Current Developments in Anthropological Genetics Volume 3

BLACK CARIBS A Case Study in Biocultural Adaptation

Current Developments in Anthropological Genetics

Volume 1:

Volume 2:

Volume 3:

THEORY AND METHODS Edited by James H. Mielke and Michael H. Crawford

ECOLOGY AND POPULATION STRUCTURE Edited by Michael H. Crawford and James H. Mielke

BLACK CARIBS: A Case Study in Biocultural Adaptation Edited by Michael H. Crawford

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

Current Developments in Anthropological Genetics Volume 3

BLACK CARIBS A Case Study in Biocultural Adaptation

EDITED BY

MICHAEL H. CRAWFORD University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas

PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK AND LONDON

The Library of Congress cataloged the first title in this series as follows:

Main entry under title:

Current developments in anthropological genetics.

Includes index. CONTENTS: v. 1. Theory and methods. 1. Human population genetics-Addresses, essays, lectures. 2. Human evolution­

Addresses, essays, lectures. 3. Human genetics-Addresses, essays, lectures. I. Mielke, James H. II. Crawford, Michael H., 1939-GN289.C87 573.2 79-24900

ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9652-2 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-2649-6

©1984 Plenum Press, New York

e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-2649-6

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1984 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

Contributors

V. Bach-Enciso, Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045

R. M. Baume, School of Dental Medicine, The University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032

Rebecca Brown, American National Red Cross, Bethesda, Maryland 20814 Pamela J. Byard, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence,

Kansas 66045; present address: Department of Anthropology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106

Sheila Cosminsky, Department of Anthropology, Rutgers University, Camden, New Jersey 08102

Michael H. Crawford, Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045

Ramon Custodio, Laboratorio Custodio, S. de R. L. Pathologia Clinica y Anatomia Pathologica, 1229 Tegucigalpa, D. C., Honduras

William V. Davidson, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

Eric J. Devor, Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 63178

Dale D. Dykes, Minneapolis War Memorial Blood Bank, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55404

Brian Sank Firschein, Human Genetics and Biological Variations Laboratory, N. S. Kline Psychiatric Research Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962

I. Lester Firschein, Department of Anthropology, Hunter College-City University of New York, New York, New York 10021

Henry Gershowitz, Department of Human Genetics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104

Nancie L. Gonzalez, Department of Anthropology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742

C. J. M. R. Gullick, Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham DHI 3HN, England

R. G. Huntsman, Canadian Red Cross, Blood Transfusion Services, St. John's, New­foundland, Canada AlB 4A4

v

vi CONTRIBUTORS

Janis Hutchinson, Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045

Carol Jenkins, Institute of Medical Research, P.O. Box 378, Madang, Papua New Guinea

Virginia Kerns, Department of Sociology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

A. C. Kopec, Serological Population Genetics Laboratory, London, England Francis C. Lees, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York at

Albany, Albany, New York 12222 Paul M. Lin, Institute of Social and Behavioral Pathology, and Psychiatric Re­

search Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Pritzker School of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637

J. M. Lord, British Museum (Natural History), Sub-Department of Anthropology, London SW7, England

J. H. Mielke, Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045

R. M. Newton, Canadian Red Cross, Blood Transfusion Services, St. John's, New­foundland, Canada AlB 4A4

D. H. O'Rourke, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112

H. F. Polesky, Minneapolis War Memorial Blood Bank, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55404

John H. Relethford, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12222; present address: Department of Anthro­pology, State University of New York at Oneonta, Oneonta, New York 13820

Derek F. Roberts, Department of Human Genetics, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England NE2 4AA

Diane Sank, Department of Anthropology, The City College, City University of New York, New York, New York 10031, and Human Genetics and Biological Variations Laboratory, N. S. Kline Psychiatric Research Institute, Orangeburg, New York 10962

Moses S. Schanfield, American National Red Cross, Bethesda, Maryland 20814; present address: Genetic Testing Institute, Atlanta, Georgia 30308

