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Transcript of Cultural References (BA Dissertation)
1
School of Languages
Comparative Analysis of the Cultural
References in Original Version and its
Translation
(Only in London :إنها لندن ياعزيزي)
by
Emtinan Alqurashi
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements of the degree of
BA (Hons) Arabic/English Translation and Interpreting
Supervised by Hassane Lounis
07 MAY 2010
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 5
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1: LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND TRANSLATION ......................... 7
1.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7
1.2 THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE .............................................................................. 7
1.3 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE ................................................................................. 8
1.4 THE CONCEPT OF TRANSLATION ........................................................................ 11
1.5 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE .................................. 12
1.6 TRANSLATION AND CULTURE .............................................................................. 13
1.7 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 2: TRANSLATION STRATEGIES .................................................. 16
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 16
2.2 DIFFICULTIES OF TRANSLATING CULTURAL REFERENCES ................................. 16
2.3 IVIR‟S STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSLATION OF CULTURES ................................ 17
2.3.1 Borrowing .................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Definition .................................................................................................... 20
2.3.3 Literal translation ...................................................................................... 21
2.3.4 Substitution ................................................................................................ 23
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2.3.5 Lexical creation ......................................................................................... 24
2.3.6 Addition ...................................................................................................... 25
2.3.7 Omission .................................................................................................... 26
2.4 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 28
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 28
3.2 HANAN AL-SHAYKH ............................................................................................ 28
3.3 THE NOVEL ......................................................................................................... 29
3.4 ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................ 30
3.4.1 Food ........................................................................................................... 30
3.4.2 Clothes ....................................................................................................... 32
3.4.3 Religious terminology .............................................................................. 33
3.4.4 Names of people, places and miscellaneous ...................................... 35
3.4.5 Idioms and common terminology ........................................................... 36
3.5 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 39
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 40
REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX ......................................................................................................... 46
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah the Almighty, the most Gracious and most Merciful. I must
thank Him for giving me the opportunity, strength and courage to further my
studies at this level.
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to
complete this dissertation. First, I would like to thank the School of Languages
for giving me the opportunity to study and complete the Bachelor degree, and
for allowing me to submit this piece of work. Then, I would like to thank my
supervisor Hassane Lounis for his supports and guidance throughout the
dissertation completion.
Finally, I am indebted to my loving husband, Mohammed Tashkandi for his
support and care, which enabled me to achieve my lifetime dreams and goals.
I further extend this gratitude to my caring parents for their supports and
endless prayers for my successful completion of the Bachelor degree.
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INTRODUCTION
Every language has its own culture and this at times creates cultural gaps.
Also, every culture has some typical terms that may not be found in another,
and these are cultural references. Therefore, both culture and language are
inseparable as they are like two sides of a coin.
The main aim of translation is not just to transfer the meaning from the Source
Language to the Target Language, but also to establish contacts between
cultures. In other words, “Translation is a kind of activity which inevitably
involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions” (Toury, 1978: 200).
Translators are required to have sufficient knowledge of both the source
culture and the target culture. Therefore, translators are required to be not only
bilingual, but also bicultural. Their role is to deal with these cultural gaps when
translating unmatched elements of culture.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this dissertation is to provide a comparative analysis of the original
version "إنها لندن اعززي" (This is London, My Dear), written by Hanan Al-shaykh
in 2001, and its translated version “Only in London” ( by Catherine (فقط ف لندن
Cobham. In order to achieve this aim, the project is divided into three
chapters, as outlined below.
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The first chapter introduces the notion of culture and language. It also
discusses the relationship between language and culture, as they cannot be
separated from each other. The chapter also explores the relationship
between translation and culture and how they interrelate to each other.
The second chapter discusses the difficulties a translator my face when
translating unmatched elements of culture (cultural references), and the
strategies that can be used to deal with them. It also discusses the
approaches on analysing cultural translation provided by Ivir (1987), which are
cultural borrowing, definition, substitution, lexical creation, literal translation,
omission and addition. Examples will be provided and discussed for each
strategy. Newmark‟s views on cultural references will also be looked at and
organized.
The third chapter provides an analysis of the novel “ Only in“ ”إنها لندن اعززي
London”. It shows how the strategies discussed in chapter two have been
used in order to translate unmatched elements of culture.
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CHAPTER 1: LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND
TRANSLATION
1.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses cultural references and explains the meaning of the
concept of language and translation. The aim of this chapter is to show the
interaction between language and culture, and the relationship between
translation and culture. It shows how cultural references have been defined by
many scholars and how Newmark divided them into different categories based
on the reference type.
1.2 The Concept of Language
Language, according to Kramsch, (1998), can be defined as a system of
communication of consisting sounds, codes and symbols which is used by
people to share knowledge and experience. In other words, people identify
themselves and others through their use of language, and they view their
language as a symbol of their social identity.
“Languages are the best mirror of human cultures, and it is through
the vocabulary of human languages that we can discover and
identify the culture- specific conceptual configurations of different
people of the world”.
(Wierzbicka, 1992:22)
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Language is at the heart of culture and it is a way that people communicate
that results in the continuation of life energy. Sapir and Whorf (cited in
Bassnett 2002: 22) state that “No language can exist unless it is steeped in the
context of culture; and no culture can exist which does not have its centre, the
structure of a natural language”. Sapir also claims that “language is a guide to
social reality and human beings are at the mercy of the language that has
become the medium of expression for their society”.
