8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 1/45

Libyan Civil WarPart of the Arab Spring and Libyan Crisis (2011–present)Clockwise from topleft:The National TransitionalCouncil flag is flown by antiGaddafifighters in Bregaon 10 March 2011; protesters in Bayda; protesters anddefectors clash with Libyan soldiers in Bayda on 17February 2011; a French rescue helicopter lands onUSS Mount Whitney, at the beginning of the militaryintervention; remains of two Palmaria heavy howitzersof the Libyan Army, destroyed by French warplanesnear Benghazi; USS Barry launches one of itsTomahawk missiles during Operation UnifiedProtector.Date 15 February 2011 – 23 October 2011(8 months, 1 week and 1 day)Location LibyaResultOverthrow of Gaddafi governmentAssumption of interim control byNational Transitional Council

Libyan Civil War (2011)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThe Libyan Civil War, also referred to as the LibyanRevolution,[31] was a 2011 armed conflict in the NorthAfrican country of Libya, fought between forces loyalto Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking tooust his government.[32][33] The war was preceded byprotests in Zawiya on 8 August 2009 and finallyignited by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday,15 February 2011, which led to clashes with securityforces that fired on the crowd.[34] The protestsescalated into a rebellion that spread across thecountry,[35] with the forces opposing Gaddafiestablishing an interim governing body, the NationalTransitional Council.The United Nations Security Council passed an initialresolution on 26 February, freezing the assets ofGaddafi and his inner circle and restricting their travel,and referred the matter to the International CriminalCourt for investigation.[36] In early March, Gaddafi's

forces rallied, pushed eastwards and retookseveralcoastal cities before reaching Benghazi. A further UNresolution authorised member states to establish andenforce a noflyzone over Libya, and to use "allnecessary measures" to prevent attacks on civilians.[37]

The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire,but fighting continued.[38][39] Throughout the conflict,rebels rejected government offers of a ceasefire andefforts by the African Union to end the fightingbecause the plans set forth did not include the removalof Gaddafi.[40]

In August, rebel forces launched an offensive on thegovernmentheldcoast of Libya, taking back territorylost months before and ultimately capturing the capitalcity of Tripoli,[41] while Gaddafi evaded capture andloyalists engaged in a rearguard campaign.[42] On 16September 2011, the National Transitional Councilwas recognised by the United Nations as the legalrepresentative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafigovernment. Muammar Gaddafi remained at largeuntil 20 October 2011, when he was captured and8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 2/45

(NTC)Diplomatic recognition of NTC assole governing authority for Libyaby 105 countries, UN, EU, ALand AUPostcivilwar violence in Libya,leading to another civil war in2014[15]

BelligerentsNationalTransitionalCouncilNationalLiberationArmyAntiGaddafitribes[1][2]

Qatar[3][4][5]

Enforcing UNSCResolution 1973:NATOMinor borderclashes:TunisiaLibyan Arab JamahiriyaLibyan Armed ForcesParamilitary forcesProGaddafitribes[1][2][9]

Foreignmercenaries[10][11][12][13][14]

Commanders and leadersMustafaAbdul Jalil[16]

Omar ElHariri[17]

Jalal alDigheilyAbdul FatahMuammar Gaddafi †Saif alIslamGaddafi (POW)

Khamis Gaddafi †Mutassim Gaddafi †Saif alArabGaddafi †[20]

killed attempting to escape from Sirte.[43] The NationalTransitional Council "declared the liberation of Libya"and the official end of the war on 23 October 2011.[44]

In the aftermath of the civil war, a lowlevelinsurgency by former Gaddafi loyalists continued.There have been various disagreements and strifebetween local militia and tribes, including fighting on23 January 2012 in the former Gaddafi stronghold ofBani Walid, leading to an alternative town councilbeing established and later recognized by theNTC.[45][46] A much greater issue has been the role ofmilitias which fought in the civil war and their role inthe new Libya. Some have refused to disarm andcooperation with the NTC has been strained, leading todemonstrations against militias and government actionto disband such groups or integrate them into theLibyan military.[47] These unresolved issues leddirectly to a second civil war in Libya.

Contents

1 Background1.1 Leadership1.2 Development and corruption1.3 Human rights in Libya2 AntiGaddafimovement2.1 Beginnings of protests2.2 Uprising and civil war2.3 Cultural revolt2.4 Organization2.5 Composition of rebel forces3 State response3.1 Violence3.2 Prison sites and torture3.3 Mercenaries3.4 Censorship of events3.5 International media3.6 Human shields4 Domestic responses4.1 Resignation of government officials4.2 Military defections4.3 Libyan royal family5 Course of the war5.1 First weeks5.2 Foreign military intervention5.3 20 August rebel offensive5.4 After Tripoli and NTC victoryNATO membersOther countries8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 3/45

Younis †SuleimanMahmoud[18]

Hamad binAli alAttiyahCharlesBouchard[19]

AlSaadiGaddafi (POW)

AbuBakrYunis Jabr †Massoud AbdelhafidMahdi alArabi(POW)

Strength17,000 defectingsoldiers andvolunteers[21]

200,000volunteers bywar's end(NTC estimate)[22]

International Forces:Numerous air andmaritime forces (seehere)20,000[23]–40,000[24] soldiers andmilitiaCasualties and losses5,887–6,609oppositionfighters andsupporters killed(other estimates:see here)2,309–3,227 soldiers killed (otherestimates: see here),7,000 captured*[25]

Estimated total casualties from all sides, includingcivilians:9,400 killed,[26] 4,000 missing,[27] 50,000 injured[28]

(other estimates: see here)*Large number of loyalist or immigrant civilians, notmilitary personnel, among those captured by rebels,[29] onlyan estimated minimum of 1,692+ confirmed as soldiers[30]

5.4 After Tripoli and NTC victory6 Aftermath7 Impact7.1 Casualties7.2 Legal qualification7.3 Humanitarian situation7.4 Ethnic targeting7.5 Libyan refugees7.6 Economic, religious and tribal8 International reactions9 See also10 References11 Further reading12 External links

BackgroundLeadership

Muammar Gaddafi was the head of the Free Officers, agroup of Arab nationalists that deposed King Idris I in1969 in a "bloodless coup."[48] He abolished theLibyan Constitution of 1951, considering it aneocolonial document. From 1969 until 1975standards of living, life expectancy and literacy grewrapidly. In 1975 he published his manifesto The GreenBook. He officially stepped down from power in 1977,and subsequently claimed to be merely a "symbolicfigurehead" until 2011, with the Libyan governmentup until then also denying that he held anypower.[49][50]

Under Gaddafi, Libya was theoretically adecentralized, direct democracy[51] state run accordingto the philosophy of Gaddafi's The Green Book, withGaddafi retaining a ceremonial position. Libya wasofficially run by a system of people's committeeswhich served as local governments for the country'ssubdivisions, an indirectly elected General People'sCongress as the legislature, and the General People'sCommittee, led by a SecretaryGeneral,as theexecutive branch. According to Freedom House,however, these structures were often manipulated toensure the dominance of Gaddafi, who reportedly continued to dominate all aspects of government.[52]8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 4/45

WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables revealed US diplomats there speaking ofGaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering".[53] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe incentral military and government positions, he skillfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaininga delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extended even to his own sons, ashe repeatedly changed affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.[53]

Both Gaddafi and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, however, officially denied that he held any power, but saidthat he was merely a symbolic figurehead.[49][50] While he was popularly seen as a demagogue in the West,Gaddafi always portrayed himself as a statesmanphilosopher.[54]

According to several Western media sources, Gaddafi feared a military coup against his government anddeliberately kept Libya's military relatively weak. The Libyan Army consisted of about 50,000 personnel.Its most powerful units were four crack brigades of highly equipped and trained soldiers, composed ofmembers of Gaddafi's tribe or members of other tribes loyal to him. One, the Khamis Brigade, was led byhis son Khamis. Local militias and Revolutionary Committees across the country were also kept wellarmed.By contrast, regular military units were poorly armed and trained, and were armed with largelyoutdated military equipment.[55][56][57]

Development and corruptionBy the end of Gaddafi's 42 years rule, Libya's population had a per capita income of $14,000, though a thirdwas estimated to still live below the poverty line.[58] A broadly secular society was imposed.[59] Childmarriage was banned, and women enjoyed equality of equal pay for equal work, equal rights in divorce andaccess to higher education rose from 8% in 1966 to 43% in 1996.[60] Homelessness was insignificant, andilliteracy had been largely eliminated, with literacy rates estimated at 88%, and average life expectancy rosefrom 51/54 in 1969 to 74/77.[61][62] Much of the state's income came from its oil production, which soaredin the 1970s. In the 1980s, a large portion of it was spent on arms purchases, and on sponsoring militantgroups and independence movements around the world.[63][64]

Petroleum revenues contributed up to 58% of Libya's GDP.[65] Libya's GDP per capita (PPP), humandevelopment index, and literacy rate were better than in Egypt and Tunisia, whose Arab Spring revolutionspreceded the outbreak of protests in Libya.[66] Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, ranking146th out of 178 countries, worse than that of Egypt (ranked 98th) and Tunisia (ranked 59th).[67] One paperspeculated that such a situation created a broader contrast between good education, high demand fordemocracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply ofdemocracy).[66]

