Submitted 12 May 2018, Accepted 21 August 2018, Published 19 October 2018

Corresponding Author: Ting-Chi Wen – e-mail – tingchiwen@yahoo.com 1025

Current status of global Ganoderma cultivation, products, industry

and market

Hapuarachchi KK 1,2,3, Elkhateeb WA4, Karunarathna SC5, Cheng CR6,

Bandara AR2,3,5, Kakumyan P3, Hyde KD2,3,5, Daba GM4 and Wen TC1*

1The Engineering Research Center of Southwest Bio–Pharmaceutical Resources, Ministry of Education, Guizhou

University, Guiyang 550025, Guizhou Province, China 2Center of Excellence in Fungal Research, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand 3School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand 4Department of Chemistry of Microbial Natural Products, National Research Center, Tahrir Street, 12311, Dokki,

Giza, Egypt. 5Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of

Sciences, 132 Lanhei Road, Kunming 650201, China 6 School of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Pharmaceutical Engineering Technology and Application, Sichuan

University of Science & Engineering, Zigong 643000, Sichuan Province, China

Hapuarachchi KK, Elkhateeb WA, Karunarathna SC, Cheng CR, Bandara AR, Kakumyan P, Hyde

KD, Daba GM, Wen TC 2018 – Current status of global Ganoderma cultivation, products, industry

and market. Mycosphere 9(5), 1025–1052, Doi 10.5943/mycosphere/9/5/6

Abstract

Among many traditional medicines, Ganoderma has been used in Asian countries for over

two millennia as a traditional medicine for maintaining vivacity and longevity. Research on various

metabolic activities of Ganoderma have been performed both in vitro and in vivo studies. However,

it is debatable whether Ganoderma is a food supplement for health maintenance or a therapeutic

“drug” for medical purposes. Over the past two decades, the Ganoderma industry has developed

greatly and today offers thousands of products to the markets. Despite the large market, there are

problems with the industry which prevent it from establishing an effective market. This paper

describes the current status of the world Ganoderma cultivation, products, industry and provides

suggestions for facilitating further research.

Key words – lingzhi – secondary metabolites – traditional medicine

Introduction

Ganodermataceae is a large family of polypores with seven accepted genera: Amauroderma,

Foraminispora, Furtadoa, Ganoderma, Haddowia, Humphreya and Polyporopsis (Richter et al.

2015, Costa–Rezende et al. 2017) and 592 epithets, of which most species are classified in the

genus Ganoderma (www.indexfungorum.org, accessed 18 September 2018). Members of

Ganodermataceae are cosmopolitan basidiomycetes (Cao & Yuan 2013) and are distinct from other

families of polypores in having a peculiar type of double-walled basidiospores (Adaskaveg &

Gilbertson 1988). The genus Ganoderma was established by Karsten (1881) with Ganoderma

lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst. as the type species (Moncalvo & Ryvarden 1997). Ganoderma species

are distributed worldwide (Pilotti 2005) and the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma grow from living, or

more commonly, from dead trunks or branches of trees. They grow as facultative parasites that can

Mycosphere 9(5): 1025–1052 (2018) www.mycosphere.org ISSN 2077 7019

Article

Doi 10.5943/mycosphere/9/5/6

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live as saprobes on decaying wood (Turner 1981). Two types of fruiting bodies are produced,

depending on the species: a laccate fruiting body with a shiny upper surface, or a non-laccate

fruiting body with a dull upper surface (Smith & Sivasithamparam 2000, Pilotti et al. 2004).

Ganoderma species are not classified as edible mushrooms, since they have a bitter taste and

hardness in their fruiting bodies and do not have the fleshy texture characteristic of true edible

mushrooms (Jong & Birmingham 1992). The double walled basidiospores with interwall pillars are

a key diagnostic feature for the genus (Smith & Sivasithamparam 2000, Li et al. 2013). Ganoderma

species have important economic value, due to their medicinal properties and pathogenicity (Dai et

al. 2007, 2009). Ganoderma species cause white rot of hard woods by decomposing lignin,

cellulose and related polysaccharides (Hepting 1971, Adaskaveg et al. 1991). Ganoderma is one of

the mushroom genera, traditionally used as popular medicinal mushrooms particularly in China,

Japan and Korea for millennia to improve longevity and health (Cao et al. 2012). Hence,

Ganoderma has been used as a functional food to prevent and treat many immunological diseases

(De Silva et al. 2013, Tan 2015). There are many publications which show the abundance and

variety of biological actions initiated by the primary metabolites of Ganoderma such as

polysaccharides, proteins and triterpenes (De Silva et al. 2012a, Hapuarachchi et al. 2016a). Hence,

research and development of Ganoderma is a trending topic, since the high potential to use in

biotechnology. In this study, we discuss the current status of the global Ganoderma industry,

cultivation, products and market.

History of Ganoderma as a medicinal mushroom

Ganoderma is called “Lingzhi”, Chi–zhi” or “Rui–zhi” (auspicious herb) in China, “Reishi”

(‘divine Mushroom’), “Munnertake” (‘10,000 year old Mushroom’) or “Sachitake” in Japan and

“Youngzhi” in Korea (Wagner et al. 2003, Paterson 2006). Lingzhi is viewed as the "herb of

spiritual potency”, ‟mushroom of immortality” or “Celestial Herb” and symbolizes happiness,

sanctity, success, goodness and longevity (Wasser 2005, Lin 2009, De Silva et al. 2012a). The

Chinese name “Lingzhi” is mainly applied to Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst., a woody

polypore (Basidiomycota) and it has played an important role as a medicinal mushroom in Chinese

and Japanese culture for at least 2000 years (Sliva 2006). Images of this mushroom can be seen

often portrayed in ancient, oriental art and depictions of this fungus proliferated through Chinese

literature and art (McMeekin 2004, Pegler 2002). Although ‘Lingzhi’ is important traditional

medicine in Chinese culture for over millennia, assertions have been made that the basic concept of

Lingzhi originated in India, and was an expression of “Soma”, a Vedic plant (Soma-Haoma)

(Pegler 2002). Time has made changes in legends and myths, and however, the “Lingzhi” name

was finally assigned to a mushroom (Pegler 2002). The idea of ‘Lingzhi’, a mushroom with

magical powers first appeared in the Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BCE). Lingzhi was recorded in the

first book which was wholly devoted to the descriptions of herbs and their medicinal values, Shen

Nong Ben Cao Jing written in Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) (Wachtel-Galor et al. 2005).

