Cross‐Cultural Perspectives on the Creation of American ... · unfortunately only brush upon a...
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Moore 1 Cross‐Cultural Perspectives on the Creation of American Dance 1619 – 1950 By Alex Moore Project Advisor: Dyane Harvey Senior Global Studies Thesis with Honors Distinction December 2010 [We] need to understand that African slaves, through largely self‐generative activity, molded their new environment at least as much as they were molded by it. …African Americans are descendants of a people who were second to none in laying the foundations of the economic and cultural life of the nation. …Therefore, …honest American history is inextricably tied to African American history, and…neither can be complete without a full consideration of the other. ‐‐Sterling Stuckey
Transcript of Cross‐Cultural Perspectives on the Creation of American ... · unfortunately only brush upon a...
Moore 1
Cross‐CulturalPerspectivesontheCreationofAmericanDance
1619–1950
ByAlexMoore
ProjectAdvisor:DyaneHarvey
SeniorGlobalStudiesThesiswithHonorsDistinction
December2010
[We]needtounderstandthatAfricanslaves,throughlargelyself‐generativeactivity,moldedtheirnewenvironmentatleastasmuchastheyweremoldedbyit.
…AfricanAmericansaredescendantsofapeoplewhoweresecondtononeinlayingthefoundationsoftheeconomicandculturallifeofthenation.
…Therefore,…honestAmericanhistoryisinextricablytiedtoAfricanAmericanhistory,
and…neithercanbecompletewithoutafullconsiderationoftheother.
‐‐SterlingStuckey
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Index
1) FindingtheFamiliarandExpressionsofResistanceinPlantationDances‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐6
a) TheRingShout
b) TheCakeWalk
2) ExperimentationandRespondingtoHostilityinEarlyPartnerDances‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐14
a) HuggingDances
b) SlaveBallsandRaceImprovement
c) TheBluesandtheRoleoftheJook
3) CrossingtheRacialDividetoFindUniquelyAmericanFormsinSwingDances‐‐‐‐‐‐22
a) TheCharleston
b) TheLindyHop
TopicsforFurtherStudy‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐30
Acknowledgements‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐31
WorksCited‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐32
AppendixA
AppendixB
AppendixC
AppendixD
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Cross‐CulturalPerspectivesontheCreationofAmericanDance
Whenpeopleleavethesocietyintowhichtheywereborn(whetherbychoiceorby
force),theybringasmuchoftheircultureastheyareablewiththem.Cultureservesasan
extensionofidentity.Danceisoneoftheculturalelementseasiesttobringalong;itisone
ofthemostmobileelementsofculture,tuckedawayinthemusclememoryofourbodies.
Whenpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundsfindthemselveslivingsidebysideinanewsetting,theresultisoftenafusionofdanceforms,aspeopleborrowfromoneanotherandtransformwhattheyborrowtoreflectnewsocialrealities.NowherehasthisprocessbeenasdramaticinitsconsequencesasinNorthandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean,whereEuropeanandAfricaninfluencescombinedtocreatenewdanceformsofgreatpowerandlastingimport.(Jonas164)
InordertogainaglobalperspectiveondanceintheUnitedStates,onemust
recognizethemanyimmigrantstotheU.S.andtheculturesthattheybrought,particularly
thosefromWestAfricaandfromEurope.Europeansbroughtcourtdancessuchasthe
WaltzaswellasfolkdancessuchasIrishclogging.1Thesedancesmixedwithdances
broughtbyAfricans2tocreateuniquelyAmericanstyles.
Thus,asthedanceevolved,theAfro‐Americanelementsbecamemoreformalanddiluted,theBritish‐Europeanelementsmorefluidandrhythmic,buttheover‐alltrendwasoneway—Afro‐Americandanceexertedanincreasinglystronginfluenceonthedanceasawhole.Thistrendreversestheusualpatterndescribedbyanthropologistsinwhichthecultureofanearlymajorityswallowsuptheculturesoflaterminorities.ComingasitdidfrompeoplewhoarrivelateintheUnitedStates,theAfro‐Americanvernaculardemonstratedararevitality.(Stearns24)
Itisnormalforthecultureoftheoppressortobetakenupbytheoppressed;itis
muchlesscommonthatthecultureoftheoppressedprofoundlyinfluencesthatofthe
oppressor.ThatAfricandancehasplayedsuchahistoricallyimportantroleinAmerican
lifeandsocietyisatestamenttotheimportancethatdanceplayedinAfricansociallife,to
itsresiliency,andtoitsabilitytochangewiththepressuresofnewsurroundings.Asimilar1SeeAppendixAforbasicprinciplesoftheEuropeandanceaesthetic.2SeeAppendixBforbasicprinciplesoftheAfricandanceaesthetic.
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studycouldbeginwithEuropeandancebroughttotheNewWorld,followitthroughthe
generationstounderstandauniqueAmericanstory,watchitmergeslowlywithAfrican
Americanforms,andconclude,asIwill,withSwingdances.However,thisstudywillbegin
withtheAfricantrajectoryinordertoreachthesameend.Inchoosingthistrajectory,I
hopetoraiseawarenessofandgiverespecttotheinordinatelylargeinfluencethatAfrican
andAfricanAmericanculturehashadinthecreationofAmericandanceandculture;to
understandthroughalandscapeofdancethedifficultandmanystrugglesofAfrican
Americanhistory;andtodemonstratehowdancecanbeusedtoilluminateotherfieldsthat
studythesocial,politicalandculturalevolutionthattookplaceintheAmericas.