1.3 The concept of culture
Culture is a very complex term and many scholars have tried to identify its
concept. Indeed, it has been a subject of debate for a long time. Culture
includes behavioural norms, customs, and values, and it reflects the
personality of individuals (Tashkandi, 2009). Therefore, every culture has
unique terms that cannot be found in others. According to Baker (1992), “The
source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the
target culture”. Kramsch (1998: 10) defines culture as
“Membership in a discourse community that shares a common
social space and history, and common imaginings; even when they
are have left that community, its members may retain, wherever
they are, a common system of standards for perceiving, believing,
evaluating and acing”.
Newmark (1988: 94) defines culture as “the way of life and its manifestations
that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means
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of expression". He believes that each language group has its own specific
culture. He has categorised cultural terms as follows:
1) Ecology: geographical features, animals, plants
Geographical features are usually value-free, politically and commercially and
that is how they can be distinguished from other cultural terms. On the other
hand, their diffusion depends on the importance of their country of origin as
well as their long degree of specificity. (Newmark 1988:96)
For example: camel always refers to the Arab world, kangaroo refers to the
Australian culture, and panda and dragon refer to the Chinese culture.
2) Material Culture: food, clothes, houses and towns, transport
Food: the most important term of national culture for many people. It is subject
to the widest range of translation procedures. A range of media - multilingual
glossed cookbooks, food guides, tourist brochures, journalism - increasingly
contain foreign food terms (Newmark, 1988:97).
For example: Kabsa كبسة, a traditional meal in Saudi Arabia, and Foul and
Flafelفول وطعمة, a traditional meal in Egypt.
Clothes: people dress according to the environment they live in. Newmark
(1988:97) argues that "it has to be borne in mind that the function of the
generic clothes term is approximately constant, indicating the part of the body
that is covered, but the description varies depending on climate and material
used".
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For example: in Islam women must wear a veil which covers their head and
body, called Hijab حجاب, while in other religions women can wear whatever
they like. The terms شماغ وعقال Egal and Shemagh, refer to traditional clothes
men wear in Gulf countries.
Transport: is dominated by American English and the car, also called a 'bus',
'motor', or 'crate', as well as twenty six other words, and is a symbol of private
property in many countries (Newmark, 1988: 98).
3) Social Culture: work and leisure
Newmark (1988: 98) believes that "in considering social culture one has to
distinguish between denotative and connotative problems of translation".
Proverbs can be considered part of a certain society.
For example: the Arabic proverb البعد عن العن بعد عن القلب has an equivalent in
the English culture which is out of sight out of mind.
4) Organizations, Customs, Activities, Procedures,
Concepts: political and administrative, religious, and artistic.
Political and administrative: The political life of a country is reflected in its
institutional terms; for example, the title of the head of state (President, Prime
Minister, King) or the name of the parliament (Newmark, 1988:99).
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Religious: The Arabic language, for example, has a lot of religious terms, such
as Allah هللا, halal Jihad ,حالل Ramadan ,جهاد Hajj ,رمضان and lots of other ,حج
terms that have become well known in most cultures.
Artistic: The translation of artistic terms, such as Art Deco, referring to
movements, processes and organizations generally depends on the putative
knowledge of the readership (Newmark, 1988:102).
5) Gestures and Habits
For example: The colour of a bride‟s dress is a good example of habits. In
most countries white is the colour of the dress of the bride, while in India it is
red. Therefore, it is important for translators to consider these cultural
differences between languages during the process of translation.
1.4 The concept of translation
Translation, according to Bassnett (2002: 21), is frequently used to transfer the
meaning contained in the Source Language (SL) to the Target Language (TL)
through competent use of the dictionary and grammar. This process also
involves a whole set of extra- linguistic criteria. According to Catford (1965:
20), translation can replace a textual term in one language with an equivalent
textual term in another language.
“The process of translation between two different written languages
involves the translator changing an original written text (the source
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text or ST) in the original verbal language (SL) into a written text
(Target Text or TT) in the original verbal language (TL)”.
(Munday 2008:5)
In Roman Jakobson‟s article, (cited in Munday 2002: 5), “On Linguistic
Aspects of Translation”, he categorises translation as follows:
1) Intralingual translation or “rewording”: an interpretation of verbal signs by
means of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or “translation proper”: an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or “transmutation”: an interpretation of verbal signs
by means of signs of a non- verbal sign system.
For all these three types, Jakobson goes on immediately to point out the
central problem. Usually, there is no full equivalence through translation; even
obvious synonymy does not yield an equivalent.
1.5 The relationship between language and culture
Language, according to Bassnett (2002: 3), is a system of communication
used by a particular community or country. It is an expression of the culture
and individuality of its speakers, and influences the way its speakers perceive
the world. Faiq (2004: 1) argues that over time, languages generally do
change phonologically, morphologically, syntactically and semantically, while
cultures do not change so quickly and remain rooted to their respective pasts.
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“Language is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction
between the two that results in the continuation of life- energy.” (Bassnett
2002: 22). Therefore, the relationship between language and culture can be as
inseparable as two faces of a coin.
According to Nida (2001: 14), language mirrors the cultural aspects of a given
society and helps to identify them. Language sometimes ceases to explain
things "outside itself'. In other words, language sometimes cannot explain
cultural references but can always help to identify them. This is simply
because some cultural references cannot be understood without fully
understanding their original meaning. Newmark (1988: 94) believes that each
language group has its own specific culture.
Brown (cited in Valdes, 1986: 45) thinks that culture is actually an essential
part of the interaction between language and thoughts. Its patterns, customs
and ways are reflected in language.
1.6 Translation and culture
Translation requires the understanding of both languages and cultures. In
order to achieve successful translation, translators need to transmit all cultural
references into accurate terms which sound like the original text. Ivir (1987:
38) describes translation as a way of establishing contact between cultures. In
addition, Catford (1965: 21) considers process of the translation as a linguistic
operation that is performed on languages. The main objective of translation is
not only to cross the linguistic boundaries that exist between two different
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languages, but also to bridge the cultural gap that exists between two different
cultures.