Lingzhi is mentioned in a 2000–years–old poem from the Han Dynasty and earlier

descriptions of the ‘Mushroom of Immortality’ probably refer to this species (Money 2016). As

early as 800 years ago in Yuan Dynasty (A.D. 1280 – 1368) “Lingzhi” has been represented in

paintings, wood carvings, carvings of jade and deer’s antlers, furniture, carpet designs, balustrades,

jewelry, women’s hair combs, perfumes, handicrafts and many more creative artworks (Wasser &

Weis 1999). The first Chinese Pharmacopeia was written in Ming Dynasty (A.D. 1590) and

Lingzhi has been recorded as a medicinal mushroom which claims several beneficial medicinal

properties (Wachtel–Galor et al. 2011). This mushroom is popular in North America and Europe as

one of the “artist’s conk” fungi, but now it has been identified as G. applanatum. Furthermore, this

has been used in the Orient as a talisman to protect a person or home against evil (Chang &

Buswell 1999). The stipe of the fruiting bodies of G. neojaponicum were cut into bead-like pieces,

strung and worn round the neck of children to treat epilepsy in Malaysia by ancient tribes (Tan

2015).

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Taxonomic history and controversies

Traditional Chinese books classified Ganoderma into six species with reference to the colour

of the fruiting body: Sekishi (red), Shishi (violaceous), Kokushi (black), Oushi (yellow), Hakushi

(white) and Seishi (blue), and were assigned based on different triterpenoid patterns (Szedlay 2002)

(Table 1). Liu (1974) compiled a monograph on Traditional Chinese Medicinal Fungi describing G.

lucidum as “Lingzhi” in his book. Since then, G. lucidum was accepted as the scientific binomial of

“Lingzhi” in many reports on Chinese edible and medicinal mushrooms (Ying et al. 1987, Mao

1998, Dai et al. 2009, Cao et al. 2012). Mycochemical and other studies reported different species

numbers in the genus Ganoderma (Li et al. 2013, Yan et al. 2013, Peng et al. 2014). However, most

of the species in Ganoderma have not been subjected to systematic studies (Baby et al. 2015).

There are 445 records listed in Index Fungorum (2018) for Ganoderma, although Kirk et al. (2008)

estimate that there are 80 species worldwide, but several are synonyms. The taxonomic situation

within Ganoderma is unclear as the species and genus concepts are confused (Hapuarachchi et al.

2018), because morphologically similar members are found in Fomes, Polyporus and Tomophagus

(Paterson 2006).

The traditional taxonomy of Ganodermataceae is based on its morphological traits, however,

species identification has been unclear and taxonomic segregation of the genera has been

controversial, since there are fundamentally different viewpoints among mycologists (Moncalvo et

al. 1995, Moncalvo & Ryvarden 1997). Some Ganoderma collections and species have been

misnamed because of the presence of heterogenic forms, taxonomic obstacles and variations in the

way the genus has been subdivided (Mueller et al. 2007). Hence, most taxonomists regard the

current nomenclatural situation of Ganodermataceae as chaotic and poorly studied (Ryvarden 1991,

Smith & Sivasithamparam 2003, Hapuarachchi et al. 2015, Zhou et al. 2015, Thawthong et al.

2017). Accordingly, it is important to establish a combination of morphological, chemotaxonomic

and molecular methods to develop a more stable taxonomy (Richter et al. 2015, Welti et al. 2015).

The collections named as G. lucidum from different parts of the world are scattered in several

separated lineages in phylogenetic analyses of the genus (Wang et al. 2012). The taxonomy of the

G. lucidum complex has long been subjected to debate and even after many years of discussions, its

taxonomy remains problematic due to many inconsistencies of phylogeny and morphology. Hence

different opinions have been raised regarding the validity of its members (Yang & Feng 2013).

Ecological aspects

Ganoderma species have a worldwide distribution in green ecosystems both in tropical and

temperate geographical regions in Asia, Africa, America and Europe (Wang et al. 2012). The

species of Ganoderma have a wide host range, with more than 44 species from 34 genera of plants

being identified as potential hosts (Venkatarayan 1936). Plant-pathogenic and wood decaying

species (Fig. 1) of Ganoderma can cause severe diseases such as stem rot, butt rot and root rot in

economically important trees and perennial crops, especially in tropical countries (Coetzee et al.

2015). Ganoderma species are white rot fungi and have ecological importance in the breakdown of

woody plants for nutrient mobilization. They hold effective mechanisms of lignocellulose–

decomposing enzymes useful for bioenergy production and bioremediation (Hepting 1971,

Adaskaveg et al. 1991, Coetzee et al. 2015, Kües et al. 2015). Root and stem rots caused by

Ganoderma species result in loss of forestry yields e.g. Areca catechu (betel nut) (Singh 1991),

Camillia sinensis (tea), Cocos nucifera (coconut) (Kinge & Mih 2015), Elaeis guineensis (oil palm)

(Glen et al. 2009) and Hevea brasiliensis (rubber) (Monkai et al. 2016) worldwide. Turner (1981)

reported 15 species of Ganoderma from various parts of the world, such as Africa, India, Indonesia,

Malaysia, North America, Papua New Guinea and Thailand as being associated with basal stem rot

of oil palm, including G. applanatum, G. boninense (= G. orbiforme), G. chalceum, G. cochlear, G.

lucidum, G. miniatocinctum, G. pseudoferreum (= G. philippi), G. tornatum (= G. australe), G.

tropicum and G. zonatum. Ganoderma boninense is the most aggressive pathogen to cause the basal

stem rot in oil palm (Turner 1981, Wong et al. 2012). Different species produce different features

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and pathogenicity. Species identification in this genus is limited causing a crucial problem for

disease management (Wong et al. 2012).