An estimated 13% of Libyan citizens were unemployed.[68] More than 16% of families had none of itsmembers earning a stable income, while 43.3% had just one. Despite one of the highest unemploymentrates in the region, there was a consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on themarket.[69] These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning ofhostilities. Despite this, Libya's Human Development Index in 2010 was the highest in Africa and greaterthan that of Saudi Arabia. Libya had welfare systems allowing access to free education, free healthcare, andfinancial assistance for housing, while the Great Manmade River was built to allow free access to freshwater across large parts of the country.[70]8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 5/45

Some of the worst economic conditions were in the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of theancient world, where Gaddafi extracted oil.[71][72] Despite improvements in housing and the GreatManmade River allowing access to free fresh water,[70] not much infrastructure beyond this was developedin the region for many years, with the only sewage facility in Benghazi being over 40 years old, anduntreated sewage has resulted in environmental problems.[73]

Several foreign governments and analysts have stated that a large share of the business enterprise wascontrolled by Gaddafi, his family, and the government.[74] A leaked US diplomatic cable said that theLibyan economy was "a kleptocracy in which the government – either the Gaddafi family itself or its closepolitical allies – has a direct stake in anything worth buying, selling or owning".[75]

According to USofficials, Gaddafi amassed a vast personal fortune during his 42yearleadership.[76] The New York Timespointed to Gaddafi's relatives adopting lavish lifestyles, including luxurious homes, Hollywood filminvestments, and private parties with American pop stars.[75][77]

Gaddafi said that he was planning to combat corruption in the state by proposing reforms where oil profitsare handed out directly to the country's five million people[78] rather than to government bodies, stating that

"as long as money is administered by a government body, there would be theft and corruption."[79] Gaddafiurged a sweeping reform of the government bureaucracy, suggesting that most of the cabinet system shouldbe dismantled to "free Libyans from red tape" and "protect the state's budget from corruption." Accordingto Western diplomats, this move appeared to be aimed at putting pressure on the government to speed upreforms.[78] In March 2008, Gaddafi proposed plans to dissolve the country's existing administrativestructure and disburse oil revenue directly to the people. The plan included abolishing all ministries exceptthose of defence, internal security, and foreign affairs, and departments implementing strategic projects.[80]

He stated that the ministries were failing to manage the country’s oil revenues,[81] and that his "dreamduring all these years was to give power and wealth directly to the people."[82]

A national vote on Gaddafi's plan to disband the government and give oil money directly to the people washeld in 2009, where Libya's people's congresses, collectively the country's highest authority, voted to delayimplementation. The General People's Congress announced that, out of 468 Basic People's Congresses, 64chose immediate implementation while 251 endorsed implementation "but asked for (it) to be delayed untilappropriate measures were put in place." This plan led to dissent from top government officials, who said itwould "wreak havoc" in the economy by "fanning inflation and spurring capital flight." Gaddafiacknowledged that the scheme, which promised up to 30,000 Libyan dinars ($23,000) annually to about amillion of Libya's poorest, may "cause chaos before it brought about prosperity," but said "do not be afraidto experiment with a new form of government" and that "this plan is to offer a better future for Libya'schildren."[82][83]

Human rights in LibyaIn 2009 and 2011, the Freedom of the Press Index rated Libya the mostcensoredstate in the Middle Eastand North Africa.[84][85] In contrast, a January 2011 report of the United Nations Human Rights Council, onwhich the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya sat prior to the uprising, released a month before protests began, praised

certain aspects of the country's human rights record, including its treatment of women and improvements inother areas.[86]8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 6/45

U.S. Secretary of State HillaryClinton with Libyan NationalSecurity Adviser Mutassim Gaddafiin 2009The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya's delegation to the United Nations issued a report about human rights in Libya.The report said that the country was founded on direct people's democracy that guaranteed direct exerciseof authority by all citizens through the people's congresses. Citizens were said to be able to expressopinions to the congresses on political, economic, social, and cultural issues. In addition, the report statedthat there were information platforms such as newspapers and TV channels for people to express theiropinions through. Libyan authorities also argued that no one in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya suffered fromextreme poverty and hunger, and that the government guaranteed aminimum of food and essential needs to people with low incomes.In 2006, an initiative was adopted for providing people with lowincomes investment portfolios amounting to $30,000 to be depositedwith banks and companies.[87]

The Revolutionary Committees occasionally kept tight control overinternal dissent; reportedly, ten to twenty percent of Libyans workedas informants for these committees, with surveillance taking place inthe government, in factories, and in the education sector.[88] Thegovernment sometimes executed dissidents through public hangingsand mutilations and rebroadcastthem on public televisionchannels.[88][89] Up to the mid1980s,Libya's intelligence serviceconducted assassinations of Libyan dissidents around theworld.[88][90]

In December 2009, Gaddafi reportedly told government officials that Libya would soon experience a "newpolitical period" and would have elections for important positions such as ministerlevelroles and theNational Security Advisor position (a Prime Minister equivalent). He also promised that international

monitors would be included to ensure fair elections. His speech was said to have caused quite a stir. Theseelections were planned to coincide with the Jamahiriya's usual periodic elections for the PopularCommittees, Basic People's Committees, Basic People's Congresses, and General People's Congresses, in2010.[91]

Dissent was illegal under Law 75 of 1973, and in 1974, Gaddafi asserted that anyone guilty of founding apolitical party would be executed.[88] With the establishment of the Jamahiriya ("state of the masses")system in 1977, he established the Revolutionary Committees as conduits for raising politicalconsciousness, with the aim of direct political participation by all Libyans rather than a traditional partybasedrepresentative system.[92] In 1979, some of the Revolutionary Committees had eventually evolvedinto selfappointed,sometimes zealous, enforcers of revolutionary orthodoxy.[92] During the early 1980s,the Revolutionary Committees had considerable power and became a growing source of tension within theJamihiriya,[93] to the extent that Gaddafi sometimes criticized their effectiveness and excessiverepression,[92][93] until the power of the Revolutionary Committees were eventually restricted in the late1980s.[93]

The Green Book, which Gaddafi authored in the 1970s, was for years the principal text of politicaleducation. BBC cited a Libyan who said that teachers who called it "rubbish" could face execution.[94] "TheGreat Green Document on Human Rights treats the right to life as an individual human right and calls forabolition of the death sentence, except in the case of persons whose lives endanger or corrupt society."[87]8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 7/45

Protests on Al Oroba Street, Bayda,13 January 2011The flag of the former Kingdom ofLibya was used as an oppositionflag.[96][97]

Graffiti in Benghazi,drawing the connectionto the Arab Spring

In 1988, Gaddafi criticized the "excesses" he blamed on the Revolutionary Councils, stating that "theydeviated, harmed, tortured" and that "the true revolutionary does not practise repression."[92] That sameyear, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya issued the Great Green Document on Human Rights, in which Article 5established laws that allowed greater freedom of expression. Article 8 of The Code on the Promotion ofFreedom stated that "each citizen has the right to express his opinions and ideas openly in People’sCongresses and in all mass media."[86] A number of restrictions were also allegedly placed on the power ofthe Revolutionary Committees by the Gaddafi government, leading to a resurgence in the Libyan state'spopularity by the early 1990s.[93] In 2004, however, Libya posted a $1 million bounty for journalist andgovernmental critic Ashur Shamis, under the allegation that he was linked to AlQaedaand terror suspectAbu Qatada.[95]

AntiGaddafimovementBeginnings of protestsBetween 13 and 16 January2011, upset at delays in thebuilding of housing units andover political corruption,protesters in Bayda, Derna,Benghazi and other citiesbroke into, and occupied,housing that the governmenthad been building. Protestersalso clashed with police inBayda and attackedgovernment offices.[98][99] By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a€20 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.[100][101]

In late January, Jamal alHajji,a writer, political commentator and accountant,"call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greaterfreedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. He wasarrested on 1 February by plainclothespolice officers, and charged on 3

February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International stated thatbecause alHajjihad previously been imprisoned for his nonviolentpoliticalopinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call fordemonstrations.[102] In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, metwith political activists, journalists and media figures and warned them that theywould be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos inLibya.[103]

The protests would lead to an uprising and civil war, as part of the wider ArabSpring,[104][105] which had already resulted in the ousting of longtermpresidentsof adjacent Tunisia and Egypt.[106] Social media played a central role in8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 8/45

The first demonstrations in Bayda. Apolice car burns on 16 February2011, at the crossroads of AtTalhi,now known as the Crossroads of theSpark.A girl in Benghazi with a placardsaying that the Libyan tribes areunited, on 23 February 2011.organizing the opposition.[107][108][109][110][111] A social media website declared an alternative government,one that would be an interim national council, was the first to compete with Muammar Gaddafi’s politicalauthority. Gaddafi’s senior advisor attempted to reject the idea by tweeting his resignation.[112]