Casagrande (cited in Ivir 1987: 36) argues that
'One does not translate languages, one translate cultures. That it is
possible to translate one language into another at all attests to the
universalities in culture, to common vicissitudes of human life, and
to the like capabilities of men throughout the earth, as well as to the
inherent· nature of language and the character of the
communication process itself: and a cynic might be add, to the
arrogance of the translator‟.
Language usually refers to the definition of culture and vice versa. Many
scholars agree that language can be considered as part of culture. Language
and culture are linked to each other, and the integration of an element into a
culture (and into the conceptual framework of its members as individuals)
cannot be achieved unless and until the linguistic expression of that element
integrates into the language of the culture (Ivir, 1987: 35).
1.7 Conclusion
Translation does not only involve two different languages, but also two
different cultures. It aims to deal with linguistic boundaries and tackle the
cultural gap that exists between two different cultures. It is impossible to
produce a translation exactly the same as the original work. Newmark (1988:
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102) considers translating cultural words and institutional terms to be the most
problematic area of translation. He also considers the cultural differences
between languages that refer to any of the following categories: Ecology
(geographical features, animals, plants), Material Culture (food, clothes,
houses and towns, transport), Social Culture (work and leisure),
Organizations, Customs, Activities, Procedures, Concepts (political and
administrative, religious, artistic), and Gestures and Habits. Therefore,
translators must have sufficient knowledge of the source-language culture as
well as the target-language culture, and must also have an understanding of
inter-cultural communication.
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CHAPTER 2: TRANSLATION STRATEGIES
2.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the difficulties a translator may face when translating
cultural references. It will also discuss Ivir‟s strategies, which can be used by
any translator, that help to fill cultural gaps. These strategies are: cultural
borrowing, definition, substitution, lexical creation, literal translation, omission,
and addition. Examples for each one of these strategies will be provided and
disscussed in this chapter.
2.2 Difficulties of translating cultural references
Although the concept of translation is inseparable from the concept of culture,
translating the differences between two cultures represents an area of difficulty
for translators especially when translating idioms, phrases and expressions
that are culturally bound. Catford (1965: 21) considers the central problem of
translation practice is finding TL translation equivalence.
“Translation between languages of disjunct cultures is more difficult
than carrying out translation between languages that are culturally
related or similar. This does not imply, however, that translation
between languages that are culturally related or similar is a
straightforward activity. In fact, it embodies some serious pitfalls
from the translators as well, though to a lesser degree compared
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with translation between languages of different cultures”. (Ilyas,
1989: 123)
According to Newmark (2003: 94), there will be a translation problem unless
there is a cultural overlap between the source and target language and its
readership. In other words, the translation problem will not exist if both
languages are similar.
Nida (1964:130) discusses the importance of both cultural and linguistic
differences between the SL and the TL, concluding that "differences between
cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do
differences in language structure". The differences between cultures may, on
the one hand, be small and not important, or they could be significant and
challenging. Translators of cultures have to deal with two languages and two
cultures. Therefore, they must have sufficient knowledge of both the SL and
TL in order to guarantee translation of the source culture without confusion,
misleading or translation loss.
2.3 Ivir’s strategies for the translation of cultures
Cultural references exist between languages and may create translation
problems during the translation process. In other words, the cultural terms in
the SL may not have an equivalent in the TL. According to Ivir (1987: 37),
"When a translator face an element in the source culture which is absent from
the target culture, the translator relies on different procedures that enable him
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to convey to members of the target culture the content of that particular
element. When the target culture lacks an element (object, concept, social
institution, pattern of behaviour, etc., its language will normally lack an
expression in the target language that will adequately convey the missing
element to the speakers of the language."
Therefore, In order to help the translator treat the unmatched elements of a
culture, Ivir (1987: 38) has provided seven strategies, as follows: borrowing,
definition, literal translation, substitution, lexical creation, addition, and
omission. However, all of these procedures may not guarantee that the
cultural gap will be overcome, but they all achieve communicative equivalents
in translation. Moreover, it may be necessary to use two procedures together
rather than one in order to achieve transfer of cultural information (Ivir 1987:
38).
2.3.1 Borrowing
Borrowing is transferring directly an SL expression into the TL. In other words,
it is taking words straight into the target language (Munday, 2001: 56). It also
introduces a foreign element into the TL and reproduces the original term. For
instance (Jihad: جهاد), (Quran: قرآن), (Abaya: عباة), (Microwave: ماكرووف). It
provides a very precise translation of cultural information and is usually
followed by a definition. Once the cultural expression enters the target
language, then it can be used freely in all contexts and collocations in which it
is used in the source language. Borrowing does not apply to all cases of
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cultural gap; it makes sense only if there is sufficient need for it in the target
text or in the target culture in order to ensure its multiuse (Ivir 1987: 39).
According to Dickins (2002: 235),
“Culture borrowing is taking over an SL expression verbatim from
the ST into the TT; the borrowed term may remain unaltered in form,
or it may undergo some degree of transliteration. NB culture
borrowing differs from expression verbatim, but adapt calque and
exoticism, which do not use the ST it into the TL, However
minimally”.
An example of religious cultural borrowing is as follows:
خطر لك أن بوسعك الزواج من صالح الدن على أن تطلب أن تكون العصمة بدك سلفا؟ وأنت، ألم
ما معنى ذلك؟
تطلقل حن تشاان مملل تماما معناا أن بوسعك
“And did it not occur to you that you could marry Salah al-Din on condition you
return your „isma?”
“What does that mean?”
“It means that you retain the right to divorce him whenever you wish, just as he
does exactly.”
(Thawabteh 2008).