Figure 1 – Pathogenic and wood decaying Ganoderma species. a Ganoderma applanatum found in

Chinese privet plant (Ligustrum lucidum) (GACP18032701). b Ganoderma sinense

(GACP18032702). c Ganoderma hoehnelianum (GACP14080913). d Ganoderma donkii

(GACP18032703). e Ganoderma tropicum (GACP18032704). f Ganoderma brownii

(GACP18032705). (Photographs taken by TC Wen). *GACP – The Herbarium of Guizhou

University (= the Original Herbarium of Guizhou Agricultural College)

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Important uses of Ganoderma

Species of Ganoderma are widely researched, because of their highly prized medicinal value,

since they contain many chemical constituents with potential nutritional and therapeutic values

(Hapuarachchi et al. 2016b, 2017) (Fig. 4). Ganoderma and Amauroderma include several species

which possess great economic and ecological importance (Correia de Lima et al. 2014). The

fruiting bodies of Ganoderma species have gained wide popular use as dietary supplements in

China, Japan, North America and other regions of the world (Paterson 2006). Ganoderma has been

used as a functional food to prevent and treat immunological diseases (Wang et al. 2012). Several

hundreds of metabolites have been obtained from the species of this family, including G. lucidum,

which is the most sought after species of the genus (Dong & Han 2015). Polysaccharides, steroids

and triterpenes as the major groups followed by alkaloids, fatty acids, glycoproteins, inorganic

elements, lignin, nucleosides, nucleotides, peptides, phenols, proteins, sterols and vitamins were

found in G. lucidum (Boh et al. 2007). The bioactive constituents (Table 2) are reported to be

responsible for anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, immunomodulatory,

immunodeficiency, anti-diabetic, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anticonvulsant, anti-fungal, anti-

hypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-aging, anti-androgenic, anti-hepatotoxic, radical scavenging

property, neuroprotection, sleep promotion, cholesterol synthesis inhibition, hypoglycemia,

inhibition of lipid peroxidation/oxidative DNA damage, hepatoprotective properties, maintenance

of gut health, prevention of obesity, and stimulation of probiotics (Paterson 2006, Cao et al. 2012,

De Silva et al. 2012a, b, 2013, Baby et al. 2015, Bishop et al. 2015, Liu et al. 2015b, Vyas et al.

2016).

Generally, Ganoderma species are a good source of anti-oxidant compounds (Mau et al.

2005a, b, Rawat et al. 2013), and such compounds can reduce oxidative damage by directly

scavenging free radicals generated in the cell (Wong et al. 2004, Agarwal et al. 2012, Celık et al.

2014, Rajoriya et al. 2015, Obodai et al. 2017). The presence of phenolic compounds are also

responsible for anti-oxidant properties in many mushrooms (Ferreira et al. 2009, Barros et al.

2008). The presence of flavonoids specifically may have detoxification, anti-inflammatory, and

curing activities for various cardiovascular diseases (Le Marchand 2002). Many Ganoderma

species exert remarkable anti-tumor activity (Jeong et al. 2008) due to the presence of many

compounds such as triterpenes which can suppress growth and aggressiveness of cancer cells,

polysaccharides that stimulate the anti-cancer response of immune cells and activate production of

cytokines (Kuo et al. 2006, Sliva 2006, Smina et al. 2011), and flavonoids (Le Marchand 2002). An

extract of G. lucidum inhibits distinct signalling pathways in different cancer cells (Aydemir 2002).

Ganoderma lucidum has also strong activity against human prostate cancer cells since it induces

apoptosis, inhibits cell proliferation, and suppresses cell migration (Stanley et al. 2005).

Ganoderma lucidum showed activity against lymphoma, leukemia, and multiple myeloma cells

(Muller et al. 2006). Furthermore, the methanolic extract of G. applanatum has an apoptotic anti-

tumor activity in human colon cancer cell line (Caco–2) (Elkhateeb et al. 2018). Some Ganoderma

metabolites showed also an anti-microbial activity against different pathogenic bacteria and fungi

(Shikongo et al. 2013, Singh et al. 2014). Quereshi et al. (2010) reported the anti-bacterial activity

of the acetone extract from fruiting bodies of G. lucidum against Staphylococcus aureus and against

Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Polysaccharides extracted from G. lucidum exerted an anti-bacterial

activity against Micrococcus luteus ATCC 10240 (Skalicka-Woźniak et al. 2012). Hleba et al.

(2014) described the anti-microbial activity of the methanolic extracts of G. lucidum against

Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Furthermore, ganodermin extracted from Ganoderma lucidum exhibited

anti–fungal activity against Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum and Physalospora piricola

(Wang & Ng 2006). Polysaccharides extracted from Ganoderma species have been reported to

have anti-tumor activity (Kim et al. 1980, Miyazaki & Nishijima 1981). Ganoderiol F and

ganodermanontriol obtained from the methanol extract of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum have

anti–HIV–1 activity (El–Mekkawy et al. 1998). Eo et al. (1999) reported anti–viral activity of G.

lucidum carpophores against herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV–2) with low cytotoxicity to host

cells in vitro. Li & Wang (2006) described ganoderic acid extracted from G. lucidum as an anti-

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hepatitis B agent since it inhibited virus replication. Zhang et al. (2014) recorded the significant

anti-viral activity of G. lucidum against enterovirus, which is the major cause of hand, foot and

mouth diseases.

Ganoderma (as Lingzhi) was cultivated in a large-scale, successfully for the first time in 1969

in China (Yu & Shen 2003) and currently, the annual sale of products derived from G. lucidum is

estimated to be more than US$ 2.5 billion in Asian countries, including China (Figs 2, 3), Japan,

and South Korea (Li et al. 2013). Ganoderma sinense and G. lucidum have been listed in Chinese

Pharmacopeia to prevent and treat many diseases, and Ganoderma was included in American

Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Therapeutic Compendium.

