Ecological systems, biogeochemical cycling of mather and energy in nature.
Cycling and Biogeochemical Transformations of N, P, S, and K · Phosphorus Cycling • Unlike N, P...
Transcript of Cycling and Biogeochemical Transformations of N, P, S, and K · Phosphorus Cycling • Unlike N, P...
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Cycling andCycling andBiogeochemical Biogeochemical
Transformations ofTransformations ofN, P, S, and KN, P, S, and K
OCN 401 OCN 401 -- Biogeochemical SystemsBiogeochemical Systems
Reading: Reading: SchlesingerSchlesinger, Chapter 6, Chapter 6
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1. Nitrogen cycle• Soil nitrogen cycle• Nitrification• Emissions of N gases from soils• Global N2O emissions• Atmospheric N deposition
2. Phosphorus cycle• Importance of P transformations• Phosphorus cycling• Soil P transformations• Phosphorus pools
3. Sulfur cycle• The importance of sulfur cycling• Sulfur cycling• Atmospheric sulfate deposition
4. Potassium cycle
OutlineOutline
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Soil Nitrogen CycleSoil Nitrogen CycleALL OF THESE PROCESSES
ARE MICROBIALLY MEDIATED
soil organic matter(low C:N; slowlydecomposable)
plant residues(high C:N; readily
decomposable)
microbial biomass N
FixedNH4
+
NO3-
NH4+
NO3-
ASSIMILATIONOF FIXED N
MICROBIALDEATH
MINERALIZATION
IMMOBILIATION
DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION
NITRIFICATION
ExchangeableNH4
+
AMMONIFICATION
NITRIFICATION
ASSIMILATORYREDUCTION
Litterinput
Litterinput
N2
NitrogenFixation
N2
Denitrification
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How to Measure the Soil N CycleHow to Measure the Soil N Cycle
• Changes in N concentrations in plastic “litter bags” measure over time
• Changes in N concentrations in trenched plots (lined with plastic sides and bottoms) with plants removed
• Changes in 15NH4 and 15NO3 with and without inhibitors for specific processes
• Acetylene reduction measurement of nitrogen fixation
• Acetylene block - specific inhibitor of N20 → N2 during denitrification (discussed later)
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NitrificationNitrificationNHNH44
++ →→ NONO33--
• Lower rates under these conditions:– low O2
– low pH– low soil moisture (can also be inhibited by too much water)– high litterfall C:N (slow mineralization of N due to
increased immobilization of NH4+ by microbes)
• Higher rates with high soil NH4, but generally not responsive to other nutrients
• Usually higher after disturbances like fires
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Emissions of N Gases From SoilsEmissions of N Gases From Soils
• Emitted gases include:– Ammonia (NH3)– Nitric oxide (NO)– Nitrous oxide (N2O)– Dinitrogen (N2)
• Emissions are important because they remove nitrogen available for uptake by plants
• N2O flux is also important because N2O is a “greenhouse gas”
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Processes of Nitrogen Gas EmissionsProcesses of Nitrogen Gas Emissions• Rapid conversion of NH4
+ to NH3 occurs at high pH and low soil moisture, and results in gas loss to the atmosphere:
NH4+ + OH- → NH3↑ + H2O
• High organic waste loads (e.g., feedlots) promote NH3 loss
• NO and N2O are byproducts (intermediates) of nitrification and denitrification
Acetylene block
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Global NGlobal N22O EmissionsO Emissions
www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y2780E/y2780e07.htm
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Atmospheric N DepositionAtmospheric N Deposition
• An important source of nitrogen cycling in many systems
– Mostly in the form of acidic wet and dry deposition(HNO3), originating from fossil fuel and plant combustion (NOx)
– Some areas also have significant deposition of ammonium, largely originating from livestock organic waste (~85% of US ammonia emissions are from agricultural sector)
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1985
Inorganic Nitrogen Wet Deposition
http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/amaps2/
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2005
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Atmosphericfixation &deposition
AtmosphericNitrogen
OrganicNitrogen
Ammonium(NH4
+)
Nitrate(NO3
-)
Component
Animalmanures &
biosolids
Biologicalfixation by
legume plants
Plantresidues
Industrial fixation(commercial fertilizers)
Input to soil
Plantuptake
The Nitrogen CycleThe Nitrogen Cycle
Cropharvest
Loss from soil
Volatilization
Runoff anderosion
Denitrification
Leaching
Mineralization
Immobilization
www.ipni.net
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Importance of P TransformationsImportance of P Transformations
The level of available P during soil development may be the primary determinant in terrestrial NPP:
– P is present in low concentrations in rocks
– N is abundant in the atmosphere
– Bacteria that fix N2 gas to biologically available N require P
– Other essential plant nutrients (e.g., S, K, Ca, Mg) are more abundant than P
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Phosphorus CyclingPhosphorus Cycling
• Unlike N, P cycling includes significant inorganic (mineral) reactions that make it much more difficult to study
– These reactions tend to interfere with the availability of P
– They also complicate the measurement of various forms of P
– Use sequential extractions to determine P-mineral binding
• Unlike N, gaseous P (phosphine, PH3) is negligible in biogeochemical cycles and can be ignored
• Unlike N, P does not have multiple oxidation states (no redox reactions)
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Phosphorus PoolsPhosphorus Pools1) Organic matter P
• P in live plants and animals• P in microbes• P in dead organic matter
2) Soluble P (P in dissolved form)
3) Labile P (P readily released into solution)
4) P in minerals and occluded P (tightly adsorbed or absorbed)• Igneous apatite (Ca5FP3O12)• Biological forms of apatite• P co-precipitated with CaCO3
• Fe- and Al-bound P, etc.