ThattheAfricancultureofdance[didn’tdisappearbut]persistedagainstthe
oppressivesurroundingsintheUnitedStatesislesssurprisingwhenwetakeadeeperlook
atAfricandances’culturalrole.IndescribingAfricandancesofthepeople,itisimportant
nottolet“traditional”beconfusedwithanythingthatisstatic;ratherAfricandances’great
cultureofimprovisationactsasacatalystforchange,creatingaconstantlyflowingand
changingartform.Also,unlikeEuropeanswhohistoricallysawadistinctseparation
betweenworkandthecreationofart,
TheAfricanattitudetowardworkcouldscarcelyhavebeenmoredifferent:AfricansandtheirdescendantsinAmericawentoncreatingwhileworkingasbefore.Withsuchaheritageoffashioningartwhileworking,ofseeingnoconflictbetweenthetwo,artisticexpressionwaslargelyregardedbyslaves,asithadbeenbytheirancestors,aspartofthelifeprocess,likeworkitself.Smallwonderthatblacks—exceptforNativeAmericansthemostoppressedpeopleinAmericanhistoryandpreeminentlyaworking‐classpeople—haveremainedattheforefrontofartisticcreativityinmodernworldhistory.(Stuckey1)
ArichvarietyofAfricandanceformsmergedontheplantation;reactedtosocial
realitiesinthenewenvironment;andmixedwithEuropeandanceformstoeventually
createnotonlyuniquelyAfricanAmericandanceforms,butuniquelyAmericandance
forms.Inthisthesis,Iwillcompareseveraldancesandassesstheircreationand
progressionchronologicallyastimesandinfluenceschanged,analyzingtheinfluencesthat
cametogethertoaffecttheirchange.Iwilldothisbycomparingmovementquality,music,
setting,participantsandcontemporarysociety.Throughout,thisthesiswillshowhowthe
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principlesoftheAfricanaestheticeitherbecamemoreorlesspronouncedassuch
influenceschanged,howcertainprinciplesinterestinglyre‐emergegenerationslater,and
howprinciplesoftheEuropeanaestheticalsohadlastinginfluence.
ThethreeprincipledancecategoriesthatIwillexploreinchronologicalorderare
earlyplantationdances,earlypartnerdances,andSwingdances.Whilemyanalysiswill
unfortunatelyonlybrushuponasmallfractionoftherichhistorythroughwhichAfrican
AmericanandAmericandancepassed,thedancesthatIchosecanbeusedtotraceAfrican
culturethroughthelandscapeoftheAfricanAmericanexperiencefromtheplantationto
emancipation,andfinallytowardintegration.Ihaveincludedfourappendixeswithmore
indepthdescriptionsofcertaindanceforms,terminology,andvideoexamples.Thiswill
hopefullyproveausefulaidtothereaderwhilenotclutteringthecontentofthisthesis.
ThedatesthatIpresenttoframeeachperiodandeachdancearenottobeseenas
demarcatingeachfromtheothersintosuccessive,definitivecategories.Rather,they
shouldbeunderstoodtobefluid,oneoftenbleedingintoandoftenoverlappingwith
another.
Whiledraftingthisthesisandresearchingdozensoftexts,Ifoundnumerous
differenttermsinusetodescribepeople.Asthiscanbeasensitivesubjectandtermsflow
inandoutofpopularusageandpoliticalcorrectnesswithtimeandlocation,Iwouldliketo
addresstheterminologythatIwilluseinthediscourseofthisthesis.Someofthe
numeroustermsIencounteredinmyresearchwere:African,AfricanAmerican,Black,
Negro,Colored,Slave,EnslavedAfrican;White,EuropeanorEuro‐American,slaveowner,
andplantationowner,amongothers.Whenreferringtopre‐CivilWarAmerica,Iwilluse
theterm“EnslavedAfricans”ratherthan“Slaves”,definingthosesoldintoslaverybywho
theyareasAfricansratherthanbytheroleofslaveryintowhichtheywereforced.Iwill
use“plantationowner”ratherthan“slaveowner”astodelegitimizetheconceptofowning
anyone.Post‐Emancipation,IwilldefineAmericansbasedontheirheritage,usingeither
“AfricanAmerican”or“EuropeanAmerican”.Thisisbecausea)othertermscanorhaveat
timeshadnegativeconnotation,andb)termssuchas“Black”and“White”conveythat
everyindividualpresumablycomesfromeitherahomogeneous“white”backgroundora
homogenous“black”background,ignoringnotonlythespectrumofdifferencewithin
Africa,butalsothatwithinEuropeandthatwhichwascreatedwithintheAmericas.The
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exceptionwillremainwithinquotations,whenIwillmaintaintheterminologyusedbythe
author.