Table 1 The six types of traditional Ganoderma and their uses (Szedlay 2002, Wasser 2005).

Color Taste Chinese name Japanese name Uses

Blue Sour Seishi Aoshiba Improves eyesight and

liver function, calms

nerves

Red Bitter Sekishi Akashiba Supports internal organs;

sharpens memory,

enhances vitality

Yellow Sweet Oushi Kishiba Strengthens spleen

function

White Hot (or

pungent)

Hakushi Shiroshiba Improves lung function,

gives courage and strong

will

Black Salty Kokushi Kuroshiba Protects kidneys

Table 2 Common therapeutic effects of different Ganoderma spp.

Therapeutic

effects

Ganoderma spp. Major bioactive compounds References

Anti-cancer G. amboinense Ganoderic acid X, Lanostanoid

triterpenes

Li et al. 2005,

Hsu et al. 2008

G. applanatum Terpene (Presiccanochromenic acid,

Myrocin C, Sphaeropsidin D,

Deoxyherqueinone , Xylariacin B,

Trichiol C, Comazaphilone D,

Zeylasteral, Erinacine H,

Applanoxidic acid C,D, E, F,G,H

Elkhateeb et al.

2018

G. lucidum Triterpenoids (Ganoderic acids,

Lucidumol, Lucialdehyde, Lucidenic

acids)

LZ-8 protein

Polysaccharides, GLP-2B

LZP-F3

GLIS

GlPS

GlPP

Yuen & Gohel

2005

Boh 2013

Zhang et al. 2011

Huang & Ning

2010

Zhang et al. 2010

Zhu et al. 2007

Cao & Lin 2006

G. tsugae Crude extract of G. tsugae Hsu et al. 2008

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Table 2 Continued.

Therapeutic

effects

Ganoderma spp. Major bioactive compounds References

Anti-diabetic

effects

G. applanatum Polysaccharides (PSG) Jung et al. 2005

G. atrum Polysaccharides (PSG) Zhu et al. 2013,

2016

G. lucidum Polysaccharides, proteoglycans,

Proteins (LZ-8) and Triterpenoids

Ma et al. 2015

Anti-

inflammatory

G. applanatum Ganodermycin, polysaccharide

components

Jung et al. 2011,

Vazirian et al.

2014

G. atrum Polysaccharide (PSG-1) Li et al. 2017

G. capense G. capense Glycopeptide (GCGP) Zhou et al. 2014

G. colossus Colosolactones El Dine et al.

2009

G. lucidum Ganoderic acids T-Q and lucideinic

acids A, D2, E2, and P

Sliva et al. 2003

G. sichuanense Lingzhilactone B Yan et al. 2015

G. sinense Triterpenoid-enriched lipids Yue et al. 2008

G. tsugae Water soluble polysaccharides Ko et al. 2008

Anti-oxidant

activity

G. atrum Polysaccharides (PSG-1) Zhu et al. 2016

G. applanatum Exopolysaccharides Liu et al. 2015a

G. capense Polysaccharide, designated as GCPB-

1b

Jiang et al. 2016

G. cochlear (+)- and (-)-cochlearols Dou et al. 2014

G. hainanense lanostane-type triterpenoids Li et al. 2016b

G. lucidum Triterpenes, Polysaccharides,

polysaccharide-peptide complex and

phenolic component

Mehta 2014,

Kana et al. 2015

G. sichuanense Lingzhilactone B Yan et al. 2015

G. tsugae Polysaccharides Tseng et al. 2008

Anti- Microbial

Activity

G. lucidum Polysaccharides Mehta 2014

Triterpenoids (Ganoderic acids,

Ganodermin, Ganoderic acid A,

Ganodermadiol, Ganodermanondiol,

Lucidumol B, Ganodermanontriol,

Ganoderic acid B and Ganolucidic

acid A

Zhang et al. 2011,

Isaka et al. 2013,

Bisko &

Mitropolskaya

1999,

G. pfeifferi Ganomycins A and B Mothana et al.

2000

Cardiovascular

problems

G. lucidum Polysaccharides (Ganopoly)

Gao et al. 2004

Ganoderma tsugae is regarded as a health food by Chinese government (Chen et al. 2016).

Ganoderma lucidum products, from different parts of its fruiting bodies, mycelia or spores, are sold

in the form of coffee, powder, tea, dietary supplements, spore products, drinks, syrups, tooth pastes,

soaps and lotions and have been commercialized as food and drug supplements (Fig. 5) which

enhance the body's immune system and improve metabolic functions (Chang & Buswell 1999, Lai

et al. 2004, Singh et al. 2013). Ganoderma lucidum was used as Bonsai products to decorate

gardens, ornaments and many other art products. Awareness of Ganoderma has improved from

fundamental level to artificial cultivation, large-scale cultivation and isolation of bioactive

components.

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Figure 2 – Cultivated Ganoderma lingzhi species in Yunnan Province, China (GACP16091002).

a Upper surface. b Lower surface. c Cut surface. d–g Spores (100×). h Generative hyphae (100×).

i Skeletal hyphae (100×). j Binding hyphae (100×). Scale bars: d–g = 10 μm, h–j = 5 μm. *GACP –

The Herbarium of Guizhou University (= The Original Herbarium of Guizhou Agricultural

College).

