cell. The cytoskeleton interacts with motor proteins.

In cilia and flagella motor proteins pull components of the cytoskeleton past each other.

This is also true in muscle cells.

Fig. 7.21a

Motor molecules also carry vesicles or organelles to various destinations along “monorails’ provided by the cytoskeleton.

Interactions of motor proteins and the cytoskeleton circulates materials within a cell via streaming.

Recently, evidence is accumulating that the cytoskeleton may transmit mechanical signals that rearrange the nucleoli and other structures.

Fig. 7.21b

There are three main types of fibers in the cytoskeleton: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

Microtubules, the thickest fibers, are hollow rods about 25nm in diameter.Microtubule fibers are constructed of the globular

protein, tubulin, and they grow or shrink as more tubulin molecules are added or removed.

They move chromosomes during cell division.

Another function is as tracks that guide motor proteins carrying organelles to their destination.

Fig. 7.21b

In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus.These microtubules resist compression to the cell.

Fig. 7.22

• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring.

• During cell division the centrioles replicate.

Microtubules are the central structural supports in cilia and flagella.Both can move unicellular and small multicellular

organisms by propelling water past the organism. If these structures are anchored in a large

structure, they move fluid over a surface. For example, cilia sweep mucus carrying trapped

debris from the lungs.

Fig. 7.2

Cilia usually occur in large numbers on the cell surface.They are about 0.25 microns in diameter and 2-20

microns long. There are usually just one or a few flagella per

cell.Flagella are the same width as cilia, but 10-200

microns long.

A flagellum has an undulatory movement.Force is generated parallel to the flagellum’s axis.

Fig. 7.23a

Fig. 7.23b

Cilia move more like oars with alternating power and recovery strokes.They generate force perpendicular to the cilia’s

axis.

In spite of their differences, both cilia and flagella have the same ultrastructure.Both have a core of microtubules sheathed by the

plasma membrane.Nine doublets of microtubules arranged around a

pair at the center, the “9 + 2” pattern.Flexible “wheels” of proteins connect outer

doublets to each other and to the core.The outer doublets are also connected by motor

proteins.The cilium or flagellum is anchored in the cell by a

basal body, whose structure is identical to a centriole.

Fig. 7.24

The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by the arms of a motor protein, dynein.Addition to dynein of a phosphate group from ATP

and its removal causes conformation changes in the protein.

Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules.

Protein cross-links limit sliding and the force is expressed as bending.

Fig. 7.25

Microfilaments, the thinnest class of the cytoskeletal fibers, are solid rods of the globular protein actin.An actin microfilament consists of a twisted double

chain of actin subunits. Microfilaments are designed to resist tension. With other proteins, they form a three-

dimensional network just inside the plasma membrane.

Fig. 7.26 The shape of the microvilli in this intestinal cell are supported by microfilaments, anchored to a network of intermediate filaments.

In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another.

Thicker filaments, composed of a motor protein, myosin, interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers.Myosin molecules walk along the actin filament,

pulling stacks of actin fibers together and shortening

the cell.

Fig. 7.21a

In other cells, these actin-myosin aggregates are less organized but still cause localized contraction.A contracting belt of microfilaments divides the

cytoplasm of animals cells during cell division.Localized contraction also drives amoeboid

movement. Pseudopodia, cellular extensions, extend and contract

through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments.

Fig. 7.21b

In plant cells (and others), actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming.This creates a circular flow of cytoplasm in the cell.This speeds the distribution of materials within the

cell.

Fig. 7.21c

Intermediate filaments, intermediate in size at 8 - 12 nanometers, are specialized for bearing tension. Intermediate filaments are

built from a diverse class of subunits from a family of proteins called keratins.

Intermediate filaments are more permanent fixtures of the cytoskeleton than are the other two classes.

They reinforce cell shape and fix organelle location. Fig. 7.26

VINCA ALKALOIDS(eg. Vincristine,vinblastin)

They bind to tubulin dimers preventing the assembly of microtubules and therefore stop cell division at metaphase.

TAXOLS;Drugs extracted from the bark of Pacific yew plant prevents depolymerisation of the microtubules of the spindle fibres which stops x-somes movement to the poles and this arrests the completion of mitosis.

???CANCER METS;Evidence is still sought to prove beyond doubt that cytoskeleton is involed in cancer metastasis as cells move from primary tumour traversing the blood capillaries and lymph vessels for hematogenous and lymhpatic mets to occur.

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