FindingtheFamiliarandExpressionsofResistanceinPlantationDances
“There’sanarrativehere.It’sexpressionsofresistance.”–AyandaClarke
Timeline
VersionsoftheRingShoutemergedaspartofplantationlifeveryearly.Thefirst
enslavedAfricanswhoarrivedinNorthAmericabeginningin1619arrivedinsmall
numbers,andtheRingShouttooktimetodevelop.However,becausetheinitialarrivalof
AfricanstoplantationsisintegraltothedevelopmentoftheRingShout,Iwillconsiderits
developmenttohavebegunin1619.Forthepurposesofthistimeline,Iplacetheendof
theRingShoutwithemancipation,butitisnecessarytonotethattheRingShout
maintainedastrongpresenceinsmallcirclesintheSouthuntiltheearly1900s.Astime
advanced,itbecamemoreentwinedwithChristianlifeandworship,anditsconsistent
presenceinsouthernAfricanAmericanlifeinfluencedthedevelopmentofBluesandJazz.
Thesecondplantationdance—theCakeWalk—wascommononplantationsbyatleastthe
early1800s,asAfricansbecamemoreconsciousofthecultureandwaysoftheEuropean
Americansthattheyobservedattheplantationhouse.Inthesecondhalfofthecentury,the
CakeWalkwaspopularizedasperformance,travelingthroughperformanceandminstrel
stages,Vaudeville,andevenlastingtobeshowcasedintheearly1900sonBroadway
stages.JustasinthecaseoftheRingShout,myfocusisCakeWalkasfolkdanceandas
responsetolifeontheplantation,soforthepurposesofthisstudytheCakeWalkwillalso
endwithemancipation.
TheRingShout
AfricansarrivedtotheirnewlivesonAmericanplantationsoftenrelativelyalone.
Thoseorganizingtheslavetrademadesuretoseparatefamilyandcommunitymembers.It
wasintheirbestinteresttopreventanypossibilitythatthesenewlyenslavedpeopleshad
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fororganizingagainstenslavement,sotheytookextraprecautiontoseparateAfricans
basedonlanguageandculture.
Culturalsensitivitieswerenottakenintoaccount[andmostwouldarguewerespecificallylaboredagainst]whenslaveswerebroughttofilltheneedofcheaplaborintheAmericas.Slavesfromnumerousethnicgroupswouldlikelyfindthemselvesstucktogetherandexpectedtoco‐existpeacefullywithtotaldisregardfortheiruniquelanguage,culture,orreligion.YettheseAfricansdidhavesomesimilarities.AmajorityofAfricansdoshareahighvaluefordanceintheirday‐to‐daylifeandintheirreligiousspace.Religionthroughdancealsowasabletodevelopbecauseofitsguise.EuropeansinNorthAmericacouldnothaveexpectedreligiontobepartofdance…(DeFrantz42)
AfricanscomingfromotherwisecompletelydistincttribesandnationsinAfricafoundthe
“RingShout”astheirlinguafranca.Africandanceisacomplexart,bothadvancedand
variedinitsmanyformsthroughoutAfrica,butacademicshavefoundcertain
commonalitiesthatexisttomosttraditionalAfricandance.TheRingShoutexemplifies
manyofthesecommonalities.3Itwassimilartoanancestraldance,knowntomost
AfricansastheCircleDance,whichwascommoninmuchofAfrica4.TheRingShoutcame
toservemanyfunctions.Itcreatedacommonlanguageforanotherwiseheterogeneous
people,buildingacommunitythatwouldhaveotherwisebeenmuchmoredifficulttobuild.
Italsoprovidedacommonspiritualspaceforall,includingthosecomingfromvery
differentreligiousbeliefs.
OneoftheRingShout’smostimportantfunctionswastocreateacommonmedium
forcommunicationforenslavedAfricanswhohadbeenbroughtfromAfricancommunities
farandwideandwhootherwisehadfewlinguisticsimilarities.WhiletheseAfricanswere
forcedtocrossphysicalboundariestoreachtheAmericas,theRingShouthelpedthem
crossculturalandimaginativeboundarieswithoneanother,easingthetransitionand
creatingacommonbond.SimilartotheBantaba5inWestAfrica,thecircularstructure
reinforcedthespiritofcommunity,helpingtocreateastrongsenseofonenessamidthe
heterogeneousgroup.ItallowedthemtoincludeallAfricansintheircollective
3SeeAppendixB.4SeeAppendixC.5SeeAppendixC.
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understandingofbeingAfricaninAmerica,creatingagroupidentificationthatextended
beyondIbo,Akan,Ashanti,Woloforaregionalclassification.Theheterogeneousmixof
participants,deterritorializedfromtheirvillagesacrossAfrica,foundthattheRingShout
providedatranslocalityofanAfricatheyallshared.
ThroughoutAfrica,danceisalargepartofreligiouspractice,asevidencedinthe
CircleDancecommonamongthesedifferentgroupsofAfricans.TheRingShout,thus,also
allowedparticipantstoexpresstheirspiritualityandprovidedaspiritualvisionintheir
newlivesofenslavement.EuropeanAmericanplantationownershadhopedtodestroythe
cultureandworldviewoftheirnewacquisitionsasaninstrumentofdominance;ifanyold
beliefsystemshouldberetained,thencertainlythenewlyenslavedwouldbemoredifficult
tomanipulatetotheirownadvantage.ThisquotebyaEuropeanAmericanisoneindicator,
however,thattheyviewedtheRingShoutinparticularasasimple“frolic”andhadlittle
fearofitspowerasaceremonyupholdingsignificantsystemsofbelief:
TonightIhavebeentoa“Shout”whichseemstomecertainlytheremainsofsomeoldidolworship.Thenegroessingakindofchorus—threestandingaparttoleadandclap—andthenalltheothersgoshufflingroundinacirclefollowingoneanotherwithnotmuchregularity,turningroundoccasionallyandbendingtheknees,andstampingsothatthewholefloorswings.Ineversawanythingsosavage.Theycallitareligiousceremony,butitseemsmorelikearegularfrolictome.