Uprising and civil warThe protests, unrest andconfrontations began inearnest on 2 February 2009.Foreign workers anddisgruntled minoritiesprotested in the main squareof Zawiya, Libya against thelocal administration. Thiswas succeeded by race riots,which was squashed by thepolice and proGaddafiloyalists. On the evening of15 February, between 500 and 600 demonstrators protested in frontof Benghazi's police headquarters after the arrest of human rights

later Fathi Terbil. Crowds were armed with petrol bombs and threwstones. Marchers hurled Molotov cocktails in a downtown square inBenghazi, damaging cars, blocking roads, and hurling rocks. Police responded to crowds with tear gas,water cannon, and rubber bullets.[113] 38 people were injured, among them ten security personnel.[114][115]

The novelist Idris AlMesmariwas arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the policereaction to protests.[114]

In a statement released after clashes in Benghazi, a Libyan official warned that the Government "will notallow a group of people to move around at night and play with the security of Libya". The statement added:"The clashes last night were between small groups of people – up to 150. Some outsiders infiltrated thatgroup. They were trying to corrupt the local legal process which has long been in place. We will not permitthat at all, and we call on Libyans to voice their issues through existing channels, even if it is to call for thedownfall of the government."[116]

In Zawiya and Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end to the Gaddafi government andset fire to police and security buildings.[114][117] In Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre.[114]

The armed protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Derna and Bayda. Libyan security forcesallegedly responded with lethal force. Hundreds gathered at Maydan alShajarain Benghazi, and authoritiestried to disperse protesters with water cannons.[118]

A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile was planned for 17 February.[103][119]

[120] The NationalConference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi government protest on17 February in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi five years earlier.[103] The plans to protest wereinspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian revolution.[103] Protests took place in Benghazi, Ajdabiya, Derna,Zintan, and Bayda. Libyan security forces fired live ammunition into the armed protests. Protesters torcheda number of government buildings, including a police station.[121][122] In Tripoli, television and public radio8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 9/45

The Libyan National TransitionalCouncil flag is flown from acommunications tower in Bayda inJuly.‘AlSoo'al’(The Question)[127]stations had been sacked, and protesters set fire to security buildings, Revolutionary Committee offices, theinterior ministry building, and the People's Hall.[123][124] According to a report from the International CrisisGroup, "much Western media coverage has from the outset presented a very onesidedview of the logic ofevents, portraying the protest movement as entirely peaceful and repeatedly suggesting that thegovernment's security forces were unaccountably massacring unarmed demonstrators who presented nosecurity challenge".[123]

On 18 February, police and army personnel later withdrew fromBenghazi after being overwhelmed by protesters. Some armypersonnel also joined the protesters; they then seized the local radiostation. In Bayda, unconfirmed reports indicated that the local policeforce and riotcontrolunits had joined the protesters.[125] On 19February, witnesses in Libya reported helicopters firing into crowdsof antigovernmentprotesters.[126] The army withdrew from the cityof Bayda.Cultural revoltRap, hip hop and traditional music, alongside other genres, haveplayed a role in encouraging the dissidents to Gaddafi'sgovernment. Music has been controlled and dissentingcultural figures have been arrested or tortured in Arab Springcountries, including Libya.[127] The music has provided animportant platform by means of communication among thedemonstrators. The music has helped create moral supportand encouraged a spirit of resistance and revolt against thegovernments.[127]

An anonymous hip hop artist called Ibn Thabit gave a voiceto "disenfranchised Libyans looking for a nonviolentway to express their political will".[128][129] On hiswebsite, Ibn Thabit said that he "has been attacking Gaddafi with his music since 2008" when he posted his

first song on the internet, titled "Moammar – the coward".[128][130] Lyrics of a song 'AlSoo'al'released byIbn Thabit on YouTube on 27 January 2011, weeks before the riots began in Libya were indicative of therebel sentiment.[127]

Some groups, such as a rock band from Benghazi called the "Guys Underground", used metaphors to cloakthe censure of the authorities. The group released a song just before the uprising entitled "Like My FatherAlways Says" to ridicule an autocratic fictional male head of a family which was a veiled reference toColonel Gaddafi.[127]

OrganizationMany opposition participants have called for a return to the 1952 constitution and a transition to multipartydemocracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed fighting units todefend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil.[131] In Tobruk,volunteers turned a former headquarters of the government into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers"Muammar: You have never served the peopleMuammar: You'd better give upConfess. You cannot escapeOur revenge will catch youAs a train roars through a wallWe will drown you."8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 10/45

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in thesocial services in Benghazi.Thousands of antiQaddafiprotestersin Benghazi, February 2011reportedly guarded the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineersset up a committee to collect weapons.[72] Likewise supply lines were run by volunteers. For example, inMisrata people organised a pizza service which delivered up to 8,000 pizzas a day to fighters.[132]

The National TransitionalCouncil (Arabic: المجلس

االنتقالي الوطني ) was

established on 27 Februaryin an effort to consolidateefforts for change in the ruleof Libya.[133] The mainobjectives of the group didnot include forming aninterim government, butinstead to coordinateresistance efforts betweenthe different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political"face" to the opposition to present to the world.[134] The Benghazibasedopposition government had calledfor a noflyzone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya.[135] The council refers to the Libyan state as theLibyan Republic and it now has a website.[136] Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil saidin February that the new government would prepare for elections and they could be held in threemonths.[137] On 29 March, the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented itseightpointplan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections anddraft a national constitution.[32][33]

An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebelcontrolledradiostations.[138] Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism,no to factionalism".[72] Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices thathave been used in the past.[139]

Composition of rebel forcesThe rebels were composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, aswell as police officers and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army andjoined the rebels.[140] The Islamist group Libyan Islamic Fighting Group is considered part of the rebelmovement,[141] as is the Obaida Ibn Jarrah Brigade which has been held responsible for the assassination oftop rebel commander General Abdul Fatah Younis.[142]

Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included alQaeda

fighters.[143] NATO'sSupreme Allied Commander James G. Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of alQaedaactivity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information toconfirm there is any significant alQaedaor terrorist presence.[144][145] Denials of alQaedamembershipwere issued by the rebels.[146] Gaddafi's claims are supported by a secret cable to the State Department fromthe US embassy in Tripoli in 2008 and an analysis by the Combating Terrorism Center at the US MilitaryAcademy at West Point of a set of documents called the Sinjar Records, purporting to show a statistical8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 11/45

Court square in Benghazi, April2011. At the central place forgatherings and demonstrations thewalls are draped with pictures ofcasualties, mourners passing by.study of the alQaedapersonnel records. The West Point analysis ofthese documents concluded that Libya provided "far more" foreignfighters in per capita terms than any other country.[147] A disclosedfile from 2005 on WikiLeaks found that rebel leader Abu SufianIbrahim Ahmed Hamuda Bin Qumu was a former Guantanamo Baydetainee alleged to be a member of the Libyan Islamic FightingGroup, to have joined the Taliban in 1998, and that he was a"probable member of Al Qaida and a member of the AfricanExtremist Network."[148]

State responseIn the days leading up to the conflict, Gaddafi called for a rallyagainst the government that was to be held on 17 February. TheInternational Crisis Group believes this to have been a politicalmanoeuvre to divert attention away from himself and the Jamahiriya political system towards governmentofficials currently in power.[123]

Later in February, Gaddafi stated that the rebels were influenced by AlQaeda,Osama Bin Laden, andhallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee, andNescafé, and said that Bin Laden and AlQaeda

were distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He alsoblamed alcohol.[149][150][151] Gaddafi later also stated that the revolt against his rule was the result of acolonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the US and the UK, to control oil and enslavethe Libyan people. He referred to the rebels as "cockroaches" and "rats", and vowed not to step down and tocleanse Libya house by house until the insurrection was crushed.[152][153][154] He said that if the rebels laiddown their arms, they would not be harmed. He also said that he had been receiving "thousands" of phonecalls from Benghazi, from residents who were being held hostage and who wanted to be rescued. Gaddafisaid in a speech addressed to Benghazi on 17 March 2011 that the rebels "can run away, they can go toEgypt...Those who would surrender their weapons and would join our side, we are the people of Libya.Those who surrender their weapons and would come without their arms, we would forgive them, and wouldhave amnesty for those who put down their weapons. Anyone who throws his arms away and stays at homewould be protected."[155]

Libya's ambassador in Malta addressed that "many people instigating unrest were arrested. Libya will showthat these belonged to Al Qaeda. Some young protestors were also misled. The government is ready todialogue with them." He cited reports from the Libyan Foreign Ministry that up to 2,500 alQaedaforeignoperatives have been working in eastern Libya and were mostly responsible for "stirring up trouble." Heconcluded, "What we saw in Tahrir Square, and in Tunisia, was a clear situation. But in Libya, there issomething different."[156]

He called himself a "warrior", and vowed to fight on and die a "martyr", and urged his supporters to leavetheir homes and attack rebels "in their lairs". Gaddafi said that he had not yet ordered the use of force, andthreatened that "everything will burn" when he did. Responding to demands that he step down, he statedthat he could not step down, as he held a purely symbolic position like Queen Elizabeth, and that the peoplewere in power.[157]

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Rebel fighter in hospital in TripoliThe Swedish peace research institute SIPRI reported flights between Tripoli and a dedicated military basein Belarus which only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment.[158]