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In this example, it can be observed that the function of „isma‟ العصمة in Arabic
may be inconceivable and difficult for the TL readers to understand. In terms
of Arab traditions, „isma‟ has much to do with „who is entitled to break up a
marriage‟.
2.3.2 Definition
Translators use definition in order to transfer cultural terms from the SL into
the TL, and to explain terms that do not exist in the TL. In other words, it
means reducing the unknown to the known and the unshared to the shared. It
depends on what the target language reader knows and makes them aware of
what they do not know.
The definition is usually given in the body of the text or in a footnote when a
borrowed term is first introduced, so it is mainly used in combination with
borrowing (Ivir, 1987: 40).
An example of cultural definition is as follows:
وإذا ترملت تدخل عدتها األولى
If she is widowed, she enters her first „idda. “the legally prescribed period of
months during which she may not see a man or remarry”.
(Thawabteh 2008).
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The word عدتها is an Arabic and Islamic term which might not exist in the TL.
The definition came right after the borrowed term “idda” and gives an
explanation to the TL reader in the body of the text between brackets.
2.3.3 Literal translation
Literal translation is when the SL grammatical constructions are converted to
their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly
and out of context. Munday (2008: 57) defines it as a word-for-word
translation, which is most common between languages of the same family and
culture. In other words, it is the procedure of filling cultural and lexical gaps in
translation and is the commonest method of cultural transference (Ivir, 1987:
41).
According to Dickins (2002: 238): "Literal translation is an SL-oriented, word-
for-word, style of translation in which the denotative meaning of all words in
the ST is taken as if straight from the dictionary, but the conventions of the TL
grammar are respected. It is mainly adopted to achieve precision in the target
text (TT) and it produces a translation that is both transparent and faithful to
the SL".
The translator may judge the literal translation to be unacceptable because it
might give a different meaning or no meaning at all. It is sometimes impossible
for structural reasons, it may not have a corresponding expression within the
metalinguistic experience of the TL, and it may correspond to something at a
different level of language (Munday, 2008: 57).
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An example of literal translation is as follows:
1. Labour-intensive production
Radon intenzivna proizvodnja (Serbo-Croatian)
(Ivir, 1987)
2. Take, O take those lips away
That so sweetly were foresworn
And those eyes, the break of day
Lights that do mislead the morn
خذوا ذا الشفاا بعدا خذوا،
بحالوة حنمتالت
وتلك العون، انكسار الصباح
أضواء الت تضل الصباح
(Naguib 2005)
In the second text the translator has translated the word “take away” in text A
literally, using the term خذوا in text B. This is acceptable but the actual meaning
of it is أبعدوا, and the term “sweetly” in text A has been translated to بحالوة in text
B, which could be translated as ف عذوبة. Also, “the break of day” in text A has
been translated literally to ر الصباح انكسا although it means الفجر, and “lights” in
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text A has been translated into أضواء in text B, which sounds weird in the
target language (Naguib, 2005: 17).
2.3.4 Substitution
Translation by cultural substitution involves replacing a culture-specific item or
expression with a target-language item which does not have the same
propositional meaning but is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader
(Baker, 1992: 31).
In addition, it is a strategy that is available to the translator when two cultures
display a partial overlap rather than a clear-cut presence/absence of a
particular element of culture. It refers to the case where the translator uses
equivalent words that are ready-made in the TL, and serve the same goal as
those of the SL. In other words, the translator is tempted to exploit that
similarity and use the corresponding target-language expression as a full
equivalent. In such a case, the translator makes the decision depending on the
cultural closeness of the two elements (Ivir, 1987: 43).
Examples of cultural substitution are as follows:
1. Tel père, tel fils “French”
ذا الشبل من ذاك األسد
2. She is innocent as an egg
Elle est innocente comme un agneau “French” (Zakhir 2008).
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In these two examples it can be observed that the translators substitute the SL
terms with expressions that are culturally specific in the TL. For instance, the
example in text 2 uses the term “agneau”, which means lamb, as a cultural
equivalent for the word “egg”. Yet, if the translator cannot find a specific
cultural expression in the TL that substitutes the cultural expression of the SL,
he should resort to paraphrase.
2.3.5 Lexical creation
Lexical creation, which is a less frequently used procedure, can be defined as
a new term that is produced in the target language. This newly created lexical
item is culturally „empty‟ and ready to receive and convey the intended content
of the source culture element (Ivir, 1987: 45).
“Lexical creation is attempted by the translator when the communicative
situation rules out a definition or literal translation, when borrowing is
sociolinguistically discourage, and substitution is not available for
communicative reasons”.
(Ivir, 1987: 45)
An example of lexical creation is as follows:
Bezalkoholna pića “Croatian”
Soft drinks
(Ivir, 1987)
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In the first sentence, the Croatian term literally means “without alcohol drinks”.
However, a combination of these words refers to a new element of culture,
which leads to the new meaning “soft drinks”.
2.3.6 Addition
Dickins defines addition as something added to the TT which is not present in
the ST, and it is a common strategy in Arabic / English translation (Dickins,
2002: 243). It turns out that the addition of cultural information might be a
necessary procedure in the translation of implicit elements of a culture. (Ivir
1987: 47)
Examples of cultural addition are as follows:
1. The white house announced today
صرح المتحدث الرسم للبت األبض الوم
الهمنة التركةمنذ .2
Ever since the days of Turkish hegemony
(Dickins, 2002: 24)
In both sentences, additional words have been added to the TL in order to
make the meaning understandable, namely "المتحدث الرسم" in text 1, and “ever”
and “the days of” in text 2. We cannot translate the sentence by saying “since
the time of Turkish hegemony” because it does not lead to the actual meaning.