UnbeknownsttohimandotherEuropeanAmericans,Africandanceandspiritualityare
necessarilyconnected.Thus,retainingtheRingShoutallowedAfricanstoexpressand
retainbeliefssecretlybutinanironicallyovertform,withoutraisingsuspicionatthe
plantationhouse.TheRingShoutevensurvivedevangelization:incommunitieswhere
Christianityhadastrongpresence,hymnswereeasilyintegratedintotheShout.TheRing
Shoutwasmoretoleratedbyplantationownersthanwereotherfolkdancespossibly
becauseitseemedmoredistancedfromwhatEuropeantraditionclassifiedas“dancing”.
Ratherthandistinctsteps,itemployedashufflewithlegsneverliftingorcrossing,and
ratherthandrumsorotherinstruments,itemployedhandclappingandlegstamping.
Africaninstruments,inmostcases,hadbeenbannedbeforeleavingtheshipsoftheMiddle
Passage.Thismeantthattheenslavedneededtofindinventivewaystocreatemusic,and
theyeasilyemployedtheirownbodiesaspercussiveinstruments,notuncommoninAfrica.
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WhatwashiddenintheRingShoutwasadesiretoexpressspirituality,joy,andsorrowinwaysthatwerecomfortabletothem.SoyouseealotofAfricanretention,percussivenature,bodysounds,rhythmiccomplexityandpolyrhythmconsistentwithAfricanrhythmicconstruction.Inanattempttoholdontothoseelements—ifyou’rethinkingbacktothatwhichhadalreadybeencreatedandlookingathowitwasexpressedinnewways—itallowedthemtoexpressthemselves.(Clarke2010)
TheRingShoutprovidedacommonspacefortheAfrican,representingculture,
communityandthesacred:acomplexitythattheplantationownercouldnever
understand.Soevenduringtimeswhenitwaslookeduponwithcontemptoractively
suppressed,thepresenceoftheRingShoutinAfricanAmericanSocietywasunchangeable.
ItprovedtobeapowerfulforceintheAmericas,influencingdanceintothetwentieth
century.
TheCakeWalk
AstimepassedonSouthernplantations,communityandculturewerecreated
amongtheenslavedAfricanslivingtogether.TheRingShoutcontinuedtoplayalargerole
indailylifeandcontinuedtoeasethetransitionasnewlyenslavedcontinuouslyarrived,
butovertimelearningacommonlanguageandacclimatingtothenewlifeontheplantation
alsoactedtofortifythesenseofcommunity.Astheyeasedtensionsandbridged
communityamidthemselves,EnslavedAfricanswerestillsubjecttothewhimsofthe
plantationowner.Somehadtheadvantageofplantationownerswhowererelatively
benevolent,didnotoverworkthem,anddidnotencroachonthecommunitytheyhadbuilt;
butotherplantationownersexpectedconstantandperfectwork,wereliabletoboutsof
violence,allowedlittletimeforrecreation,andwerestrictaboutwhatthatrecreationcould
be.EuropeanshadlongknowntheAfricanpopulation’sproclivitytowarddancing.On
someplantations,masterslookedupondancingpositively,encouragingitashealthy
exercise.SeveralaccountstestifythatduringthelongMiddlePassage,Africanswere
“danced”aboardshiptokeepthemhealthy,prescribedbothtopreventscurvyandto
prevent“suicidalmelancholy”(Hazzard‐Gordon7).Separateaccountsclaimthat
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plantationownersforcedtheenslavedtodanceasexerciseiftherewaslittleworktodo.At
othertimes,plantationownerswouldaskorforcetheirbestdancerstoentertainthefamily
attheplantationhousewiththeirsinging,dancing,andgeneralantics,creatingwhat
eventuallycametobeknownasthe“CakeWalk”.
IntheCakeWalk,theplantationfamiliesenjoyedwhattheysawasharmless,silly
attemptstomimicthefinemannersofSoutherngentlemen.Thedancers,ontheother
hand,enjoyedsatirizingtheridiculousnessoftheplantationfamilies.“Songsofillusion,
dancesofderision”6(Gittens2010,ascitedinThompsonandGottschild)arecharacteristic
ofmanyAfricancultures.This“derision”translatedontotheplantation,asenslaved
Africans—tryingtobothsatisfytheinterestoftheplantationownersandtosatisfytheir
owninterests—wereabletosubtlyexpresstheirsenseofinjusticeandfrustration.The
CakeWalkwasaninsidejokefortheenslavedwhoperformedit—lostontheplantation
owners—thathelpedtostrengthenthecommonbondbetweentheminthefaceof
oppression.