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Figure 3 – Ganoderma cultivation in China. (Photographs taken by TC Wen)

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Cosmetic products based on Ganoderma

Ganoderma is a part of several cosmetics produced mainly in China, Korea, USA and some

other Asian and European countries, many being used for skin lightening (Jiang 2015). Tyrosinase

enzyme is a key enzyme in the melanin formation and Ganoderma lucidum has shown tyrosinase

inhibition activity (Chien et al. 2008). Hence, many facial mask cosmetics in the market contain

Ganoderma extracts which helps in skin whitening (Hyde et al. 2010). Ganoderma lucidum

combined with three other plants and zinc to stimulate hair growth in human males by lowering

dihydrotestosterone or prostatic hyperplasia levels (Meehan 2015). Table 3 lists common cosmetic

products containing Ganoderma lucidum extracts.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

In ancient China, it was believed that Ganoderma had the power to enhance longevity and

vivacity. Royalty considered it as a valuable mushroom and they used it when they were meditating

(Ulbricht et al. 2010). In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Ganoderma is claimed “to

replenish the energy, ease the mind, and relieve cough and asthma” (Wachtel-Galor et al. 2011). In

herbal medicine, Ganoderma is used to increase energy, resist stress, or as a liver tonic (Wachtel-

Galor et al. 2011). Modern studies associated with animal models and molecular-based research

techniques have demonstrated numerous pharmacological effects supporting these claims

(Hapuarachchi et al. 2016a, b, 2017). Inappropriate claims involving the efficacy of TCM are

frequently made (Hui 1997). Jiaogulan (Gynostemm pentaphyllum) is mixed with G. lucidum and

make “Lingzhi Jiaogulan oral liquid” which helps in relieving palpitation, shortness of breath, and

insomnia (Yan 2015). There are nearly 200 medicines and compounded medicines containing

Ganoderma available within China (Chen et al. 2016). Modern research revealed that triterpenoids

and polysaccharides were responsible for the pharmacological effects mentioned above. However,

due to the difficulty in obtaining large amounts of the pure triterpenoids and polysaccharides,

double-blind clinical data of the active components are limited. No natural products or extracts

from Ganoderma have been reported to enter clinical trial (Cheng et al. 2013, Hapuarachchi et al.

2017).

Medicated foods and dietary supplements

The total number of publications on Ganoderma in the world has exceeded 10,000 with 7,000

related patents. Over 1,000 Ganoderma health food products are certified by Chinese government

(Chen et al. 2016). Ganoderma lucidum is used as the material of functional food in daily life such

as soup, tea, wine and yoghourt (Dong & Han 2015). This species is used with ginseng (Panax

ginseng) to make soups. These soups are useful for soothing the nerves, relieving asthma, and

strengthening the immune system (Zhao 2015). Ganoderma lucidum is mixed with sanqi (Panax

nostoginseng) to make herbal Sanqi wine which helps to promote blood circulation and soothe

nerves (Zhao 2015). Ganoderma lucidum alone or combined with other herbs such as Chinese yam

(Dioscorea opposite), magnolia berry (Schisandra chinensis), and desert-broomrape (Cistanche

deserticola) can be used in herbal wine for balancing the body and anti-aging process (Dong & Han

2015). Tea is prepared by G. lucidum alone or mixed with other herbs such as Japanese

honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Chinese hawberry (Crataegus pinnatifida) and wolfberry

(Lycium barbarum) which helps in modulating immunity to keep the body in balance (Dong & Han

2015).

Cultivation

Commercial cultivation of Ganoderma has been introduced worldwide, especially in tropical

Asian countries to meet the gradually increasing demand of the mushroom as a natural medicine

(Wachtel-Galor et al. 2011). Wild Ganoderma is difficult to collect and to maintain its quality. In

ancient times, Ganoderma was collected from the wild and consumed only by wealthy people, but

a large proportion is cultivated today for the general population. Artificial cultivation of

Ganoderma was attempted in 1937 (Perumal 2009). However, the first successful cultivation of

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Ganoderma was performed in 1969 with the use of a spore separation cultivation method by a

Chinese technician in the Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing (Yu &

Shen 2003). Since then, the cultivation of Ganoderma has been popular in China and other Asian

countries, such as Japan and Korea (Li et al. 2016a). Traditional cultivation (since 1969) was based

on inoculating one meter long natural logs without sterilization, which were then buried in a

shallow trough (Pegler 2002). Most broad-leaf hardwoods can be used to cultivate Ganoderma

species and logs are cut from living trees (Chen 2002). Fruiting bodies took 6-24 months to emerge,

but cropping could continue for five years (Pegler 2002). Since late 1980s, new methods have been

developed that use short logs (15 cm or less) (Chen 2002). Today, this method is followed by most

Ganoderma natural-log growers in China, Japan and Korea (Chen & Chen 2004). As it takes

several months to produce the fruiting body, mycelia-based and culture broth-based products have

been considered as methods to ensure quality control and for continuous production throughout the

year (Sanodiya et al. 2009).

Different species of Ganoderma need different conditions for growth and cultivation

(Mayzumi et al. 1997). There are several other methods that have been trialed to cultivate

Ganoderma such as basswood cultivation (Zhang et al. 2004), sawdust cultivation and substituted

cultivation. Artificial cultivation of G. lucidum has been achieved using substrates such as grain,

sawdust, wood logs (Chang & Buswell 1999, Wasser 2005, Boh et al. 2007), tea waste (Peksen &

Yakupoglu 2009), cotton seed husk, or residues of farm crops (Zhang & Wang 2010), cork residues

(Riu et al. 1997), sunflower seed hull (González–Matute et al. 2002), corn cobs (Ueitele et al.

2004), olive oil press cakes (Gregori & Pohleven 2014) and wheat straw (Khajuria & Batra 2014).

Various ornamental growth forms, including antler-like structures, can be produced by altering the

growing conditions, especially temperature and the carbon dioxide volume (Pegler 2002). Current

methods involved in commercial production of Ganoderma, include wood log, short basswood

segment, tree stump, sawdust bag, and bottle procedures (Mayzumi et al. 1997, Lin & Zhou 1999,

Erkel 2009, Chen 1999, Han et al. 2008). Natural log cultivation produces Ganoderma mushrooms

with superior quality and gets best prices in the markets of Southeast Asia. However, the yield

could be lower, and the production time could be little more extended than sawdust synthetic log

cultivation (Chen & Chao 1997). It is important to conserve the forests where logs are collected,

and this is of significant environmental concern (Chen & Chen 2004). Nowadays G. lucidum is not

the only species in this genus grown for a commercial purpose worldwide, but also G. applanatum,

G. capense, G. sinense, G. tsugae (Chen & Chen 2004) and G. neojaponicum (Tan 2015) are

cultivated in farms.