ViolenceSaif alIslamGaddafi, in an interview with ABC on 17 March, stated that the rebels in Benghazi engaged interror against the population. He stated, "You know, the armoured militia yesterday, they killed four youngboys in Benghazi. Why? Because they were against them. Everybody is terrified because of the armedmilitia. They live in terror. Nightmare. Armed people are everywhere. They have their own courts. Theyexecute the people who are against them. No school. No hospital. No money. No banks."[159]

The Libyan government were reported to have employed snipers, artillery, helicopter gunships, warplanes,antiaircraftweaponry, and warships against demonstrations and funeral processions.[160] It was alsoreported that security forces and foreign mercenaries repeatedly used firearms, including assault rifles andmachine guns, as well as knives against protesters. Amnesty International initially reported that writers,intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflictin Gaddaficontrolledcities, and that they may have been subjected to torture or execution.[161]

In a 17 March 2011 interview, shortly before the military intervention, Muammar Gaddafi's son and heirapparent Saif alIslamGaddafi said that "armed militia" fighters in Benghazi were killing children andterrorizing the population.[159]

Amnesty International also reported that security forces targetedparamedics helping injured protesters.[162] In multiple incidents,Gaddafi's forces were documented using ambulances in theirattacks.[163][164] Injured demonstrators were sometimes deniedaccess to hospitals and ambulance transport. The government alsobanned giving blood transfusions to people who had taken part inthe demonstrations.[165] Security forces, including members ofGaddafi's Revolutionary Committees, stormed hospitals and

removed the dead. Injured protesters were either summarilyexecuted or had their oxygen masks, IV drips, and wires connected to the monitors removed. The dead andinjured were piled into vehicles and taken away, possibly for cremation.[166][167] Doctors were preventedfrom documenting the numbers of dead and wounded, but an orderly in a Tripoli hospital morgue estimatedto the BBC that 600–700 protesters were killed in Green Square in Tripoli on 20 February. The orderly saidthat ambulances brought in three or four corpses at a time, and that after the ice lockers were filled tocapacity, bodies were placed on stretchers or the floor, and that "it was in the same at the otherhospitals".[166]

In the eastern city of Bayda, antigovernmentforces hanged two policemen who were involved in trying todisperse demonstrations. In downtown Benghazi, antigovernmentforces killed the managing director of alGalaahospital. The victim's body showed signs of torture.[168]

On 19 February, several days after the conflict began, Saif alIslamGaddafi announced the creation of acommission of inquiry into the violence, chaired by a Libyan judge, as reported on state television. Hestated that the commission was intended to be "for members of Libyan and foreign organizations of human8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 13/45

Caricature of Gaddafi, Al Bayda,April 2011rights" and that it will "investigate the circumstances and events that have caused many victims."[124] Laterin the month, he went on state television to deny allegations that the government had launched airstrikesagainst Libyan cities and stated that the number of protesters killed had been exaggerated.[149]Towards the end of February, it was reported that the Gaddafigovernment had suppressed protests in Tripoli by distributingautomobiles, money and weapons for hired followers to drivearound Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent.[169] InTripoli, "death squads" of mercenaries and RevolutionaryCommittees members reportedly patrolled the streets and shotpeople who tried to take the dead off the streets or gather ingroups.[170] The International Federation for Human Rights

concluded on 24 February that Gaddafi was implementing ascorched earth strategy. The organization stated that "It isreasonable to fear that he has, in fact, decided to largely eliminate,wherever he still can, Libyan citizens who stood up against hisregime and furthermore, to systematically and indiscriminatelyrepress civilians. These acts can be characterized as crimes against humanity, as defined in Article 7 of theRome Statute of the International Criminal Court."[171]

In May 2011, International Criminal Court (ICC) chief prosecutor Luis MorenoOcampoestimated that500–700 people were killed by security forces in February 2011, before the rebels took up arms. Accordingto MorenoOcampo,"shooting at protesters was systematic".[172]

During the siege of Misrata in May 2011, Amnesty International reported "horrifying" tactics such as"indiscriminate attacks that have led to massive civilian casualties, including use of heavy artillery, rocketsand cluster bombs in civilian areas and sniper fire against residents."[173] Gaddafi's military commandersalso reportedly executed soldiers who refused to fire on protesters.[174] The International Federation forHuman Rights reported a case where 130 soldiers were executed.[175] Some of the soldiers executed by theircommanders were reportedly burned alive.[176]

In June 2011, a more detailed investigation carried out by Amnesty International found that many of theallegations against Gaddafi and the Libyan state turned out to either be false or lack any credible evidence,saying that rebels at times appeared to have knowingly made false claims or manufactured evidence.[34]

In July 2011, Saif alIslamGaddafi had an interview with Russia Today in which he denied the ICC'sallegations that he or his father Muammar Gaddafi ordered the killing of civilian protesters. He said that hewas not a member of the government or the military and therefore had no authority to give such orders. Healso said that his father made recorded calls to General Abdul Fatah Younis, who later defected to the rebelforces, in order to request not to use force against protesters, to which he said Fatah Younis responded thatprotesters were attacking a military site and soldiers were acting in selfdefense.[177]

Prison sites and torture8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 14/45

Gaddafi reportedly imprisoned thousands or tens of thousands residents in Tripoli, with Red Cross deniedaccess to these hidden prisons. One of the most notorious is a prison which was set up in a tobacco factoryin Tripoli where inmates are reported to have been fed just half a loaf of bread and a bottle of water aday.[178]

In late April, United States Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice alleged that soldiers loyal toGaddafi were given Viagra and encouraged to commit rapes in rebelheldor disputed areas. The allegationssurfaced in an Al Jazeera report the previous month from Libyabaseddoctors, who claimed to have foundViagra in the pockets of government soldiers.[179] Human rights groups and aid workers had previouslydocumented rapes by loyalist fighters during the war. The British aid agency "Save the children" said it gotreports that children were raped by unknown perpetrators, although the charity warns that these reportscould not be confirmed.[180][181]

In Misrata, a rebel spokesman said that government soldiers had committed a string of sexual assaults inBenghazi Street before being pushed out by rebels. A doctor said that two young sisters were raped by fiveBlack African mercenaries after their brothers joined the rebels. According to aid workers, four young girlswere abducted and held for four days, and were possibly sexually assaulted.[182] In a questionnaire 259refugee women reported that they had been raped by Gaddafi's soldiers, however the accounts of thesewomen could not be independently verified as the psychologist who conducted the questionnaire said that"she had lost contact with them".[34]

The validity of the rape allegations is questioned by Amnesty International, which has not found evidenceto back up the claims and said that there are indications that on several occasions the rebels in Benghaziappeared to have knowingly made false claims or manufactured evidence.[34]

Mercenaries

The Libyan government alleged that the armed rebellion was composed of "criminal gangs andmercenaries."[183] A Libyan official reported to Libyan television that security forces arrested Tunisians andEgyptians that were "trained to sow chaos."[184] According to the Libyan Government authorities,mercenaries from Turkey, Egypt, and Tunisia entered Libya to fight on the side of the rebels. Dozens ofthem were arrested. Libya's Jamahiriya News Agency reported that the detained men were part of a "foreignnetwork (and were) trained to damage Libya’s stability, the safety of its citizens and national unity."[185]

Military advisors from Qatar participated on the side of the rebels,[186] and were sometimes labelled as"mercenaries" by the media.[187]

After clashes between Government and antigovernmentforces, allegations arose of the Libyan Gaddafiusing foreign mercenaries. The Libyan Government's ambassador to India Ali alEssawisaid that thedefections of military units had indeed led to such a decision.[188] Video footage purporting to show thisstarted to leak out of the country.[188] Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Mesmari said in aninterview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries were among foreignsoldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi.[189] Chadian sources repudiated allegations thatmercenaries from Chad were involved in the fighting in Libya. The Chadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 15/45

a statement said that "Chadians are not sent or recruited in Chad to serve as mercenaries in Libya," and thatallegations about Chadian mercenaries were "likely to cause serious physical and material harm to Chadiansresiding in Libya."[190]

According to African Union chairman Jean Ping, the "NTC seems to confuse black people withmercenaries,". Ping said that for the rebels, "All blacks are mercenaries. If you do that, it means (that the)onethirdof the population of Libya, which is black, is also mercenaries. They are killing people, normal

workers, mistreating them."[191]

In Mali, members of the Tuareg tribe confirmed that a large number of men, about 5,000, from the tribewent to Libya in late February.[14][192][193][194] Locals in Mali said they were promised €7,500 ($10,000)upfront payment and compensation up to €750 ($1,000) per day.[192][193] Gaddafi has used Malian Tuaregsin his political projects before, sending them to fight in places like Chad, Sudan and Lebanon and recentlythey have fought against Niger government, a war which Gaddafi has reportedly sponsored. Maliangovernment officials told BBC that it's hard to stop the flow of fighters from Mali to Libya.[192] Arecruitment center for Malian soldiers leaving to Libya was found in a Bamako hotel.[194]