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2.3.7 Omission
Omission is when something occurs in the ST which is simply omitted from the
TT. It reflects the different ways in which Arabic and English link text together
(Dickins, 2002: 234).
Under some circumstances, omission can be a valid and useful solution to a
translation problem. For instance, omission may be a justifiable way of dealing
with certain elements which are found to be untranslatable, such as
metalinguistic references, and context-specific or culture-specific content.
Additionally, translators may be justified in omitting what would be perceived
as unnecessary or redundant by the target audience.
Example of omission is as follows:
...وكان الراس األمرك بل كلنتون قد أكد مساء أول أمس
Two days ago, the American President, Bill Clinton, confirmed…
The English language does not use the particularly elegant style used to
express the concept “two days ago in the evening”.
2.4 Conclusion
Both language and culture are inseparable elements of translation. However,
passing culture references is one of the main difficulties in translation.
According to Ivir (1987: 36), when choosing a particular procedure the
translator's strategy is governed by the nature of the cultural terms to be
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27
translated (their semantic content and linguistic expression in the source
language and the contrastive relationship to the possible correspondence in
the target language) and the nature of the communicative process in which it
appears (the function of that term in the particular act of communication). It is
important for the translator to use different strategies when translating new
cultural reference terms in order to avoid such problems and to establish
contact between two cultures. However, it is not an easy task to decide which
of the strategies is more appropriate, although they do all lead to achievement
of the communicative equivalent in translation (Ivir, 1987: 38).
Emtinan Alqurashi
28
CHAPTER 3: DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
This chapter analyses the strategies of translating cultural references that
have been used during the translation process in the novel “Only in London”,
which was published by the author Hanan Al-Shaykh in 2001. The chapter
begins by providing a short biography about the author and an overview about
the novel. Then it discusses the analysis of the cultural references of the novel
by dividing them into different categories: (food, cloths, religious terminology,
names of people, places and miscellaneous, and Idioms and common
terminology) (Newmark, 1988). In addition, it discusses how Ivir‟s strategies
have been used when translating unmatched elements of culture. It also
provides both the original Arabic terms and its English equivalent translation.
3.2 Hanan Al-Shaykh
Hanan Al-Shaykh was born in 12th November 1945 in Beirut and brought up in
Ras al-Naba, She is a Lebanese novelist, short-story writer, play writer, and
one of the leading contemporary women writers in the Arab world. Because of
the civil war, she left Beirut In 1975 and moved to the Arabian Gulf. Since
1984, she has lived in London with her husband and two children.
(Bloomsbury Publishing 2010)
Her first appearance as a writer was in 1970 when she wrote انتحار رجل مت
“Suicide of a Dead Man”. Then, حكاة ز رة “The Story of Zahra” was published
Emtinan Alqurashi
29
in 1980 which made her become famous. After that, she wrote مسك الغزال
“Women of Sand and Myrrh” in 1989 which was chosen as one of the 50 best
books of 1992 by Publishers Weekly, and it was followed by برد من بروت
“Beirut Blues”. In 1994, the novel أكنس الشمس عن السطح “I Sweep the Sun Off
Rooftops” was published. Finally, she wrote إنها لندن اعززي “Only in London” in
2001. (LEBWA 2009)
Al-Shaykh stories deal mainly with women's role in society, the relationship
between men and women, and the institution of marriage. She writes
exclusively in Arabic but her novels were still banned in many Arab countries.
Most of her novels have been translated into English and several other
languages and published around the world. (The Independent 2001)
3.3 The Novel
The novel Only in London (2001) has been translated into English by
Catherine Cobham. It shows the living types of four different people from
different countries and cultures. The novel's four protagonists are Lamis,
Nicholas, Amira, and Samir.
Lamis, an Iraqi woman who forced into an early marriage with a wealthy Iraqi
who ignores her, is recently divorced leaving the son she has left with his
father, and has an affair with Nicholas, an Englishman who is an expert in
Arabic and eastern antiquities, Amira, a Moroccan woman who lives off
immoral earnings, and Samir, a Lebanese who illegally delivering a monkey
Emtinan Alqurashi
30
which he has great trouble getting rid of. The novel contains a lot of cultural
references terms and that must be taken in consideration in the analysis.
3.4 Analysis
3.4.1 Food
The Arabic term الشاورما والشش طاووق (p. 38) has been translated to “shawarma
and chicken kebab” (p. 23)
At most of the time, the term شش طاووق is generally translated to Shish Taouk
by borrowing the term or chicken tikka by replacing it with its nearest
equivalent. The term “Shawarma” has been translated by using the cultural
borrowing strategy.
The Arabic term الفالفل (p. 38) has been translated to “falafel” (p. 23)
The translator translates this term فالفل to “falafel” by borrowing the original
term. She used this term because falafel has become well known and familiar
to the TL readers.
The Arabic term كعكة بالزعتر (p. 37) has been translated to “sesame buns” (p.
23)
The term زعتر has been translated to “sesame” while it originally means thyme,
and the term “sesame” means سمسم. On the other hand, this type of buns
contains some sesame so thyme and sesame buns would be a better
translation of كعكة بالزعتر.
Emtinan Alqurashi
31
The Arabic term فستق حلب (p. 45) has been translated to “pistachios” (p. 29)
The word “pistachios” means فستق in Arabic while the term فستق حلب actually
means a kind of pistachios that comes from Aleppo حلب, Syria. The translator
here did not mention that specific kind of pistachios and omit the term. She
could say “a type of pistachios from Aleppo or Syria” in order to inform the TL
reader that this refer to a kind of food from the Arab World.
The Arabic term البسبوسة (p.56) has been translated to “A piece of cake” (p. 37)
This term البسبوسة could not be translated to anything but A piece of cake
because obviously there is no equivalent for the Arabic term in the TL.