Global Marketing

Ganoderma based products have attracted a great deal of attention during the last decade in

Europe, Malaysia, North America and Singapore. China, Japan and Korea are the main producers

and suppliers of Ganoderma based products (Chang & Mills 2004) (Table 4). The total Ganoderma

production of Japan during 1995 was estimated approximately 500 MT. In 1997, the worldwide G.

lucidum production was 4300 MT, and 3000 MT were from China, while 1500 MT were exported

to Japan, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan. The remaining 1300 MT were produced mainly in Korea,

Taiwan, Japan, Thailand, US, Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia and Sri Lanka (Zhou & Gao 2002).

The DXN Group in Malaysia produced 70 MT of Ganoderma and accounted for 1% of the global

production in 2001 (DXN Holdings’ IPO listing Reports).

The total world market for Ganoderma based natural health care products was 1628 million

US dollars in 1995 (Chang & Buswell 1999). In 2004, Ganoderma lucidum worldwide production

was approximately 5000-6000 MT and more than half was produced by China (Rai 2003, Lai et al.

2004). The China Edible Fungi Association recorded that Ganoderma production in China was

36700 and 49200 MT in 2002 and 2003, respectively (Banuelos & Lin 2009). However, there are

some problems with Ganoderma based products because of low reproducibility and poor quality

control. Various reasons such as seasonal variations, different soil conditions and stage of fruiting

body development weaken the product quality. Hence, it is important to develop acceptable and

1036

Figure 4 – Medicinally important Ganoderma species. a Ganoderma sinense (GACP14081236).

b Ganoderma calidophilum (GACP15081036). c Ganoderma orbiforme (GACP1706211).

d Ganoderma flexipes (GACP17102301). e Ganoderma resinaceum (GACP HNU58).

f Ganoderma multiplicatum (GACP14081328). *GACP – The Herbarium of Guizhou University (=

the Original Herbarium of Guizhou Agricultural College)

1037

Figure 5 – Ganoderma products used as drugs and food supplements in China. a Ganoderma

lucidum compound capsules (Chongqing Taiji Industry (Group) Co. Ltd). b Ganoderma lucidum

syrups (Guizhou Shunjian Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd). c Ganoderma lucidum spore powder capsules

enriched with Se (Guizhou Lingkangshi Biological Technology Co. Ltd). d Ganoderma lucidum

spore powder (Yunnan Xianghui Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd). e Broken G. lucidum spore powder oil

capsules (FGTZ Biotechnology Company). f Broken G. lucidum spore powder (Chengdu

Dujiangyan Chunsheng Chinese Herbal Pieces Co. Ltd). g Ganoderma lucidum fruiting body slices

(Sichuan Zibo Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd) (Photographs taken by TC Wen).

1038

Table 3 Cosmetic products containing Ganoderma lucidum extract and their functions.

Product Name Function

Reference

CV Skinlabs Body Repair

Lotion, U.S.

Wound-healing and anti-

inflammatory properties

Wu et al. 2016

Dr. Andrew Weil for

Origins Mega-Mushroom,

Skin Relief Face Mask,

U.S.

Anti-inflammatory

properties

Wu et al. 2016

Dr. Andrew Weil for

Origins Mega-Mushroom,

Moisturizing body Cream,

U.S.

Skin anti-aging Taofiq et al. 2016

DXN Ganozhi E Deep

Cleansing Cream, UK

Deeply removes impurities

and dead cells without

drying skin and revitalize

the skin

www.ganodermalucidumproducts.com

DXN Ganozhi E

Nourishing Night Cream,

UK

Improve firmness whilst

strengthening the skin’s

structure

www.ganodermalucidumproducts.com

DXN Ganozhi E Hydrosoft

Toner, UK

cleanses and minimizes

pores, penetrates and tones

skin

www.ganodermalucidumproducts.com

DXN Ganozhi E UV

defense Day Cream, UK

Hydrates, firms and

moisturize and protects

against UV rays

www.ganodermalucidumproducts.com

DXN Ganozhi

Moisturizing Micro

Emulsion, Malaysia

Hydrate and nourish the

skin

www.dxnmalaysia.com

DXN Ganozhi Lipstick,

Malaysia

Hydrating lips with a

natural, subtle shine

www.lifeganodermaen.dxnseo.com

DXN Ganozhi Liquid

Cleanser, Malaysia

Cleanses skin deep into the

pores and refreshed

www.lifeganodermaen.dxnseo.com

DXN Ganozhi Toner,

Malaysia

Minimize skin pores while

leaving the skin soft and

hydrated

www.lifeganodermaen.dxnseo.com

Estée Lauder, Re-Nutriv

Sun Supreme Rescue

Serum sun care product,

U.S

Triple-action repair

technology to enhance the

skin's own natural defenses

against the visible effects

of sun exposure and sun-

stressed skin

Taofiq et al. 2016

Guangzhou Maycare

cosmetics, Collagen crystal

facial mask, China

Skin revitalizing and

whitening

www.may-care.com

Guangzhou Bocaly Bio-

Tec., Ganoderma Cells

Repairing Anti-aging Face

Mask, China

Anti-wrinkle, firming,

lightening, moisturizer,

nourishing, pigmentation

correctors, pore cleaner and

whitening.

www.vegamebeljepara.com

1039

Table 3 Continued.

Product Name

Function

Reference

Guangzhou Ocean

Cosmetic Beauty,

Ganoderma Moisturizing

Cream, China

Acne treatment, anti-

aging, anti-wrinkle, dark

circles, firming,

lightening, moisturizer,

nourishing, skin

revitalizer, sunscreen,

whitening.

www.vegamebeljepara.com

Hankook Sansim Firming

Cream (Tan Ryuk SANG),

Korea

Make skin tight and

vitalized

Hyde et al. 2010

Julie Levin Organic skin

Care, Green Tea Reishi

Face Serum, US

Nourish and invigorate

the skin

www.leafpeople.com

Kat Burki Form Control

Marine Collagen, Gel, U.K.