Reports from Ghana state that the men who went to Libya were offered as much as €1950 ($2,500) perday.[188] Advertisements seeking mercenaries were seen in Nigeria[188] with at least one female NigerianproGaddafisniper being caught in late August outside of Tripoli.[195] One group of mercenaries fromNiger, who had been allegedly recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just13 years of age.[12] The Daily Telegraph studied the case of a sixteenyearoldcaptured Chadian childsoldier in Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, told that a Libyan man had offeredhim a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members inEastern Libya.[13]

Reports by EU experts stated that Gaddafi's government hired between 300 and 500 European soldiers,including some from EU countries, at high wages. According to Michel Koutouzis, who does research onsecurity issues for the EU institutions, the UN and the French government, "In Libyan society, there is ataboo against killing people from your own tribal group. This is one reason why Gaddafi needs foreignfighters,"[196] The Serbian newspaper Alo! stated that Serbs were hired to help Gaddafi in the early days ofthe conflict.[197] Rumors of Serbian pilots participating on the side of Gaddafi appeared early in theconflict.[198][199][200] Time magazine interviewed mercenaries from exYugoslaviawho fled Gaddafi's

forces in August.[201]

A witness stated that mercenaries were more willing to kill demonstrators than Libyan forces were, andearned a reputation as among the most brutal forces employed by the government. A doctor in Benghazisaid of the mercenaries that "they know one thing: to kill whose in front of them. Nothing else. They'rekilling people in cold blood".[202]

On 7 April, Reuters reported that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were sent into refugee camps to intimidate andbribe black African migrant workers into fighting for the Libyan state during the war. Some of these"mercenaries" were compelled to fight against their wishes, according to a source inside one of the refugeecamps.[203]

In June 2011, Amnesty International said it found no evidence of foreign mercenaries being used, saying8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 16/45

the black Africans said to be "mercenaries" were in fact "subSaharanmigrants working in Libya," anddescribed the use of mercenaries as a "myth" that "inflamed public opinion" and led to lynchings andexecutions of black Africans by rebel forces.[34]

In October 2011 it was reported that the South African government was investigating the possibility thatSouth African mercenaries were hired by Gaddafi to help him in his failed attempt to escape the besiegedcity of Sirte.[204] It is thought that two South African mercenaries died in that operation from a NATO airstrike on Gaddafi's convoy. One of the alleged mercenaries speaking from a hospital in North Africa statedthat around 19 South Africans had been contracted by different companies for the operation.[205]

Censorship of eventsA subsidiary of Bull developed a software called Eagle which enabled Gaddafi to monitor internet trafficand which was implemented in Libya in 2008 and with better performance in 2010.[206]

Gaddafi shut downall Internet communications in Libya, and arrested Libyans who had given phone interviews to themedia.[207][208] International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya

except by invitation of the Gaddafi government.[209][210][211] On 21 February, The New York Times reportedthat Gaddafi had tried to impose a blackout on information from Libya.[212] Several residents reported thatcellphone service was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic.[212]

However, every day newfootage made with cell phone cameras found its way to YouTube and the international media. Journalistsand human rights researchers made daily phone calls to hundreds of civilians in government held territory.The rebels abducted five journalists from Russia in April 2011 in Ajdabiya. They took away the journalists'documents and equipment.[213] In the city of Misrata, rebel leaders imposed restrictions on the foreignmedia. Journalists were prevented from traveling to the village of Dafniya and were turned back at rebelheldcheckpoints. Journalists were only able to use officially approved translators.[214]

International journalists who have attempted to cover the events were attacked by Gaddafi's forces. A BBCNews crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to ajournalist's ear and laughed at them.[215] A journalist working for The Guardian and another Brazilianjournalist have been detained. An AlJazeerajournalist Ali Hassan alJaberwas murdered, and wasapparently deliberately targeted.[216] Gaddafi's soldiers held four New York Times journalists – LynseyAddario, Anthony Shadid, Stephen Farrell and Tyler Hicks – in captivity for a week.[217]

[218] Libyan citizenjournalist Mohammed Nabbous was shot in the head by Gaddafi's soldiers soon after exposing the Gaddafigovernment's false reports related to the ceasefiredeclaration.[219]

International mediaAfter the uprising began, Libyan students studying in the United States allegedly received phone calls fromthe Libyan embassy, instructing them to join proGaddafirallies, and threatening the loss of theirgovernmentfundedscholarships if they refused. Gaddafi's ambassador denied the reports.[220] A campaignin Serbia has organized people to spread proGaddafimessages on the Internet.[221]

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Gaddafi's aides also organized tours for foreign journalists in Tripoli. The Economist correspondent inTripoli noted "The picture presented by the regime often falls apart, fast. Coffins at funerals havesometimes turned out to be empty. Bombing sites are recycled. An injured sevenyearoldin a hospital wasthe victim of a car crash, according to a note passed on surreptitiously by a nurse. Journalists who point outsuch blatant massaging of facts are harangued in the hotel corridors."[222]

The Guardian described journalism in Gaddafi's Libya as "North Korea with palm trees". Journalist werenot allowed to go anywhere, or talk to anyone, without authorization from Gaddafi's officials who alwaysfollowed them. Journalists who didn't report events the way Gaddafi's officials instructed faced problemsand sudden deportations.[223]

In June 2011, Amnesty International criticized "Western media coverage" which "has from the outsetpresented a very onesidedview of the logic of events, portraying the protest movement as entirely peacefuland repeatedly suggesting that the regime's security forces were unaccountably massacring unarmeddemonstrators who presented no security challenge."[34]

Human shieldsGaddafi forces reportedly surrounded themselves with civilians to protect themselves and key military siteslike the Bab alAziziacompound in Tripoli from air strikes.[224] Amnesty International cited claims thatGaddafi had placed his tanks next to civilian facilities, using them as shields.[173]

According to Libyan state television, the rebels used human shields in Misrata.[225] The Jamahiriya NewsAgency reported on a speech delivered by Leader Gaddafi to Misrata Tribes in Tripol, in which he said thatthe rebels "used children and women as human shields. They took more than 100 children whosewhereabouts we do not know—maybe to Europe to be evangelised."[226]

Domestic responsesResignation of government officialsIn response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either

renounced the Gaddafi government or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Abdul Jaliland Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil MinisterShukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa fled Libya, with the latter defecting to the UK.[227]

Libyan Prosecutor General AbdulRahmanalAbbarresigned from the post and joined the opposition.[228]

The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the actions of theGaddafi government. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations haveeither resigned or stated that they no longer support the government.[229][230][231] The ambassadors toAustralia,[232] Bangladesh, Belgium,[230] France,[233] India,[229] Indonesia,[125] Malaysia, Nigeria,Portugal,[234] Sweden,[235] and the US[236] also renounced the Gaddafi government or formally resigned.Military defections8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 18/45

One of the two Dassault Mirage F1that were flown to Malta.A young Benghazian carrying(deposed) King Idris' photo. Supportof the Senussi dynasty hastraditionally been strong inCyrenaica.[72]

A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition,including General Abdul Fatah Younis, General alBaraniAshkal,[237] Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier GeneralMusa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan IbrahimAl Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. TwoLibyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets toMalta and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry outairstrikes against civilian protesters in Benghazi.[238][239] ColonelNuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base alsodefected along with senior naval officials.[240]

Libyan royal familyMuhammad asSenussi,son of the former Crown Prince and grandnephewof the late King Idris,[241] sent his condolences "for the

heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces ofGaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt allsupport for the dictator with immediate effect."[242] asSenussisaidthat the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls forinternational support to end the violence. On 24 February, asSenussigave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon theinternational community to help remove Gaddafi from power andstop the ongoing "massacre".[243] He dismissed talk of a civil warsaying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they areunited". He later stated that international community needs "less talkand more action" to stop the violence.[244] He asked for a noflyzone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.[245] On20 April, Mohammed spoke in front of the European Parliamentcalling for more support for Libya.[246] He also stated that he will support any form of government thatLibya will choose after Gaddafi including a constitutional monarchy.[247]

A rival claimant to the throne, Idris bin Abdullah alSenussi,announced in an interview with Adnkronosthat he was ready to return to Libya and "assume leadership" once change had been initiated.[248] On 21February, he made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.[249]

In March, it wasreported Idris bin Abdullah had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington withUS government officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudiofficials.[250] On 3 March, it was reported that another member of the family, Prince Zouber alSenussi,hadfled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.[251]

Course of the warFirst weeks8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 19/45

The course of the war.Held by antiGaddafiforces by 1March. (Checkered: Lost before UN intervention)

Contested areas between March andAugust.Rebel western coastal offensive inAugust.