Therefore, the term A piece of cake would be a good substitution and
understandable for the TL readers.
The Arabic term الكسكس (p. 142) has been translated to “Couscous” (p. 96), The
term ملوخة بأرانب (p. 55) has been translated to “Molokhiya with rabbit” (p. 36),
The term حمص (p. 126) has been translated to “hummus” (p. 86) and The term
has been translated to “Basmati rice” (p. 99) (p. 145) األرز البسمت
All of these terms has been translates by using the borrowing strategy. They
are many kinds of Arabic food and there are no equivalents for them in the TL.
The term حمص should be translated as humous because this term is well
known in most of restaurants and supermarkets, while the term Couscous is
originally a French term and Arabs used that term, therefore, it could be used
in English as the nearest equivalent in translation. The term ملوخة Molokhiya
Emtinan Alqurashi
32
has been borrowed from the SL and it is related to a kind of Arabic food; the
term corchorus, another term for Molokhiya, is an English term and using it
would give a better translation for the original Arabic term. On the other hand,
The Arabic term األرز البسمت was translated by using the borrowing strategy; it
was a good choice since the term Basmati rice is well known in the TL.
3.4.2 Clothes
The Arabic term نادل النساء السوداءم (p. 82) has been translated to “black veils”
(p.55) and the term منادل الرأس الشفافة (p. 355) has been translated to
“transparent head scarf” (p. 238)
Both of Arabic terms are referring to women‟s scarf which covers their head
and hair. The translation in both sentences has given different meaning, which
could be as accessories, and the TL reader would not know what they exactly
mean. However, the translator should use another term like Hijab which is well
known in TL and give the correct meaning of the Arabic terms.
The Arabic term has been translated (p. 87) حذاء واطاا بمقدمة طولة وكأنل حذاء عالء الدن
to “flat shoes with long tips, like a pair of Aladdin slippers” (p. 58)
The term حذاء means shoes but it has been translated to slippers which is a
good choice because the term Aladdin slippers is well known to the TL reader.
The Arabic term السوداءالعباات (p. 37) has been translated to “black abayas” (p.
23) and the term عرب بدشادشهم البضاء(p.37) has been translated to “Arabs in
long white robes” (p. 23)
Emtinan Alqurashi
33
In the first case, the translator used the cultural borrowing strategy and it was
the right choice because the TL reader is familiar with term abayas. In the
second case, بدشادشهم البضاء , an explanation was provided because there were
no equivalent of it in TL.
3.4.3 Religious terminology
The Arabic term أعوذ باهلل (p. 28) has been translated to “No” (p. 17) and The
term أعوذ باهلل (p. 99) has been translated to “God forbid” (p. 67)
The term أعوذ باهلل in the ST has been translated differently depending on the
context. For instance, the first one Lamis was offered a glass of wine which is
prohibited in her religion, she responded immediately with No. However, if she
responded God forbid as in the second sentences, the meaning will be
delivered to the TL readers correctly. The second one, Amira was asked by
Nahid if she was fat then Amira said God forbid which means absolutely not or
definitely not.
The Arabic term بسم هللا الرحمن الرحم (p. 50) has been translated to “In the name of
God the compassionate the Merciful” (p. 32) and بسم هللا الرحمن الرحم (p. 40) has
not been translated
The term بسم هللا الرحمن الرحم refer to the Islamic and Arab culture. It is the
opening term of all the chapters of the Quran. In the first case, the translator
translated the Arabic term literally as In the name of God the compassionate
the Merciful. However, she has chosen to omit it in the second case.
Emtinan Alqurashi
34
The Arabic term حالل (p. 70) has been translated to “Halal” (p. 48), the term
ابن الحالل has been translated to “Muezzins” (p. 234) and the term (p. 347)المؤذنن
(p.101) has been translated to “The man of her dreams” (p. 68)
In the first two cases, the translator could not find an equivalent for them in the
TL so she decided to use the borrowing strategy; and the term Halal became
well known in the TL. In the third case, the translator substitutes the term ابن
by the term The man of her dreams which gives the exact meaning as الحالل
the ST.
In Arabic الحتفاالت الدنةا (p. 82) has been translated to “The religious celebration
of Ashoura” (p. 55)
In the TL, Addition and Literal translation has been used to translate this term
الحتفاالت الدنةا in the SL. The term The religious celebration is literal translation;
and the term Ashoura is added to the TL but it might not be understandable to
the TL readers. Therefore, a combination of addition and definition should be
used in order to explain what Ashoura means.
The Arabic term حرام أن تطلق (p. 88) has been translated to “You mustn‟t
divorce, you can‟t” (p. 59) and the term بتهزر والنب (p. 55) has been translated
to “Was joking”
Both of Arabic terms are religious and cultural terms; and might not be
understood in TL. Therefore, the translator used the substitution strategy in
Emtinan Alqurashi
35
both cases in order to make the term understandable to target language
readers.
The Arabic term اللهم صل على النب وروح النب (p. 104) has been translated to “A
prayer for the Prophet and his household” (p. 71)
is an Islamic term said by Muslims during their daily اللهم صل على النب وروح النب
prayer. The translator has translated the term روح as household while it
actually means soul. This lead to change in the meaning of the original term;
therefore, it should be translated literally in order to keep the original meaning.
3.4.4 Names of people, places and miscellaneous
The Arabic term النارجلة (p. 106) has been translated to “Narghiles” (p. 72)
The translator translated the word النارجلة literally to Narghiles. However, the
TL readers will not understand what does it means because it is not common
in TL. Another way of translating it is to use a term that is familiar and well
known in the TL like hubble- bubble.