K. Skradsky, Minneapolis War Memorial Blood Bank, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55404

D. Tills, British Museum (Natural History), Sub-Department of Anthropology, London SW7, England

A. Warlow, British Museum (Natural History), Sub-Department of Anthropology, London SW7, England

Hazel Weymes, Department of Anthropology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, England

Emory Whipple, Department of Anthropology, Indiana University-Purdue University at Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805

Preface

While the previous two volumes in this series were based upon methodol­ogy, theory, and the relationship between ecology and population structure, this book can be viewed as an in-depth case study. The population genetics of a multitude of diverse groups geographically distributed throughout the world was examined in the first two volumes. In contrast, this volume focuses upon a single ethnic group, the Black Caribs (Garifuna) of Central America and St. Vincent Island, and explores the interrelationships among the ethnohistory, sociocultural characteristics, demography, morphology, and genetic structure of the group. This volume offers a broad and intensive treatment of the Black Caribs and their interactions with surrounding populations.

My interest in the genetics of the Black Caribs was sparked by an accidental meeting in Amsterdam, Holland, in March 1975. A conversation with Nancie Gonzalez at the Applied Anthropology Meetings revealed the "truth-is-stranger­than·fiction" history of the Black Carib peoples of the Caribbean. This was a popUlation with a small-sized founding group and a unique biological success story. Nancie Gonzalez was particularly interested in estimating the Carib Indian admixture in the contemporary Garifuna popUlation. Given my previous experi­ence in estimating Spanish and African admixture in the Tlaxcaltecan population (whose gene pool consisted predominantly of Indian alleles), a group that appeared to be primarily African with some Indian admixture was of great interest. Aside from the ethnohistorical interest, I believe that such a population may add conSiderably to our understanding of the inheritance of complex morphological traits.

The first fieldwork on the Black Caribs was performed during the summer of 1975 in livingston, Guatemala. The primary focus of those investigations was to estimate the Carib Indian contribution to the formation of the Black Carib gene pool. P. M. lin and I joined Nancie Gonzalez in the field for a short time during the summer to collect blood specimens, dermatoglyphics, some dental casts, and anthropometric data. Nancie Gonzalez collected genealogical and sociocultural data from livingston from 1956 to 1976. Her knowledge of the

vii

viii PREFACE

Carib peoples of Livingston provided valuable background for the interpretation of the genetic and biological data.

Following the 1975 fieldwork, a more intensive field research program was envisaged for the summer of 1976 in Belize. Researchers and research support from five different institutions formed the core of a 6-week multidisciplinary effort. Nancie Gonzalez, assisted by Loretta St. Louis, was responsible for the sociocultural anthropology and fertility aspects of the project. Francis Lees and a graduate student, Pamela Byard, both from State University of New York in Albany, collected skin color reflectometry data. One of the innovative features of their study was the collection of reflectance data by means of both the British E.E.L. and the U.S. Photovolt reflectometers. This approach permitted the development of conversion formulas for the comparative utilization of data from both machines by using different wavelength filters. Eugenie Scott collected anthropometric measurements of children and adults, particularly for purposes of comparing those with normal and abnormal hemoglobins. Paul Lin, from Wichita State University, measured a sample of children and made dermatoglyphic prints on a series of Belize City Creoles. These data formed the backbone of a comparison with the Caribs of livingston, Guatemala. Three researchers came from the University of Kansas: M. H. Crawford, E. Murray, and D. H. O'Rourke. Murray was responsible for screening for abnormal hemoglobins with a modified microchromatographic technique. The purp.ose of the identification of HbAS heterozygous women was to retest Firschein's (1961) conclusion that under malarial conditions sickle cell trait women are more fertile than their HbAA counterparts. O'Rourke made dental impressions from a select sample of people from the community who had a fairly complete dental set. M. H. Crawford tested for anomalous color vision and collected some of the blood specimens. In all of our studies during the last decade we have always tried to return to the community as much as possible in return for its cooperation. In Belize, the physician on the research team, David Hiebert, provided free medical care and radiological consultations. He worked in close cooperation with the local physicians, Dr. J. Miranda at Stann Creek and Dr. von Hienkel at Punta Gorda.