Rebel gains by 1 October.Last loyalist pockets.Major campaigns. battles.By 23 February, Gaddafi was suffering from the resignations and defections of close allies,[252] from theloss of Benghazi,[253] the fall of Tobruk, Misrata, Bayda, Zawiya, Zuwara, Sabratha, Sorman,[252][254] andmounting international isolation and pressure.[252][255][256] By the end of February, Gaddafi's governmenthad lost control of a significant part of Libya, including themajor cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harborsat Ra's Lanuf and Brega.[257][258] But in early March, Gaddafi'sforces pushed the rebels back and eventually reachedBenghazi[259][260] and Misrata. On 10 March, the president ofthe ICRC Jakob Kellenberger warned of the increase in theintensity of fighting and in the number of casualties arriving athospitals in Ajdabiya and Misrata.[261]

Foreign military interventionThe Royal Canadian Navy frigate HMCS Charlottetown wasdeployed to the Mediterranean off the coast of Libya on 2March 2011, but did not take immediate action oncearrived.[262] Seventeen days later, a multistatecoalition begana military intervention in Libya to implement United NationsSecurity Council Resolution 1973, which was taken in responseto events then occurring during the conflict. That same day,military operations began, with US forces and one Britishsubmarine firing cruise missiles,[263] the Royal Canadian AirForce, French Air Force, United States Air Force and BritishRoyal Air Force[264] undertaking sorties across Libya and anaval blockade by the Royal Navy.[265][266][267]

From the beginning of the intervention, the initial coalition ofBelgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar,Spain, UK and US[268][269][270][271][272] expanded to seventeenstates, with newer states mostly enforcing the noflyzone and naval blockade or providing militarylogistical assistance. The effort was initially largely led by the United States.[263] NATO took control of thearms embargo on 23 March, named Operation Unified Protector. An attempt to unify the military commandof the air campaign (whilst keeping political and strategic control with a small group), first failed over

objections by the French, German, and Turkish governments.[273][274] On 24 March, NATO agreed to takecontrol of the noflyzone, while command of targeting ground units remains with coalition forces.[275]

In May 2011, when Gaddafi's forces were still fighting, and the end result of the civil war was stilluncertain, Putin and Medvedev's Russian government recognized the NTC of Libya as a legitimate dialoguepartner.[276] On 9 June 2011,some negotiators from NTC of Libya arrived in Beijing to have negotiationswith the Chinese Government.[277]

In June 2011, Muammar Gaddafi and his son Saif alIslamannounced that they were willing to holdelections and that Gaddafi would step aside if he lost. Saif alIslamstated that the elections could be heldwithin three months and transparency would be guaranteed through international observers. NATO and the8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 20/45

Loyalist Palmaria howitzers destroyedby the French air force near Benghaziin Opération Harmattan on 19 March2011A rebel checkpoint in Tripoli on 26August 2011rebels rejected the offer, and NATO soon resumed theirbombardment of Tripoli.[278]

In July 2011, Saif alIslamaccused NATO of bombing Libyancivilians, including his family members and their children, under thefalse pretence that their homes were military bases. He also statedthat NATO offered to drop the ICC charges against him and hisfather if they accept a secret deal, an offer they rejected. He thuscriticized the ICC as "a fake court" that is controlled by the NATOnations.[177][279]

20 August rebel offensiveHeads of the rebellion reported on 21 August that Gaddafi's son,Saif alIslam,was under arrest and that they had encircled theleader's compound, suggesting that the war had reached its endgamewith an imminent rebel victory. By 22 August, rebel fighters hadgained entrance into Tripoli and occupied Green Square, which waspromptly renamed Martyrs' Square in memory of those who haddied fighting in the civil war.[280] Early on 23 August, Saif alIslam

appeared at the GaddaficontrolledRixos Hotel in central Tripoliand boasted his father was still in control.[281] Later the same day,rebels blasted open the Bab alAziziacompound in Tripoli throughits north gates and stormed inside. Despite previous reportssuggesting that Muammar Gaddafi may be inside, no members ofthe Gaddafi family were found.[282]

Early the following day, 24 August, Gaddafi broadcast an address from a Tripoli local radio station inwhich he said the withdrawal from Bab alAziziahad been a "tactical" move. The New York Times reportedrebel leaders as saying they believed the only areas still under Gaddafi's control, other than the immediateneighbourhood of Bab alAzizia,were alHadhbaand Abu Salim, the latter including the Rixos Hotel wherea group of foreign journalists had been trapped for days. However, the report noted the rebels lacked aunified command and that Gaddafi loyalists and snipers remained at large in many areas of Tripoli. Localhospitals and clinics, even in areas considered under rebel control, were reporting hundreds of cases ofgunshot wounds and the death toll was impossible to estimate.[283] By late afternoon the journalists trappedat the Rixos Hotel had been released while heavy fighting continued in the Abu Salim region close to BabalAziziaand elsewhere.[284] The rebels were reported as estimating 400 people had been killed and afurther 2,000 injured in the battle.[42]

After Tripoli and NTC victoryEfforts to mop up proGaddafiforces in northwestern Libya and toward Sirte began even before the rebelsfully consolidated control of Tripoli. Rebels took the city of Ghadames near the borders of Tunisia andAlgeria on 29 August. Members of the Gaddafi family took flight to Algeria. In September, the Gaddafi8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 21/45

A rebel tank near AjdabiyaLibyan rebels have entered the townof Bani Walid

stronghold of Bani Walid was besieged by rebels, who reported that Gaddafi's son Saif alIslamwas hidingin the city.[285] On 22 September, the NTC captured the southern city of Sabha, and claimed to have found alarge cache of chemical weapons.[286] Concerns were raised over thedanger of Gaddafi mounting an insurgency against the newauthorities.[287]

By midOctober2011, much of the city of Sirte had been taken byNTC forces, although fierce fighting continued around the citycenter, where many proGaddafifighters were encamped.[288] TheNTC captured the whole of Sirte on 20 October 2011, and reportedthat Gaddafi himself had been killed in the city.[289][290] Somecivilian Gaddafi supporters remaining in the city reported thatwomen and children had been killed in crossfire or fired upon byrebel forces. There were also reports of harassment and theft by rebels, however the rebel army indicated itwould leave unarmed civilians "to their own devices", and had allowed families in the city access tosupplies and medical assistance.[291]

On 1 September, when Gaddafi lost his capital Tripoli but still continued fighting, the Russian governmentunder Putin and Medvedev recognized the Libyan NTC as the only Legal regime in Libya.[292] On 12September, Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's People's Republic of China government also recognized the NTC ofLibya as the only Legal regime in Libya.[293] When China and Russia had abandoned their support ofGaddafi, a spokesman of the NTC of Libya said because of their long time support of Gaddafi, it will bevery hard for a Chinese, Russian or Indian oil company to acquire new exploration contracts.[294]

AftermathDespite the defeat of Gaddafi's loyalists, capture of last loyalistcities and Gaddafi's death, Saif alIslam,Gaddafi's son andsuccessor, remained hiding in the southern region of Libya until hiscapture in midNovember.In addition, some loyalist forces crossedinto Niger, though the escape attempts exploded into violence, when

detected by Nigerian troops.Sporadic clashes between NTC and former loyalists also continuedacross Libya with low intensity. On 23 November 2011, sevenpeople were killed in clashes at Bani Walid, five of them among therevolutionary forces and one Gaddafi loyalist.[295]

Fighting broke out on 3 January 2012, at a building used asintelligence headquarters by the Gaddafi government.[296] Abdul Jalil, the chairman of NTC, warnedLibyans that the country could descend into another civil war if they resort to force to settle theirdifferences.[296] It was reported that five people were killed and at least five injured in the events.[297]

Also on 3 January, Libya's government named a retired general from Misrata, Yousel alManquosh,as headof the country's armed forces.[298]8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 22/45

People in Dublin, Ireland, protestingagainst Gaddafi (March 2011).Bani Walid was captured by local tribal fighters on 23 January, due to the NTC's perceived inability tocooperate with them.[15][46] The local forces were said to have used heavy weapons and numbered 100–150men.[46] Eight NTC fighters were killed and at least 25 wounded, with the rest fleeing the city.[15] Clasheswere also reported in Benghazi and Tripoli.[46]

The NTC has functioned as an interim legislature during the transitional period. In early May 2012, itpassed its most sweeping measures to date, granting immunity to former rebel fighters for acts committedduring the civil war and ordering that all detainees accused of fighting for Gaddafi should be tried orreleased by 12 July 2012. It also adopted Law 37, prohibiting the publication of "propaganda" criticising therevolution, questioning the authority of Libya's governing organs, or praising Muammar Gaddafi, hisfamily, his government, or the ideas of the Green Book.[299]

A September 2013 report by The Independent shows that Libya had plunged into its worst political andeconomic crisis since the defeat of Gaddafi. The production of oil had almost completely stopped and the

government had lost control of large areas of the country to the militias, while violence increasedthroughout the country.[300] By May 2014, conflicts between several factions in Libya had descended into asecond civil war.