The Arabic term الكحل األسود (p. 32) has been translated to “Black Kohl” (p. 19)
The strategies that have been used are borrowing and literal translation. The
term الكحل األسود is an odd term for TL readers; and it should not be their
problem to look for each odd word meaning. Therefore, a definition of the term
could be used or substitute it with the term eyeliner which could be the الكحل
nearest equivalent.
Emtinan Alqurashi
36
In Arabic النجف (p. 82) has been translated to “Najaf, the holy city of Iraq” (p.
54)
In this context Najaf, the holy city of Iraq, the translator used the definition
strategy in order to explain to the TL readers what the city of Najaf is. The term
Najaf by itself would be meaningless if the translator did not define it.
In Arabic أم أربعة وأربعن (p. 372) has been translated to “Spiderwoman” (p. 249)
The term أم أربعة وأربعن in the ST has a negative meaning and it is an
expression used when a woman is hated by someone else, or if somebody
was talking negatively about particular woman. The translated term
Spiderwoman might not give the same meaning as in Arabic and the TL
readers probably would not understand what the author meant.
3.4.5 Idioms and common terminology
The Arabic term أنا بعرضك (p. 48) has been translated to “Please” (p. 32)
The term above أنا بعرضك means not just please but also and more likely I beg
you. The translation here does not give the same expression as Arabic. So the
term أنا بعرضك should be translated to I beg you in order to give the meaning as
in Arabic.
The Arabic term أنتم كرماء ونحن نستا ل (p. 133) has been translated to “You‟re
generous and we deserve it” (p. 91)
Emtinan Alqurashi
37
The idiom أنتم كرماء ونحن نستا ل has been translated literally to You‟re generous
and we deserve it but the TL reader might not receive the same idea in the
same way. The translator here did not find an equivalent to the idiom so she
translated as it appears in the original text.
The Arabic term البعد عن العن بعد عن القلب (p. 337) has been translated to “Out of
sight, out of mind” (p. 226)
The translator here translated the Arabic proverb البعد عن العن بعد عن القلب by
using the substitution strategy. It is one of the most common strategies when
translating proverbs. The TL readers will understand what the author meant
because a proverb from their own language has been provided.
The Arabic term حدا بحبش قبرا بإدا (p. 48) has been translated to “That‟d be
asking for trouble” (p. 31)
The translation That‟d be asking for trouble gives the meaning of the Arabic
phrase حدا بحبش قبرا بإدا. It might also be translated literally as would somebody
dig his grave with his own hands but both of the translation would achieve the
meaning.
The Arabic term رب صدفة خر من ألف معاد (p. 148) has been translated to “A
chance meeting is better than a thousand rendezvous” (p. 101)
The translation here A chance meeting is better than a thousand rendezvous
of the Arabic proverb رب صدفة خر من ألف معاد shows what the author exactly
Emtinan Alqurashi
38
meant. The translator used an equivalent English proverb which makes the TL
readers clear about the idea of author.
The Arabic term روحة بال رجعة (p. 46) has been translated to “Go then, and I
hope you don‟t come back” (p. 29)
The translator has not found an equivalent of the proverb روحة بال رجعة in
English so she translated it as Go then, and I hope you don‟t come back by
using the addition strategy. In order to explain the expression, providing more
information is important.
The Arabic term حدثكل حادث ل (p. 245) has been translated to “Who knows”
(p.166)
The expression كل حادث حدثل originally means when things happen, then we
will talk about them. The TL readers will not receive the real meaning of this
expression. Since it has no equivalent in English, the translator decided to
translate it as Who knows which does not show what the author meant.
The Arabic term هللا من برة اهلل اهلل ومن جوة علم (p. 54) has been translated to
“Doesn‟t live up to its reputation?” (p. 54)
This phrase means that somebody is showing a من برة اهلل اهلل ومن جوة علم هللا
good thing but they are actually completely the opposite. For instance,
somebody might show love and respect for someone but they actually hate
them. Therefore, the translation here “Doesn‟t live up to its reputation?” does
Emtinan Alqurashi
39
not show the exact meaning. It is possible to say she is not as good as she
looks like.
The Arabic term ا ز رة ف خال (p.55) has been translated to “Farid Al- Atrash‟s
Rose in my Heart” (p. 35)
The author mentioned ا ز رة ف خال which is a title of an Arabic song, while it
has been translated to Farid Al- Atrash‟s Rose in my Heart by using both the
substitution and the addition strategy.
3.5 Conclusion
The analysis of Only in London shows how Ivir‟s strategies have been used in
order to handle cultural references by dividing them into different category:
(food, cloths, religious terminology, names of people, places and
miscellaneous, idioms and common terminology) (Newmark, 1988). The
translator had to use different strategies and procedures each time when
dealing with complex cultural references terms in the source text. Therefore, it
is not possible to use a single strategy or decision to fill cultural gaps.
Emtinan Alqurashi
40
CONCLUSION
This research has shown that language is essential part from culture; and they
cannot be separated from each other. Translators do not only deal with two
languages but also with two different cultures; and they aim to transfer the
cultural terms from one language to another. Therefore, Sapir and Whorf
considered language as the heart of the culture; and any language cannot
exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture (cited in Bassnett, 2002: 22).
Although the concept of translation and culture are inseparable from each
other, translating two cultures represent an area of difficulties for a translator.
Catford (1965: 21) considers that "the central problem of translation practice is
that of finding TL translation equivalence. Therefore, passing culture
references is one of the main difficulties in translation. Newmark (1988:102)
considers translating cultural terms is the most problematic area of translation.
He also categorised the cultural term as followed: Ecology (geographical
features, animals, plants), Material Culture (food, clothes, houses and towns,
transport), Social Culture (work and leisure), Organizations, Customs,
Activities, Procedures, Concepts (Political and administrative, Religious,
artistic), and Gestures and Habits.