ItwasgenerallyonSundaywhentherewaslittlework…thattheslavesbothyoungandoldwoulddressupinhand‐me‐downfinerytodoahigh‐kicking,prancingwalk‐around.Theydidatakeoffonthehighmannersofthewhitefolksinthe‘bighouse,’buttheirmasters,whogatheredaroundtowatchthefun,missedthepoint.(Hazzard‐Gordon47)
Mimicrywalksafinelinebetweenflatteryandpokingfun.Satiricaldancessuchas
theCakeWalkhelpedtodeconstructtheimposingandpowerfulpresenceofplantation
owners.“Blackscouldnotopenlycriticizewhites,sodancewasasafertoolforself‐
assertion,ridicule,andcriticismthansong”(Hazzard‐Gordon46).Clarkedescribesmuch
oftheCakeWalkasparody:
Youcan’tsay‘themastermadeafoolofhimselfandgotdrunklastnight’…butyoucanmakeadanceaboutitasaparody.Wheredoesthepowerlieinthisscenario?TheAfricanpeoplethatweremakingthesedanceswere[pokingfun]intentionallytowardthepeoplethatweregoingtopressureandtreatthembadlylateron.Inpart,itwasacompetitionofwhocandobest[betweendancers],butitwasalsothemexpressingsatire.(Clarke2010)
6SeeAppendixC.
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JustastheRingShout’sepicmemoryalludedbacktoCircleDancesinAfrica,the
satireandmimicryoftheCakeWalkalsoexpandeduponAfricantradition.InNigeria,the
Patakato7mimickedtheEnglish,asfrustrationmountedwithincreasedEnglishpresence
duringtheColonialEra.TheCakeWalkemulatedtheEuropeanmannerismsandculture
thattheenslavedAfricansencounteredintheplantationfamiliesinthesameway.After
dressingupintheplantationfamily’sdiscardedclothing,dancerswouldtwirltheir
umbrellas,bowrepeatedlytooneanother,walkexaggeratedlyupright,andmimic
Europeancourtlyelegance.Astheystruttedaroundeachother,theirdancecontained
enoughAfricanistelements—itwascentrifugal,polyrhythmicandmadereferencetoepic
memory8—thattheplantationownersdidnotfullyrecognizethesatire.
TheCakeWalkdevelopedonsouthernplantationschronologicallyafterthe
developmentoftheRingShout.InAfrica,danceandarthadbeenoftenintrinsicallylinked
withspiritualbelief.Ontheplantation—duetoreligiousrepression,influencefrom
EuropeanAmericandanceasentertainment,andanewphysicalrealityofAfricanssharing
spaceandmovementbutnotnecessarilysharingsimilarspiritualbeliefsystems—over
timedanceevolvedslowlyawayfromspiritualityandtowardsecularentertainment.“As
theAfricanwastransformedintotheAfricanAmerican…adistinctionbetweensacredand
secular”occurred.“Overtime,acleardemarcationemergedbetweensacred,ceremonial
danceandtheseculardancingassociatedwithfestivitiesandparties”(Hazzard‐Gordon
15).TheCakeWalkdidjustthis:itemergedasasecularizedparalleltothespiritualized
RingShout.Itwasprimarilyforentertainment,sharedbetweenenslavedAfricansand
plantationowners.TheCakeWalkretainedcertainelementsoftheShout,suchasthe
counterclockwisecircularpattern,buttheshufflewasreplacedwithagaystrutandthe
sacredwithentertainment.
WhiletheRingShoutwassharedonlywithinthecommunityofenslavedAfricans,
theCakeWalkcrossedtheborderbetweenenslavedAfricansandEuropeanAmericans.A
youngenslavedgirlfromBeaufort,SouthCarolinaexplainedthatshereceivedspecial
7SeeAppendixC.8SeeAppendixA.
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benefitsforbeingagooddancer.Shewastakenfromplantationtoplantationandentered
intocontestswithotherenslaved,oftenasbettingeventsformasters.Shealsoexplained
thatsheandtheotherswouldwatchatwhitefolks’parties,
…Wheretheguestsdancedaminuetandthenparadedinagrandmarch,withtheladiesandgentlemengoingdifferentwaysandthenmeetingagain,arminarm,andmarchingdownthecentertogether.Thenwe’ddoit,too,butweusedtomock‘em,everystep.Sometimesthewhitefolksnoticedit,buttheyseemedtolikeit;Iguesstheythoughtwecouldn’tdanceanybetter.(Stearns22)
Inthesecases,enslavedAfricansreceivedpositivereinforcementforcertain
elementsoftheirdance,encouragingthoseelementstoremainandotherstoperish.This
alsoencouragedcontinuedcreativityandimprovisation,asAfricanAmericans
experimentedwithEuropeandanceelements.“Thefolkdancesofthewhiteswerebeing
adoptedandtransformedoveralongperiodoftime”(Stearns23),asotherslikethisyoung
enslavedgirlimprovisedwithnewelementsoftheEuropeandancetraditions.Overthis
sameperiodoftime,thesteadyarrivalofnewlyenslavedAfricansactedtobalancethis
transformation,constantlyrefreshingAfricanAmericandancewithAfricantradition.