Boost collagen, improve

elasticity and provide

hydration

Wu et al. 2016

MAVEX, 24 hrs. Intensive

Cream, Hong Kong

Stimulates cell turnover

formation of collagen and

elastin, Skin anti-aging

www.dazzlinggroup.com

MAVEX, Rejuvenating

Treatment, Hong Kong

Anti-oxidant action and

deep cellular renewal.

Fights degenerative

processes and the negative

action of free radicals.

www.dazzlinggroup.com

MAVEX, Hyaluronic

Lifting Serum, Hong Kong

Stimulates collagen

synthesis and keeps the

skin toned, hydrated and

luminous, skin anti-aging

www.dazzlinggroup.com

MAVEX, Beauty Secret

Eye Contour, Hong Kong

skin anti-aging, Anti-

oedema, prevents and

reduces oedemas,

fights the formation of

wrinkles

www.dazzlinggroup.com

MAVEX, 2 in 1 Cleansing

Milk & Tonic, Hong Kong

Effectively removes

impurities and residues of

make-up, deeply purifies,

deeply protects and

moisturize the skin

www.dazzlinggroup.com

MAVEX, AHA/BHA

Peeling, Hong Kong

Effective exfoliating,

keratolytic and bio-

stimulating properties,

skin anti-aging and

revitalized

www.dazzlinggroup.com

Menard Embellir, Night

cream, Japan

Eliminate toxins and help

repair skin damage

associated with over

exposure to UV radiation

and free radicals

Taofiq et al. 2016

1040

Table 3 Continued.

Product Name

Function

Reference

Paris Skin Institute, Derma Sublime,

Luxurious Revitalizing

crème, France

Intensely hydrate and

comfort dry and sensitive

skin

www.parisskininstitute.com

Paris Skin Institute, Derma Sublime, La Crème

Supreme, France

Nurtured skin and

enhanced regenerating

performance, moist and

intense hydration.

www.parisskininstitute.com

Paris Skin Institute,

Derma Sublime, Eye

Crème Suprême, France

An intense rejuvenating

effect while reducing the

appearance of dark

circles, lines and puffiness

of eyes

www.parisskininstitute.com

Paris Skin Institute,

Derma Sublime, Le

Sérum Lifting Concentrate, France

Skin anti-aging www.parisskininstitute.com

Pureology NanoWorks

Shineluxe, France

Anti-aging and anti-fading Hyde et al. 2010

Shenzhen Hai Li Xuan

Technology, HailiCare

Skin Whitening Cream,

China

Removing freckle speckle

and whitening

www.vegamebeljepara.com

Tela Beauty Organics

Encore Styling, Cream,

U.K

Provide hair with sun

protection and prevent

color fading

Wu et al. 2016

Yves Saint Laurent Temps

Majeur Elixir De Nuit,

France

Anti-aging Hyde et al. 2010

Nanjing Zhongke

Pharmaceuticals,

Ganoderma Face Cream

Set (Day/night cream and

eye gel set), China

Immune & anti-fatigue www.vegamebeljepara.com

reproducible protocols for manufacturing processes to ensure high quality, standard and safe

Ganoderma products (Chang & Mills 2004). Good laboratory, agriculture, manufacturing,

production and clinical practices are essential to achieve quality Ganoderma products (Chang &

Mills 2004).

Ganoderma products are divided into three types; developmental products based on

Ganoderma fruiting bodies (Wasser 2011), mycelia (He 2000), and spore powder (Xie et al. 2002).

A variety of Ganoderma products have been commercialized and it is estimated that at least 100

brands and over 780 products are sold in the world markets (Lai et al. 2004, Li et al. 2016a). USA

is the largest market for Ganoderma and related products (Perumal 2009). Li et al. (2016a) showed

China is the largest producer and exporter with a capacity over 110,000 MT/year of fruiting bodies,

slices, and spore powders as most popular products among consumers. Even though China accounts

for 70% of the world’s production, it exports less than 5% of total production. Most manufacturing

facilities in China do not possess internationally recognized GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice)

1041

certifications for acceptance in international markets (Pang 2002). There are more than 100

research institutes that specialize in the study of Ganoderma, and more than 200 factories involved

in the production of drugs and nutraceuticals in China. Furthermore, many patented products have

been marketed upon the preparation of anti-tumor, liver function accelerant, lowering of blood

pressure, hypoglycemic activity, lowering of cholesterol levels, treatment of chronic bronchitis,

immunomodulator, lysozyme as antibiotic and shampoo and body shampoo (Xie et al. 2002). In the

early 1980s, there were some Ganoderma based products on the international market, such as

decoction, syrup, tablet, and injection liquid. In the early 1990s, 90 brands of Ganoderma products

were registered and marketed internationally (Lin 2000). However, today it varies from drugs,

health liquor, and Ganoderma dietary supplements to cosmetology products. These products are

sold as prescription drugs in some Asian countries, however, mostly they are advertised as dietary

supplements globally (Lai et al. 2004). Global consumption is estimated at several thousand tonnes,

and the demand is growing swiftly (Wachtel-Galor et al. 2011). Numerous G. lucidum products,

prepared from different parts of the mushroom, are currently available on the market (Chang &

Buswell 2008). However, these products do not yet fulfill the customer satisfaction.

Draw backs and future trends

A number of challenges have to be addressed regarding this industry. The systematics and

taxonomy of Ganoderma species needs to be studied and confirmed. Homogeneity of products,

lack of highly value-added products, poor quality and high prices are also major problems (Li et al.