ImpactCasualtiesIndependent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have stillnot been made available. Estimates have been widely varied.On 24 February, Libya's ambassador to Malta said that Gaddafi'sgovernment believed the number of dead to be about 300, includingcivilians, police officers, and soldiers.[156] The exact same day, theIslamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting reported that the InternationalCriminal Court estimated 10,000 had been killed.[301] The numbersof injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February.[302]

On 2 March, the World Health Organization estimatedapproximately 2,000 killed. At the same time, the opposition saidthat 6,500 people had died.[303] Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death tollreached 8,000.[304]

In June 2011, Amnesty International stated that earlier estimates of the initial clashes in February wereexaggerated. It estimated that during the first few days of the conflict, 100 to 110 people were killed inBenghazi and 59 to 64 were killed in Bayda.[34]

On 8 September, Naji Barakat, the Health Minister of the National Transitional Council, stated that abouthalf of an estimated 30,000 dead were believed to have been proGaddafifighters. War wounded wereestimated as at least 50,000, of which about 20,000 were serious injuries, but this estimate was expected to8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 23/45

President Barack Obama speaking onthe military intervention in Libya atthe National Defense University.rise.[27] However, there was no independent verification of the Health Minister's statement and, one monthlater, the NTC reduced the estimated number of killed to 25,000.[305]

In January 2013, the new Libyan government, based on figures still being checked, estimated the number ofkilled to be actually far lower than previous estimates, with 4,700 rebel supporters and a similar number of

Gaddafi supporters killed during the conflict. An estimated 2,100 people on both sides were missing.[26]

Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project, which compiles a database of all reported fatalities due topolitical violence on the African continent, listed 6,109 fatalities from 15 February to 23 October 2011, ofwhich 1,319 prior to NATO intervention.[306]

The Uppsala Conflict Data Program, a public data resource that includes information on different types oforganized violence (e.g. actors involved, casualties, date, location, etc.), reported that between 1,914 and3,466 people were killed during the 2011 fighting.[307] In addition their data shows that between 152 and168 civilians were deliberately killed by the proGaddafiforces in 2011.[308]

There were no combat casualties amongst the coalition forces, although one RAF airman was killed in anaccident in Italy.Legal qualificationLegal qualification of an armed conflict determines which rules ofinternational humanitarian law apply to the conduct of the partiesduring that conflict. In general, the normative framework applicableto international conflicts is broader and more detailed than the sumof rules that apply in conflicts not of an international character.[309]

The qualification of the Libyan conflict is the subject of someacademic controversy. While most agree that the intensity of thefighting and the organization of the insurgents quickly rose to thelevel required for the existence of a noninternationalarmed conflictunder Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions,[310][311]

the exact date when these conditions were considered fulfilledranges from late February[312] to 10 March 2011.[261]

It is generally accepted that the military intervention by a multistatecoalition acting under the SecurityCouncil mandate since 19 March 2011 occasioned an international armed conflict between Libya and theintervening states.[313][314] Some academics believe that this intervention transformed the legal nature of theconflict as a whole, with the result that even the rebels should have been considered as one of the parties toan overarching international conflict spanning the whole Libyan territory.[314] Others doubt this on accountof both legal and factual considerations.[315]

Finally, it remains unsettled whether or not the rebels’ overthrow of Gaddafi’s government following thefall of Tripoli in August 2011 changed the nature of the conflict again. Some academics believe that as therebels were now the legitimate and effective government of the state of Libya, the conflict was"deinternationalised" and thus noninternationalin nature again.[316][317] Others maintain the opposite8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 24/45

US forces transport displacedEgyptian workers, March 2011position, arguing that the available legal tests for "deinternationalisation" are unpersuasive and introducevague and politicized criteria that cannot be satisfactorily considered in the heat of the battle. Consequently,these authors would consider that the international nature of the conflict remained unchanged until the endof hostilities.[318]

The ongoing conflict (or conflicts) ended for the purposes of legal qualification with the conclusion ofhostilities in Libya in the end of October 2011.[319][320]

Humanitarian situationBy the end of February 2011, supplies of medicine, fuel and foodwere dangerously low in Libya's urban centres.[321] On 25 February,the International Committee of the Red Cross launched anemergency appeal for US$6.4 million to meet the emergency needsof people affected by the violent unrest in Libya.[322] In earlyMarch, the fighting across Libya meant that more than a millionpeople fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarianaid.[323][324] The Islamic Relief and the WFP also coordinated ashipment of humanitarian supplies to Misrata.[325] In March, theSwedish government donated medical supplies and otherhumanitarian aid and the UN World Food Programme providedfood. Turkey sent a hospital ship to Misrata and a Turkish cargo ship brought 141 tons of humanitarianaid.[325][326]

Another humanitarian issue was refugees fleeing the crisis. A humanitarian ship docked in harbour ofMisrata in April to begin the evacuation of stranded migrants.[327] By 10 July, over 150,000 migrants wereevacuated.[328] Migrants were also stranded elsewhere in Libya, such as in the southern towns of Sebha and

Gatroum. Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 refugees were crossing the Libya–Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were nativeLibyans as well as foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks.[329]

While the UN sanctioned military intervention has been implemented on humanitarian grounds, UNagencies seeking to ease the humanitarian crisis repeatedly rejected offers of support from the military tocarry out the agencies' humanitarian operations.[330] The conditions under which such support may beaccepted are outlined in the Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets to Support UnitedNations Humanitarian Activities in Complex Emergencies (MCDA), whereby military support can be usedbut only temporarily and as a last resort.[330] Yet, there remains the concern that aid agencies' neutrality willbe brought into question by accepting military support, putting aid staff at risk of being attacked andcausing some parties to prevent the agencies accessing all the areas they need to.[330]

Furthermore, themilitary may not always have the technical skills required to assess the need for aid and to ensure itseffective distribution.[330] Despite this, offers continue for the creation of an aid corridor and aid agencieshave accepted military logistical support in the past, for instance in the 2010 Pakistan floods response.[330]

Ethnic targeting8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 25/45

Libyan children at a refugee camp,April 2011In August 2011, the UNHCR issued a strong call for the rights and lives of subSaharanAfricans living inLibya to be protected due to reports that black Africans were being targeted by the rebel forces as citiesfell.[331] Other news sources including The Independent and CNN have reported on the targeting of blackpeople in rebel held areas.[332][333][334]

An Amnesty International statement, released on 30 August 2011, stated that on visits to detention centresin Zawiya and Tripoli, Amnesty International was informed that between one third and half of those

detained were from SubSaharanAfrica. A New York Times online article also comments that "it seemsthat plenty of the black Africans captured as mercenaries were never actually involved in the fight".[335][336]

"Hundreds of thousands of subSaharanAfricans worked in Gaddafi's Libya, doing everything frommanaging hotels to sweeping floors. But some also fought as proGaddafimercenaries, and many migrantworkers []fled ahead of the rebels, fearing they would be mistaken for mercenaries."[337]

It was also reported that some African women had said rebels were raping them in refugee camps, withadditional reports of forced labour. Foreign aid workers were also claiming to be prohibited from officiallytalking about the allegations.[338]

The town of Tawergha, which supported Gaddafi prior to its capture by antiGaddafifighters in August, hasbeen emptied of its mostly black inhabitants in what appeared to be a "major reprisal against supporters ofthe Gaddafi regime", according to an 11 September report from The Sunday Telegraph, and commanders ofthe Misrata Brigade are refusing to allow the displaced townspeople to return. One commander was quotedas saying, "Tawergha no longer exists."[339]

Libyan refugeesFleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 refugeeswere crossing the Libya–Tunisia border daily during the first daysof the uprising. Among those, escaping the violence, were nativeLibyans as well as foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisiansand Turks.[340] In February, Italian Foreign Minister Frattiniexpressed his concerns that the amount of Libyan refugees trying toreach Italy might reach between 200,000 and 300,000 people.[341]

By 1 March, officials from the UN High Commissioner forRefugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against subSaharanAfricans who were held in dangerous conditions in the noman'slandbetween Tunisia and Libya.[342] By 3 March, anestimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia orEgypt. A provisional refugee camp set up at Ras Ajdir with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with anestimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of thefrontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health

Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.[343]

To continue responding to the needs of people staying at the Ras Ajdir crossing point in Tunisia, the WFPand Secours IslamiqueFrancewere upgrading a kitchen that would provide breakfast for families.Separately, the ICRC advised it was handing over its operations at the Choucha Camp to the Tunisian Red8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 26/45

A total of 19 charter flights evacuatedChinese citizens from Libya viaMalta.[348] Here a chartered ChinaEastern Airlines Airbus A340 is seenat Malta International Airport on 26February 2011.Crescent.[344] Since 24 March, the WFP supplied over 42,500 cooked meals for TCNs at the Saloum border.A total of 1,650 cartons of fortified date bars (equivalent of 13.2 metric tons) had also been provided tosupplement these meals.[325]

The Sunday Telegraph reported on 11 September that almost the entire population of Tawergha, a town ofabout 10,000 people, had been forced to flee their homes by antiGaddafifighters after their takeover of thesettlement. The report suggested that Tawergha, which was dominated by black Libyans, may have beenthe subject of ethnic cleansing provoked by a combination of racism and bitterness on the part of Misratanfighters over the town's support for Gaddafi during the siege of Misrata.[339]

Economic, religious and tribalOil prices around the world increased during the Libyan conflict, due to the country's significant oilreserves. The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the secondlargeststateownedoil company in Libya, announcedplans to use oil funds to support antiGaddafiforces.[345] Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably theNetwork of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.[346] The Tuareg and Magarhatribes announced their support of the protesters.[257][347] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya,threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of Libya if Libyan security forces continued attackingdemonstrators.[347]