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Soil P TransformationsSoil P TransformationsBiota
Organic P
StableOrganic P
Soluble P Labile P
Primary Pminerals
Secondary Pminerals
Occluded P
Leaching loss
BIOLOGICALTRANSFORMATIONS
GEOCHEMICALTRANSFORMATIONSOccluded P
A mineral resulting from the decomposition of a primary mineral or from the precipitation of the products of decomposition of a primary mineral
A mineral that has not been altered chemically since
deposition and crystallization from molten lava
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Organic phosphorus•Microbial
•Plant residue•Humus
Animalmanures &
biosolids
Plantresidues
Plantuptake
Cropharvest
Runoff anderosion
Leaching(usually minor)
The Phosphorus CycleThe Phosphorus Cycle Component Input to soil Loss from soil
Atmosphericdeposition
Mineralfertilizers
Mineral surfaces
(clays, Fe and Al oxides, carbonates)
Primary Minerals(apatite)
Soil solutionPhosphorus
•HPO4-2
•H2PO4-1
Secondarycompounds
(CaP, FeP, MnP, AlP)
Desorption
Adsorption
Precipitation
Dissolution
Mineralization
ImmobilizationWeat
hering
www.ipni.net
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The Importance of Sulfur CyclingThe Importance of Sulfur Cycling
• S, along with C, H, O, N, and P, is one of the major constituents of living tissue
• While essential to life, S is also relatively abundant
• It is therefore an essential plant nutrient, but not ordinarily a limiting plant nutrient
• Plants take up SO42- by reduction and incorporation into
amino acids
• S is released in many forms during decomposition
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Sulfur CyclingSulfur Cycling• The S cycle is analogous to the P cycle, with some important
differences
• Like P, sulfur undergoes important geochemical, as well as biological, cycling
• Like N, and unlike P, sulfur occurs in multiple oxidation states
• SO42- [sulfate] is abundant in seawater (28 mM)
• Like N and unlike P, sulfur has significant gas phases:
– H2S [hydrogen sulfide]
– Organic gases• COS [carbonyl sulfide]
• (CH3)2S [dimethylsulfide]
• A locally important S source is H2SO4 [sulfuric acid] in acid rain
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1985
Sulfate Ion Wet Deposition
http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/amaps2/
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2005
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Component Input to soil Loss from soil
The Sulfur CycleThe Sulfur Cycle
Atmosphericdeposition
AtmosphericSulfur
OrganicSulfur
SulfateSulfur(SO4
-)
Animalmanures &
biosolids
Plantresidues
Plantuptake
Cropharvest
Volatilization
Runoff anderosion
Bacterial reductionBacterial oxidationMineralization
Immobilization
Mineralfertilizers
Leaching
Absorbed or mineral sulfur
ElementalSulfur
Oxidati
on
SO2 gas
ReducedSulfur
www.ipni.net
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Potassium CyclingPotassium Cycling• The potassium (K) cycle is almost entirely inorganic
• The major role of K in living organisms is osmotic control
• K is taken up, retained and excreted in ionic form (K+)
• The amount of K in soil solution is relatively small but is in near equilibrium with the much larger amount of exchangeable K from which it is replenished
• Soils also contain K in more slowly exchangeable forms (fixed K) which act as sources for crops
• K present in clay minerals becomes available as these minerals weather
forum.fwag.org/data/public/727_4.doc
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Component Input to soil Loss from soil
The Potassium CycleThe Potassium Cycle
Animalmanures &
biosolidsPlant
residues
Plantuptake
Cropharvest
Runoff anderosion
Leaching
Mineralfertilizers
Soil solutionpotassium (K+)
Mineralpotassium
Fixedpotassium
Exchangeablepotassium
www.ipni.net
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Lecture SummaryLecture Summary• Nitrogen cycling is biologically mediated among soil pools
(organic N, NH4, NO3), with important shunts to gaseous forms
• Nitrogen fixation, the process that returns gaseous nitrogen back to being biologically available, is comparatively rare
• Unlike N, phosphorus is also involved in geochemical (mineral) reactions that may make P less available for biotic cycling
• Sulfur has important analogies with both N and P, including bothbiological and geochemical reactions, and gas-phase reactions
• Potassium is a required nutrient with a variety of possible inorganic sources