Translators have to handle the linguistic boundaries, as well as dealing with
the cultural gaps that may exist between two different cultures. They, also,
must have sufficient knowledge in the SL culture as well as the TL culture. In
Emtinan Alqurashi
41
addition, translators should use different strategies in order to avoid problems
and to establish contact between two cultures.
There are seven strategies suggested by Ivir (1987: 38) to help the translator
to tackle the unmatched elements of culture, and they are: (borrowing,
definition, substitution, lexical creation, literal translation, omission and
addition). They were explained in details and showed how they can be used in
order to fill the cultural gaps when facing unmatched element of culture.
However, not all of these strategies are guaranteed to fill the cultural gap, but
they will eventually achieve the meaning. In addition, it is preferred to use two
procedures together rather than one in order to achieve transferring of cultural
information (Ivir, 1987: 38).
This project analyses the translation of the cultural references that have been
used in the translation of the novel only in London by the author Hanan Al-
Shaykh published in 2001. This analysis has been provided by dividing them
into different categories: (food, cloths, Religious terminology, Names of
people, places and miscellaneous, and Idioms and common terminology)
(Newmark, 1988). The translator, Catherine Cobham, was quite successful in
dealing with the large amount of cultural references that exist in the source
text. However, a possible alternative was suggested to substitute the one
which may carry other meanings to the translation, and a discussion of its
translation follows.
Emtinan Alqurashi
42
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APPENDIX
Source
Text
Page Target Text Page Category Strategy
ابن الحالل
101 The man of her
dreams
68 Religious Substitution
االحتفاالت
الدنة
82 The religious
celebration of
Ashoura
55 Religious Addition
األرز
البسمت
145 Basmati rice 99 Food Borrowing
No 17 Religious Substitution 28 أعوذ باهلل
God forbid 67 Religious Literal 99 أعوذ باهلل
translation
أم أربعة
وأربعن
372 Spiderwoman 249 Names Substitution
Umm Kalthum 31 Names Transliteration أم كلموم
Please 32 Idioms Substitution 48 أنا بعرضك
Emtinan Alqurashi
47
أنتم كرماء
ونحن
نستا ل
133 You‟re generous
and we deserve
it
91 Idioms Literal
Translation
A piece of cake 37 Food Substitution 56 البسبوسة
بسم هللا
الرحمن
الرحم
50 In the name of
God the
compassionate
the Merciful
32 Religious Literal
Translation
بسم هللا
الرحمن
الرحم
40 Has not been
translated
Religious Omission
البعد عن
العن بعد
القلبعن
337 Out of sight, out
of mind
226 Idioms Substitution
بنتنا الحلوة
لموسة
337 Little Lamis (p.) 225 Names Substitution
The Tabbouleh 23 Food Borrowing 37 تبولة
حدا بحبش
قبرا بإدا
48 That‟d be asking
for trouble
31 Idioms Substitution
Emtinan Alqurashi
48
حذاء واطاا
بمقدمة وكأنل
حذاء عالء
الدن
87 Flat shoes with
long tips, like a
pair of Aladdin
slippers
58 Clothes Addition
حرام أن
تطلق
88 You mustn‟t
divorce, you
can‟t
59 Religious Substitution
Halal 48 Religious Borrowing 70 حالل
hummus 86 Food Borrowing 126 حمص
رب صدفة
خر من ألف
معاد
148 A chance
meeting is
better than a
thousand
rendezvous
101 Idioms Literal
translation
Abazza 35 Names Omission 54 رشدي أباظة
روحة بال
رجعة
46 Go then, and I
hope you don‟t
come back
29 Idioms Addition
Shawarma 23 Food Borrowing 38 الشاورما
Emtinan Alqurashi
49
الشش
طاووق
38 Chicken kebab 23 Food Substitution
العباات
السوداء
37 Black abayas 23 Clothes Borrowing
عرب
بدشادشهم
البضاء
37 Arabs in long
white robes
23 Clothes Addition
Pistachios 29 Food Omission 45 فستق حلب
Falafel 23 Food Borrowing 38 الفالفل
الكحل
األسود
32 Black Kohl 19 Names Borrowing and
Literal
Translation
Couscous 96 Food Borrowing 142 الكسكس
كعكة
بالزعتر
37 Sesame bund 23 Food Substitution
لكل حادث
حدث
245 Who knows 166 Idioms Substitution
Emtinan Alqurashi
50
اللهم صل
على النب
وروح النب
104 A prayer for the
Prophet and his
household
71 Religious Omission &
Substitution
Majnun Layla 95 Idioms Transliteration 141 مجنون للى
Musk Names Borrowing مسك
ملوخة
بأرانب
55 Molokhiya with
rabbit
36 Food Borrowing
من برة اهلل
اهلل ومن
جوة علم هللا
54 Does‟t live up to
its reputation?
54 Idioms Substitution
منادل
الرأس
الشفافة
355 Transparent
head scarf
238 Clothes Substitution
منادل
النساء
السوداء
82 Black veils 55 Clothes Substitution &
omission
Muezzins 234 Religious Borrowing 347 المؤذنن
Narghiles 72 Names Borrowing 106 النارجلة
Emtinan Alqurashi
51
النجف
82 Najaf, the holy
city of Iraq
54 Names Definition
والنب
99 Has not been
translated
68 Religious Omission
والنب
بتهزر
55 Was joking Religious Substitution
وردة
الجزاارة
The Algerian
Warda Al
jazairiya
70 Names Transliteration
ا ز رة ف
خال
55 Farid Al-
Atrash‟s Rose in
my Heart
35 Idioms Substitution+
Addition