Field investigations were begun on St. Vincent Island during the summer of 1979, when Paul Lin, Janis Hutchinson, and I spent 1 month investigating three villages on the windward side of the island. Blood pressure, anthropometric measurements, genealogies, and blood specimens were collected from 450 persons representing three villages - Owia, Sandy Bay, and Fancy. St. Vincent Island plays a pivotal role in the understanding of the population structure of the Black Caribs, since they originated from this island from a small founding group.

Frank livingstone informed me of another research group (consisting of University College, London and Memorial University of Newfoundland) working with Black Carib popUlations in Honduras. After contacting this group, and follOwing a visit to Lawrence by Richard Huntsman, they agreed to provide

PREFACE ix

several chapters so that a more complete overview of Black Carib research would be available under a single set of covers. Thus, Chapters 14, 15, and 17, on the blood genetics of Honduras and Belize Black Caribs, were subsequently added to this volume. Since the British/Canadian and U. S. Groups worked independently, there is some overlap as to the data collected. However, this redundancy should be viewed as a unique strength of the volume because it provides an opportunity to evaluate the results of a series of sampling procedures. A nagging question in population biology concerns the representative nature of samples taken from large human populations and the possibility of bias.

Many colleagues and associates aided in the organization and realization of this Black Carib research program. Drs. Nancie L. Gonzalez and Paul M. Lin were instrumental in the development of the research program and participated in several of the field investigations. Similarly, I would like to acknowledge the aid of Drs. Francis Lees, Pamela J. Byard, David Hiebert, and Dennis H. O'Rourke for their participation in the fieldwork in Belize. Without the assis­tance and support of the public health officers and nurses in Belize, Guatemala, and St. Vincent, this study would not have been possible. In particular, I acknowl­edge the cooperation, help, and good will of Drs. Kibukomusoke, Naidas, Castillo von Heinkel, and Father Anthony Briskey.

I would like to thank Marcia Early for her considerable typing, editing, and administrative skills. Laura Poracsky provided the illustrations for many of the chapters. I thank Pamela Byard for her critical evaluation of a number of manuscripts and her useful recommendations for their improvement.

This research was supported in part by the following grants: PHS Research Career Development Award K04 DE028-05; National Institute of Dental Research #DE04115-02; Biomedical Sciences Research Grants #4349-5706, 4309-5706, and 4932-x706-4; and Faculty Senate Research Grant #3507-x038.

Michael H. Crawford

Contents

Chapter 1. Problems and Hypotheses: An Introduction

Michael H. Crawford

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. Ethnohistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3. Unique Characteristics of the Black Caribs. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4. Central Research Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5. Contents of This Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

PART I: SOCIOCULTURAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC SECTIONS

Chapter 2. The Garifuna in Central America: Ethnohistorical and Geographical Foundations

William V. Davidson

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2. St. Vincent Origins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14 3. Dispersal in Central America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15

3.1. St. Vincent to Roatan Island, Honduras, 1797 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15 3.2. The Trujillo Core, 1797-1810. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.3. Honduran Mosquitia, 1803-1814 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3.4. Belize, 1802-1832. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17 3.5. Western Honduras and Guatemala, 1821-1836 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4. Patterns of Settlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.1. Garifuna Culture Realm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 4.2. Trade Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 4.3. Village Subsistence Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22 4.4. Settlement Proper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 4.5. Family Compound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30

5. Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33

xi

xii CONTENTS

Chapter 3. The Changing Vincentian Carib Population

C. J. M. R. Gullick

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Prior to 1797 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ .

2.1. Population Estimates ................................ . 3. Post-1797 ......................................... .

3.1. 1844 Census ..................................... . 3.2. Carib-Creole Contact ............................... . 3.3 Population Effects of Cataclysms ......................... . 3.4. PopUlation Movements ............................... . 3.5. Census of 1931 ................................... .

4. Current PopUlation Estimates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 5. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. .

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 4. Garifuna (Black Carib) Social Organization

Nancie L. Gonzalez

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. St. Vincent Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Garifuna Social Organization, Central America .................... .

3.1. Households in Livingston, 1956 .......................... . 3.2. Consanguineal Households ............................. . 3.3. Household Changes in 1975 ............................ . 3.4. The Neighborhood ................................. .