TheRingShout’sspiritofimprovisationwasalsoaliveinthecreationofmusic.In
additiontotheclapping,stompingandbodypercussioncommontotheShout,new
methodsofcreatingsoundwereemployedandnewsoundswerecreated.Commontools,
householditems,andinstrumentsoftheEuropeantraditionbecamemorecommonand
wereusedwithgreatersophistication.Africansalsotriedtorecreatemanyoftheir
instrumentsfromAfrica.Forexample,theAfricangourdfiddlecouldbemadeoutofa
hallowedgourdandhorsehairstrings,andanEkontin—thefatheroftheBanjo(Salaam
2010)—couldbemadeoutofananimalhideandsometimber.Inaddition,new“drums,
tambourines,gourds,bones,quills,kettles,handclaps,jawbones,hoes,woodenboxes,and
anymetalpot”wereturnedintoinstrumentsandemployed(Hazzard‐Gordon31).Many
otherinventivematerialswereused,asoneenslavedmanreminisces:
…Piecesofsheep’sriborcow’sjaworapieceofiron,withaoldkettle,orahollowgourdandsomehorsehairtomakededrum.Sometimesdey’dgetapieceoftreetrunkandhollowitoutandstretchagoat’sorsheep’sskinoveritfordedrum.
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Dey’dbeonetofourfoothighandafootuptosixfoot‘cross.Ingen’raltwoniggersplaywithdefingersorsticksondisdrum.…Dey’dtakedebuffalohornandscrapeitouttomakedeflute.…thendey’dtakeamule’sjaw‐boneandrattledesticks‘crossitsteeth.Thenday’dtakeabarrel,andstretchaox’shidecrossoneendandamansat‘stridedebarrel,andbeatondathidewithhehandsandhefeetandiffenhegettofeelin’demusicinhisbones,he’dbeatondatbarrelwithhishead.‘Nothermanbeatonwoodensideswithsticks.(Hazzard‐Gordon31,ascitedinFederalWritersProject,WPA4)
EnslavedorfreeAfricanswereoftenemployedtoplaythemusicatthedancesofEuropean
Americans,forcingthemtolearnEuropeaninstrumentsandtunes.Theythenbrought
theseinstrumentsandrhythmsbacktotheirowncommunities,givingthemthe
opportunitytomixsoundsandtocreatenewanduniqueones.
TheCakeWalk’ssuccessonsouthernplantationsspread.Soonenough,ithadbeen
usurpedasanentertainmentformandwasbeingstagedinminstrelshowsandon
VaudevillestagesintheNorth.TheperformerswereEuropeanAmericansinblackface,
notablyparodyingAfricanAmericanswhowereparodyingthem,EuropeanAmericans.
“Gaininglegitimacyamongwhiteaudiences,theCake‐Walksoonfounditswayintowhite
sociallife,ascelebrated,insomeareas,astheWaltz.VariousinterpretationsoftheCake
Walk,theshuffleandahostofotherplantation‐inspireddancespermeatedAmerican
culture”(Sherman61).TheAfricanformshadbeenappropriatedbyEuropeanAmericans
and“systematized,validated,andinstitutionalizedintheminstrelconstruct(Gottschild
82).
AtfirstitwasonlyEuropeanAmericansperformingtheCakeWalkonstage,but,
“theCakeWalkwasagreatexhibitiondance,withsuchsuperbtheatricalpotentialitiesthat
itservedasaNegrore‐entrypermittothestage”(Emery45,ascitedinWinter45).The
CakeWalkandsimilarminstrelrolesthatstereotypedAfricanAmericansassilly
simpletonsinblackfacebecamethefirstandonlyroleavailabletoAfricanAmericanon
stage,buteventuallythispavedthewayforAfricanAmericanstofindrolesinlegitimate
theaterandperformancespace.TheCakeWalkisoneofthefirstexamplesofdominant
cultureintheUnitedStatesacceptingaspectsofthesubalternculture,showingthepower
thatthesubmissiveculturecanhave.“Thereisnoreasontoassumethattheorytravels
wholefromcentertoperiphery,forinmanycasesitisformedasittravelsthroughthe
interactionbetweentwodifferentregions.Therecognitionoftheexistenceofadynamic
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exchangebetweensubalternanddominantcultures,includingsubalternandmetropolitan
anthropologies,mayleadtotherealizationthatmuchofwhattodayiscalled“cultural
anthropology”maybemoreaptlyaddressedas“transculturalanthropology”(Ortizxiii).
WhatwasbeginningtocreateAmericancultureandaestheticswasaproductofcultural
contactandculturalexchange,nottheprocessofacculturationinonedirection.
TheexistenceofboththeRingShoutandtheCakeWalkwerefundamentallylinked
totheplantationexperience.InresponsetothecircumstancesinwhichAfricanAmericans
foundthemselves,thesedancesformedoutofaneedforpersonalandgroupexpressionof
oneness,spirituality,andinresponsetooppression.