2016a). The quality standard of the fungus and management of Ganoderma products must be

improved and include the identification and control of the bioactive components, any hazardous

and noxious substances such as heavy metals and residual pesticides and, moreover, trials are

needed to develop new product formulations (Zhou et al. 2011, Hobbs 2017). Recently, a group of

researchers showed that most of the Ganoderma products in USA lacked characteristic

triterpenoids and contained a starch like – polysaccharide profile that was inconsistent with G.

lucidum (Wu et al. 2017). Furthermore, it was suggested that the quality consistency of G. lucidum

dietary supplements collected in USA was extremely poor and requires careful investigation (Wu et

al. 2017). All companies manufacturing Ganoderma based products should be accredited according

to international standards. There has been a trend and significant increase in developing natural

drugs to prevent and treat many immunological diseases over the last few decades. There have been

some reports of human trials using Ganoderma as a direct control agent for various diseases but

scientific evidence is inconclusive (Gao et al. 2003a, b, Zhao et al. 2011, Zhou et al. 2014, Baby et

al. 2015). Clinical trials were successful most of the time together with Ganoderma preparation, but

more in-depth investigation and accurate scientific evidence are still required, especially for

double–blind clinical data. Factors like small sample size, lack of a placebo control group, lack of

information regarding long term treatment of the drug, age, patient’s gender and side effects,

standard method of extraction of Ganoderma, standard dosage, and number of patients treated

weaken the validity of the results (Hapuarachchi et al. 2017). However, well-designed in vivo tests

and randomized controlled clinical studies with Ganoderma can provide statistically significant

results to confirm the efficacy and safety of Ganoderma preparations in order to incorporate

Ganoderma as an integrative therapy. Clarification of active ingredients, isolation and purification

of individual compounds should be carried out and this will enable the active ingredients within

nutriceutical products to be measured and to understand whether the beneficial compounds in

Ganoderma act synergistically or independently. Hence, it will help to explain potential synergistic

effects and establish safe and beneficial dose ranges of active ingredients for each disease type.

Further, standardization and quality control of Ganoderma strains, cultivation processes, extracts

and commercial formulations, are needed for wide acceptance of Ganoderma as a natural product

for use in the prevention and treatment of various diseases (Hapuarachchi et al. 2016b).

Breeding of new Ganoderma strains will enhance the development of strains with higher

yield and resistance to diseases, which in turn will increase productivity and reduce the use of

chemicals for pest control. Modern engineering technologies, such as computerized control systems

1042

to control environmental parameters, techniques for the production of mushrooms in new

substrates, new methods for substrate sterilization and spawn preparation, will also increase the

productivity of mushroom culture (Zhou et al. 2011). Ganoderma development and research helps

to prevent and control environmental pollution since the production of Ganoderma creates a great

amount of waste which can be consumed as animal feed, soil conditioner, mushroom recultivation,

and bioremediation. Furthermore, Ganoderma cultivation is a biotechnological process that

recycles lignocellulosic wastes and converts agricultural and forest wastes into useful biomass and

reduces environmental pollution (Zhou et al. 2011). Effective market research on global

Ganoderma industry should be carried out with information such as company profiles, product

picture and specification, capacity, production, price, cost, revenue and contact information. This

will help to provide current market trends and future growth expectations with respect to value and

volume, technological advancement, macro economical and governing factors in the market.

Table 4 List of major Ganoderma producing companies.

Ganoderma Company

Country of

origin

Company Website

ALPHAY China http://www.alphayglobal.com/

AMAX NUTRASOURCE USA http://www.amaxnutrasource.com

BIO-BOTANICA USA http://www.bio-botanica.com

BRISTOL BOTANICALS UK http://www.bristolbotanicals.co.uk

DXN Malaysia https://www.dxn2u.com/

DRAGON HERBS USA http://www.dragonherbs.com

GANO EXCEL Malaysia http://www.ganoexcel.com.my/

GANOLIFE USA http://www.ganolife.us/

GUXIN China http://www.gubaolz.com

HANGZHOU China http://johnsun.en.alibaba.com

HOKKAIDO REISHI Japan http://www.hokkaido-reishi.com/

HUAHERNHANFANG China http://www.hhhf.com.cn

HUACHENGBIO China http://www.huachengbio.com

JIABAO China http://www.lqjiabao.com

LINKANGSHI China http://www.gzlzzp.com/

MUSHROOM SCIENCE USA https://mushroomscience.com

NATUREPLUS China http://www.gonatureplus.com

NAMMEX Canada http://www.nammex.com

ORGANO GOLD Canada https://www.organogold.com/en/

QINGDAO DACON China http://www.cccme.org.cn

RUIZHI China http://www.rzswkj.com

SANLIAN China http://www.cn-lingzhi.com

SERENIGY USA https://sites.google.com/site/serenigycoffeebusiness/home

SHOUXIANGU China http://www.sxg1909.com

SHUANG HOR China http://www.shuanghor.com.my/select_country.jsp

TOTAL LIFE CHNAGES USA https://totallifechanges.com/

XIANKELAI China http://www.xkl-cn.com

XI’AN GREENA

BIOTECH

China http://www.greena-bio.com

XIANPAILINGZHI China http://www.shinpire.com

1043

Table 4 Continued.

Ganoderma Company

Country of

origin

Company Website

XI'AN SOST China http://www.xasost.com

XIANZHILOU China www.xianzhilou.com

XIAN YUENSUN China http://www.yuensunshine.com

XUCHANG YUANHUA China http://www.yamasuan.com

YUEWEI China http://www.gdyuewei.cn

YUNLE China http://www.hsyllz.com

ZHENGXIN China http://www.taishanlingzhi.net

ZHONGKE China http://www.zhongke.com

Acknowledgements

This work was financed by the Science and Technology Foundation of Guizhou Province

((No. [2017]2511–1) and the Science Research Foundation of Guizhou University (No. 201309).

Kalani K. Hapuarachchi is grateful to HD Yang, IMMC Sanjeewa, and ID Goonasekara for their

valuable comments and suggestions. K.D. Hyde thank the grants Fungal biodiversity; climate

change; landcover mapping; niche modeling; Fungal biogeography; Greater Mekong Subregion"

grant No. RDG6130001 and Thailands fungal diversity, solving problems and creating

biotechnological products" grant No. 61201321016.

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