4. Discussion .......... . 4.1. The Future ... . References. . . . . . . ....

Chapter 5. Demographic Patterns of the Garifuna (Black Caribs) of Belize

I. Lester Firschein

1. Introduction ........................................ . 2. Methods .......................................... . 3. Results ........................................... .

3.1. Population Size ................................... . 3.2. Family Size ..................................... . 3.3. Sex Ratio ...................................... .

4. Discussion . . . . . References. . . ..

Chapter 6. Past and Present Evidence of Interethnic Mating

Virginia Kerns

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 2. Twentieth-Century Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

37 38 38 38 41 41 43 44 46 47 48 49

51 52 54 55 57 58 60 63 64 65

67 68 69 69 72 79 92 94

95 96

CONTENTS

3. Nineteenth-Century Accounts .............................. . 3.1. Nineteenth-Century Population Statistics .................... .

4. The Problem of Genetic Isolation ............................ . 5. Conclusions ........................................ .

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .

Chapter 7. Ethnicity and Mating Patterns in Punta Gorda, Belize

Sheila Cosminsky and Emory Whipple

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . 2. Setting and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1. . . . .. . 3. Cultural and Social Differentiation ........................... .

3.1. Language ....................................... . 3.2. Occupation ..................................... . 3.3. Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.4. Physical ....................................... . 3.5. Surnames ....................................... .

4. Ethnic Relations ........ . 5. Summary and Conclusions ... .

References. . . . . . . . . . . . .

PART II: MORPHOLOGICAL SECTION

Chapter 8. Nutrition and Growth in Early Childhood among the Garifuna and Creole of Belize

Carol Jenkins

1. Introduction. . . . . . ... 2. Methods .......................................... .

2.1. Research Design ................................... . 2.2. Research Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 2.3. Sample Size and Location ......................... . 2.4. Methods of Analysis ................................ .

3. Results ........................................... . 3.1. Comparative Growth of Creole and Garifuna Children ............. . 3.2. Nutritional Status .................................. . 3.3. Biocultural Factors .....

4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . ...

Chapter 9. Skin Color of the Garifuna of Belize

Pamela 1. Byard, Francis C Lees, and John H Relethford

xiii

100 103 108 111 113

115 116 118 120 120 123 124 124 125 130 131

135 136 136 136 137 137 138 138 139 143 146 146

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149 2. Materials and Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 3. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156 4. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166

xiv CONTENTS

Chapter 10. Dental Variation in Black Carib Populations

D. H. O'Rourke, R. M Baume, J. H. Mielke, and M. H. Crawford

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 169 2. Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170 3. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170

3.1. Discontinuous Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 170 3.2. Odontometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 3.3. Two-Dimensional Representations of Discrete Traits. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182

4. Discussion and Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186

Chapter 11. Anthropometry of Black Caribs

PaulM. Lin

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189 2. Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 3. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190

3.1. Sexual Dimorphism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 3.2. Factor Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193 3.3. Discriminant Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207 3.4. Analysis of Variance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209

4. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 212 5. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 214

Chapter 12 Factors Influencing Blood Pressure Level among the Black Caribs of St. Vincent Island

Janis Hutchinson, Paul M. Lin, and Michael H. Crawford

1. Introduction ....................................... " 215 2. Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216

2.1. Populations Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216 2.2. Familial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217 2.3. Hybrid Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217 2.4. Anthropometric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 218

3. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220 3.1. Familial Correlations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220 3.2. Hybridization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 220 3.3. Anthropometric Relationship to Hypertension ................ " 227

4. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 233 4.1. Familial Correlations ............................... " 233 4.2. Hybridization and Blood Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 234 4.3. Body Build and Blood Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235

5. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 236 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237

CONTENTS xv

Chapter 13. Quantitative Analyses of the Dermatoglyphic Patterns of the Black Carib Populations of Central America

Paul M. Lin, V. Bach-Enciso, Michael H. Crawford, Janis Hutchinson, Diane Sank, and Brian Sank Firschein

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. 241 2. Populations Sampled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 3. Methods of Dennatoglyphic Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. 243