ExperimentationandRespondingtoHostilityinEarlyPartnerDances
“TheadditionofCongohipmovementstothedancesofthecourtofVersaillesisratherlikeservingruminateacup”–Stearns17
Timeline
EarlypartnerdancesinAfricanAmericanlifedevelopedontheplantation,butthey
blossomedafteremancipation.Comingfromaculturethatwelcomedexperimentationin
thearts,AfricanAmericansbeganexperimentingearlywiththedancestheysawcreatedby
EuropeanAmericans.Thenafteremancipation,theadoptionoftheEuropeanpartner
structurecametocharacterizetypicalAfricanAmericandance.HuggingDancesexemplify
earlyexperimentation,andtheBluesexemplifieslaterresponsestopost‐emancipation
hostility.HuggingDancesbroadlyincludeearlyexperimentationfromthebeginningof
enslavementintheAmericasthatintegratedpartnering.Thispartnerelementeventually
becameaprominentform,markingthecreationofwhatcametobecalledtheBlues—
whichIwilldescribeasculturallydependentupontheroleoftheJook—asaresponseto
emancipation.TheBluesneverdiedentirely,butforourpurposestheroleoftheBlues
weakenedinthe1920sand1930swiththeJazzAge.Betweenthetwo,IamincludingSlave
BallsandRaceImprovementDances,twoofmanyexamplesofconsciousattemptstoward
assimilation.Includingthesetwodancesinourprogressionisimportantinorderto
recognizethatAfricanAmericanswereincreasinglybecomingalesshomogeneousgroup
Moore 15
andmoredistinctbasedonclass,education,andgeographiclocation.SlaveBallsIwill
placefromthesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcentury,whentheybegintoappearregularly
indocumentation,untilemancipation.RaceImprovementDancesIwillconsidertoexist
fromemancipationuntiltheSwingEra.
HuggingDances
Justastherewasaconvergence,asharingandarecreationofdancebetween
Africans,therewasasimilarconvergence,sharingandrecreationofdancebetweenthe
socialtraditionsofAfricansandEuropeans.ThepartneringofEuropeancourtdances
mergedwithAfricandanceprincipalstocreateanewkindofpartneringwithgreater
improvisation.Dependingontimeandlocation,thereweremanyopportunitiesfor
intermingling.EvenbeforeshipsontheMiddlePassagearrivedtoNorthAmerica,Africans
mayhaveencounteredEuropeancourtdances.OftenshipswouldstopoverintheWest
Indiesforareposeoff‐shipbeforecarryingontothemainlandtoincreasetherateof
survival(i.e.profit).ThiswouldhavebeenanimportantencounterbecausetheCatholic
SpanishweremuchmoreacceptingofAfrica’scultureofdance,allowingittoexistmuch
moreopenlythaninitdidinProtestantNorthAmerica.Theenslavedfromaboardship
mayhaveseenorparticipatedinEuropeancourtdancessuchastheQuadrille,theReel,the
Jig,orContraDance.Ifso,theyweresuretohaveencounteredblendswithnativeAfrican
formsalreadybeingshaped,transformedinstyleandfunction.
Onceontheplantation,theAfricanAmericanmusicianswhoplayedandthe
workerswhomayhaveservedintheplantationhouseoratEuropeanAmericansocial
eventsallwouldhaveencounteredEuropeandanceandmusicforms.Theythencould
havebroughtbackwhattheyexperiencedtotheirowncommunitiesofdanceandmusic.
AsAfricanprinciplesslowlybegantoexperimentwithstyles,partnering,andeventually
male‐femalepartnering9thatwereencounteredthroughtheEuropeanAmerican
plantationownersanddominantculture,blendswerecreatedthatareoftengenerally
called“HuggingDances”.Intheseearlyblends,theelegantformationsofEuropeancourtly
9SeeAppendixA.
Moore 16
dancesoriginallyremainedwhiletotheslow,statelystylewereaddedAfricanistshuffling
andhipandshouldermovement.Thedancesbecamewilderwithincreasedimprovisation
andbecamemorecommunityoriented.StearnsquotesfolkloristLisaLekiswhenshe
describesAfricansinCuba:theyuse“stepsandfiguresofthecourtofVersaillescombined
withhipmovementsoftheCongo”.Stearnsconcludesthat“theadditionofCongohip
movementstothedancesofthecourtofVersaillesisratherlikeservingruminateacup”
(Stearns17).
SlaveBallsandRaceImprovementDances
Well‐to‐dofamiliesofEuropeanAmericans(andevenaristocratsofmixedEuropean
andAfricandescent)senttheirchildrenofftoEuropetolearnEuropeancultureanddance
tobringbacktotheU.S.KnowingWaltzesandpopularEuropeandanceswasimportantif
onewastobeconsidered“cultured”.ThiskeptEuropeanformsrelativelyunalteredinelite
circles:asnewgenerationslearnedtheunadulteratedversionsofEuropeandancestylesin
Europe,theyreturnedwiththemtotheU.S.Atthesametime,thistraveledelitewasa
smallfractionofsociety.ThemajorityofEuropeanAmericanswerenotmakingregular
visitstoEuropefortheconsumptionofartandculturetobringhome.So,whetherthey
likeditornot,theculturalartsofEuropeanAmericanswerenolongerexactreplicasof
thoseofEurope,justastheculturesofAfricanAmericansnolongerreplicatedanyone
Africanculture.
BothSlaveBallsandRaceImprovementDancesmeritmentionbecause,unlikethe
mixesthatwesawemergebefore,theyshowedacompleteabandonmentofAfricanand
AfricanAmericanheritageforthecompleteacceptanceofthedominantgroup’shabitsand
values.Inthisprocessofacculturation,theflowofculturewaspredominantlyunilateral.