International reactionsMany states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi'sgovernment over disputed allegations of air attacks on civiliantargets within the country. Virtually all Western countries cut offdiplomatic relations with Gaddafi's government over disputedreports of an aerial bombing campaign in February and March, anda number of other countries led by Peru and Botswana did likewise.United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 was adopted on26 February, freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of hisinner circle and restricting their travel. The resolution also referredthe actions of the government to the International Criminal Court forinvestigation,[36] and an arrest warrant for Gaddafi was issued on 27June.[349] This was followed by an arrest warrant issued by Interpolon 8 September.[350]

The disputed allegations about the Libyan government's use of theLibyan Air Force to strike civilians led to the adoption of UnitedNations Security Council Resolution 1973 to create a Libyan noflyzone on 17 March, though severalcountries involved in the resolution's enforcement have also carried out regular strike missions to degradethe offensive capacity of the Libyan Army and destroy the government's command and control capabilities,effectively acting in de facto support of antiGaddafiforces on the ground. 100 countries have recognizedthe antiGaddafiNational Transitional Council as Libya's legitimate representative, with many of thosecountries explicitly describing it as the legal interim government of the country due to the perceived loss oflegitimacy on the part of Gaddafi's government.8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 27/45

Many states have also either issued travel advisories or attempted evacuations. Some evacuations weresuccessful in either going to Malta or via land borders to Egypt or Tunisia; other attempts were hindered bytarmac damage at Benghazi's airport or refusals of permission to land in Tripoli. There were also severalsolidarity protests in other countries that were mostly composed of Libyan expatriates. Financial marketsaround the world had adverse reactions to the instability with oil prices rising to a twoandahalfyearhigh.[351]

See also2011 Battle of Tripoli2011 Battle of SirteAftermath of the Libyan civilwarArab SpringFree speech in the mediaduring the Libyan civil warMoussa Ibrahim, Gaddafi'sspokesmanHuman rights in LibyaList of modern conflicts inNorth AfricaList of modern conflicts in theMiddle EastGreen Resistance

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(http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/newsrelease/2011/libyanews20110225.htm) (Press release).International Committee of the Red Cross. 25 February 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.323. "UN Says To Deliver First Food Aid in Libya Tuesday"(http://af.reuters.com/article/egyptNews/idAFLDE7271FC20110308). Reuters Africa. 8 March 2011. Retrieved13 March 2011.324. "WFP Trucks Food into Eastern Libya" (http://reliefweb.int/node/391021) (Press release). World FoodProgramme. 8 March 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2011.325. Staff. OCHA on Libya's Refugees Covering the Period of 10 to 12 April(http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Report_152.pdf) (PDF). UN Office for theCoordination of Humanitarian Affairs (via ReliefWeb). Retrieved 18 April 2011326. "IHH Sends Humanitarian Aid Ship to Libya" (http://www.ihh.org.tr/ihhdanlibyayainsaniyardimgemisi/en/).IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation. 28 March 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2011.327. "Rockets Bombard Misrata, Rebels Say Eight Killed"(http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFLDE73E0W220110415). Reuters Africa. 9 February 2009.Retrieved 16 April 2011.328. "Migration crisis from Libya" (http://migrationcrisis.com/libya/). International Organization for Migration.Retrieved 12 September 2011.329. "Live Update: Thousands Flee Across Libya–Tunisia Border"(http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/africamideast/liveupdatethousandsfleeacrosslibyatunisiaborder/article1918670/). The Globe and Mail (Toronto). 24 February 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.330. Metcalfe, Victoria (2011). "Friend or Foe? Military Intervention in Libya"(http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5747&title=friendfoemilitaryinterventioninlibya).OverseasDevelopment Institute.331. "UNHCR concerned as subSaharanAfricans targeted in Libya" (http://www.unhcr.org/4e57d1cb9.html).UNHCR (Geneva). 25 August 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2012.332. Sengupta, Kim (27 August 2011). "Rebels settle scores in Libyan capital"(http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/rebelssettlescoresinlibyancapital2344671.html). TheIndependent (Tripoli). Retrieved 14 February 2012.333. "Gadhafi Loyalists?" (http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2011/08/31/robertson.libya.african.jails.cnn).CNN. 31 August 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2012.334. Beaubien, Jason (30 August 2011). "Libyan Rebels Wary Of SubSaharanAfricans"(http://www.npr.org/2011/08/30/140052803/liybanrebelswaryofsubsaharanafricans).NPR. Retrieved14 February 2012.

335. "Libya: Fears for detainees held by antiGaddafiforces" (http://www.amnesty.org/en/newsandupdates/libyafearsdetaineesheldforcesloyalntc20110830)(Press release). Amnesty International. 30 August 2011.Retrieved 14 February 2012.336. Harris, Elizabeth A. (1 September 2011). "Blacks in Libya Face Danger From Rebels"(http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/01/blacksinlibyafacedangerfromrebels/).The New York Times.Retrieved 14 February 2012.337. "Elders hold talks over Gaddafi stronghold" (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/eldersholdtalksovergaddafistronghold2349971.html). The Independent (London). Associated Press. 6 September 2011.8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 44/45

Further readingCrawford, Alex (2012). Colonel Gaddafi's Hat. London: Collins. ISBN 9780007467303.Hilsum, Lindsey (2012). Sandstorm: Libya in the Time of Revolution. London: Faber and Faber.Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait – Human Rights Developments in Libya AmidInstitutional Obstacles. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 9781564325631.Pack, Jason, ed. The 2011 Libyan Uprisings and the Struggle for the PostQadhafiFuture (PalgraveMacmillan; 2013) 254 pages; scholarly essays on the roles of economics, outside actors, Islamists,and tribes in the rebellions.Roberts, Hugh (17 November 2011). "Who said Gaddafi had to go?"(http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n22/hughroberts/whosaidgaddafihadtogo).London Review of Books33 (22): 8–18. Retrieved 14 November 2011.St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya – Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780overgaddafistronghold2349971.html). The Independent (London). Associated Press. 6 September 2011.Retrieved 14 February 2012.338. Enders, David (7 September 2011). "African women say rebels raped them in Libyan camp"(http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2011/09/07/123403/africanwomensayrebelsraped.html). McClatchy Newspapers(Janzur). Retrieved 14 February 2012.339. Gilligan, Andrew (11 September 2011). "Gaddafi's ghost town after the loyalists retreat"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8754375/Gaddafisghosttownaftertheloyalistsretreat.html). The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 12 September 2011.340. "Live Update: Thousands Flee Across Libya–Tunisia Border"(http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/africamideast/

liveupdatethousandsfleeacrosslibyatunisiaborder/article1918670/). The Globe and Mail (Toronto). 24 February 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.341. Squires, Nick (23 February 2011). "Libya: Italy Fears 300,000 Refugees"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8343963/LibyaItalyfears300000refugees.html). The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 7 July 2011.342. Saunders, Doug (1 March 2011). "At a Tense Border Crossing, a Systematic Effort To Keep Black AfricansOut" (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/africamideast/atatensebordercrossingasystematicefforttokeepblackafricansout/article1925955/). The Globe and Mail (Toronto). Retrieved 3 March 2011.343. Sayar, Scott; Cowell, Alan (3 March 2011). "Libyan Refugee Crisis Called a 'Logistical Nightmare'"(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/04/world/africa/04refugee.html). The New York Times.344. "Libya: More Aid To Reach Misrata and Other Areas"(http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/update/2011/libyaupdate20110415.htm). InternationalCommittee of the Red Cross. Retrieved 18 April 2011.345. "Libya's Arabian Gulf Oil Co Hopes To Fund Rebels Via Crude SalesFT"(http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFL3E7EB03B20110311). Reuters Africa. 11 March 2011. Retrieved18 March 2011.346. "Update 1LibyanIslamic Leaders Urge Muslims To Rebel"(http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFLDE71K1TQ20110221). Reuters Africa. 21 February 2011.Retrieved 18 March 2011.347. Hussein, Mohammed (21 February 2011). "Libya Crisis: What Role Do Tribal Loyalties Play?"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12528996).BBC News. Retrieved 18 March 2011.348. "Chinese evacuation from Libya via Malta ends" (http://www.china.org.cn/world/201103/05/content_22065482.htm). Xinhua News Agency. 5 March 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2011.349. "Libya: Muammar Gaddafi Subject to ICC Arrest Warrant" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica13927208).BBC News. 27 June 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2011.350. Irish, John (9 September 2011). "Interpol issues arrest warrant for Muammar Gaddafi"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/09/uslibyagaddafiinterpolidUSTRE7882D220110909).Reuters.351. "Oil jumps after Western attacks on Libya" (http://www.smh.com.au/business/markets/oiljumpsafterwesternattacksonlibya201103191c101.html). Sydney Morning Herald. 21 March 2011.8/2/2015 Libyan Civil War (2011) Wikipedia,the free encyclopediahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_(2011) 45/45

Wikinews has news relatedto: 2011 Libyan civil warWikiquote has quotationsrelated to: 2011 Libyancivil war

415779777.de Waal, Alex (2013). "African roles in the Libyan conflict of 2011"(http://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/ia/archive/view/189849). International Affairs 89 (2):365–379. doi:10.1111/14682346.12022(https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2F14682346.12022).

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