3.1. Analytic Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .• 249 4. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . •. 250

4.1. Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 250 4.2. Intrapopulation Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255 4.3. Interpopulation Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 260

5. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 265 6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 268

PART III: GENETIC SECTION

Chapter 14. Genetic Structure of the Garifuna Population in Belize

Hazel Weymes and Henry Gershowitz

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 271 2. Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 273

2.1. Hemoglobins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274 2.2. Phosphoglucomutase (PGM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 276 2.3. Glucose.{i-phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) and 6-Phosphogluconate

Dehydrogenase (6PGD) . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .• 278 2.4. Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279 2.S. Serum Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279

3. Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . .. 281 3.1. The Hemoglobins ..............•...............•.•. , 281 3.2. The Haptoglobins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. 282 3.3. Immunoglobulins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 284

4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 287 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 287

Chapter 15. Blood Group, Hemoglobin, and Plasma Protein Polymorphisms in Black Carib Populations

Ramon Custodio, R. G. Huntsman, R. M. Newton, D. Tills, Hazel Weymes, A. Warlow, A. C. Kopec, and J. M. Lord

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. 289 2. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .. 290 3. Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290

3.1. ABO ......................................... , 291 3.2. Rhesus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. 291 3.3. MNSs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 291 3.4. Lutheran. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 293

xvi CONTENTS

3.5. Kell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 3.6. Kidd.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 3.7. P... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 3.8. Diego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 296 3.9. Duffy ....................................... " 296 3.10. Hemoglobin, Haptoglobin, Transferrin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 297 3.11. Other Genes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 297

4. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 298 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 301

Chapter 16. Blood Group, Serum Protein, and Red Cell Enzyme Po1ymorphisms, and Admixture among the Black Caribs and Creoles of Central America and the Caribbean

Michael H Crawford, Dale D. Dykes, K. Skradsky, and H F. Polesky

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . 2. Methods and Material . . . . . .

2.1. Admixture Estimates .... 2.2. Genetic Heterozygosity .............................. .

3. Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Blood Group Systems ............................... . 3.2. Serum Proteins ................................... . 3.3. Erythrocytic Protein Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Genetic Heterozygosity .............................. . 3.5. Admixture Estimates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .

4. Conclusions ........................................ . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .

Chapter 17. Abnormal Hemoglobins among the Black Caribs

Ramon Custodio and R. G. Huntsman

303 304 306 306 307 307 323 327 330 330 331 332

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 2. Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 337 3. Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

3.1. The Sickle Cell Carrier Rate in Black Carib Communities ....... 338 3.2. Correlation of Sickle Cell Carrier Rate in Communities with Malarial

Infestation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 3.3. Sex Distribution of the Sickle Cell Trait. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 339 3.4. Fertility of Women with the Sickle Cell Trait Compared with Normal

Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 341 3.5. The History of Abortions and Stillbirths .................... " 343

4. Conclusion ......................................... 343 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. 343

CONTENTS xvli

Chapter 18. Immunoglobulin Allotypes in the Black Caribs and Creoles of Belize and St. Vincent

Moses S. Schanfield, Rebecca Brown, and Michael H. Crawford

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. 345 2. Methods and Materials . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . .. 346

2.1. Analytic Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 348 3. Results and Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. 349

3.1. Gene Frequency Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • .. 349 3.2. Admixture Estimates of Ethnic Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 356 3.3. Population Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 357

4. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 362

Chapter 19. Genetic Population Structure of the Black Caribs and Creoles

Eric J. Devor, Michael H. Crawford, and V. Bach-Enciso

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 365 2. Biosocial History of the Black Caribs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. 366 3. Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 367 4. Analytical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 367

4.1. Relationship Matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 367 4.2. Genetic Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. 368 4.3. Mean Per·Locus Heterozygosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 368

5. Black Carib Population Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370 6. Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 377

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 379

Chapter 20. Anthropogenetics in a Hybrid Population: The Black Carib Studies

Derek F. Roberts

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381 2. Sociocultural Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 382 3. Quantitative Biological Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 384 4. Genetic Variation ..................................... , 386 5. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .. 388

INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 391