Enslavedorfreed,AfricanAmericancommunitieshadneverbeenmonolithic.Before
emancipation,freeAfricanAmericansenjoyedhigherstatusthanthoseenslaved,andeven
betweentheenslavedtherewerehierarchiesinstatus.Thoseinhouseholdserviceenjoyed
higherstatusthanfieldworkers,urbanartisanshigherthanlaborers,andstatusmayalso
havedependedonthestatusofone’splantationowner(Hazzard‐Gordon48).Later,after
Moore 17
emancipation,thedistinctionscontinuedtogrowwithinthishierarchyandbetweenthose
“highlyeducatedblackswhocouldgainlimitedaccesstothemainstream,andattheother
[endofthespectrum]…illiteratesharecropperswhocouldbeconsidered…America’s
peasantpopulation”(Perpener12).Whilethelatterhadlessincentiveorevenabilityto
acculturate,thosefurtherupthepeckingorderweremorelikelytotrytofitintodominant
society.
“SlaveBalls”wereformalizedaffairstypicallyinurbansettings,documentedbackto
thesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturyandlastinginthisformuntilemancipation.
UrbanenslavedAfricansorganizedtheaffairswithelaborateinvitationssent,“notonlyto
thefashionableslaves,buttosomeofthemoreesteemedwhitepeople…Allofthe
fashionabledancesareexecuted…andagrandsupperalwaysformsapartofthe
entertainment”(Hazzard‐Gordon51‐2,ascitedinOlmsted).Participantsdancedthesame
proper,refineddancesofEuropeanAmericansociety,ormorespecificallytheyemulated
EuropeanAmericanswhowereinturnemulatingEuropeans.BecauseEuropeanAmerican
menhadtotalaccess—bothtotheirowndancesandtothoseintheAfricanAmerican
community—theysometimesattendedthesedances(andespeciallyonecloselyrelated
referredtoasthe“QuadroonBall”)withtheintentoffindinganAfricanAmericanwoman
tokeepasamistress,orconcubine.Underthesecircumstances,theAfricanAmerican
womenparticipants’desirestomakemodesteconomicandsocialprogressmeantthatthey
hadtorelinquishanyAfricanorAfricanAmericanculture.Thegrowingmixed‐blood
population,thefruitsofsuchrelationships,existedinyetanothersocialranking
somewherebetweentheenslavedandtheEuropeanAmerican.Inresponsetosuch
assimilationattemptsbyAfricanAmericansandthisgrowingmixed‐bloodpopulationand
outoffearofbothfreeandenslavedAfricanAmericansgainingpower,theTerritoryof
NewOrleans1806legislatureisoneexamplethat,“adoptedastatuteforbiddingslavesor
freepeopleofAfricandescenttopresumethemselves‘equaltothewhite’”(Hazzard‐
Gordon55,asquotedinEverett,167).Despitetheirattempts,successfulassimilationinto
mainstreamsocietywassimplynotgoingtobeacceptedbysocietyatlarge.
Anothertypeofaffairdevelopedafteremancipation,alsoanexampleofsuccumbing
tothecultureofthedominantmajorityanddiscardingone’spreviousculture.“Race
ImprovementDances”paralleledcontemporarydancehallsofEuropeanAmericans.A
Moore 18
risingAfricanAmericanmiddleandupperclassgrewwhoseculturebegantodiffermore
andmorefromthatoftheAfricanAmericanworkingclass.Thisreflectedintheirdance.
EitherformoreopportunitiesortodebunkstereotypesabouttheAfricanAmerican,these
groupsoftenchosetorejectdominantAfricanAmericancultureandconformto,identify
withandaspiretodominantmainstreamAmericanculture.RaceImprovementDances
werecreatedwiththehopeofgainingaccesstoEuropeanelementsofAmericanculture,
andthusthestyleofthesedancesemulatedtheseelementsasbesttheycould.Traditional
AfricanAmericanfoods,dance,music,anddresswerediscardedandreplacedwith
EuropeanAmericanones.Sostrongweretheculturalimperialismandtheoccidentalbias
permeatingsocietythatinsuchcasesAfricanAmericansfrequentlyabandonedasmuchof
theiroldcultureaspossible.Acculturation,theyhoped,wouldbringeventualequality
throughtheeyesofthoseinthedominantculture.
TheBlues
AttheendoftheCivilWar,manyfreedAfricanAmericansregardedmobilityasan
expressionoftheiremancipationandheadeddirectlytowardurbancenters.Neveragain
wouldtheyfindthemselvesintherelativelyhomogenouscommunitiesthattheywereable
tocreatewithintheconfinesoftheplantation.WhenAfricanshadfirstarrivedto
plantations,adeculturationoccurred,firstasnumerousgroupswereuprootedandplaced
togetherinaspaceofrelativeculturalvoidtoworkandliveinisolation.Neoculturation
wasagradualprocessoflearninghowtosurviveinthesenew,frequentlyhostile
conditionsoftheplantation;learninghowtocoexistwithAfricansfromentirelydifferent
backgrounds;andunderstandingthecultureoftheoppressor.Thenewculturescreatedby
theAfricanpopulationintheAmericaswereunique:asmuchaproductoftheirAmerican
experiencesasoftheirAfricanones.Thesenewcultureswerecreatedbythesocialforces
aroundthemontheplantation,theworkthatwasexpectedofthem,andsocialrolesthat
werecreatedwithintheirisolatedplantationlife.Danceplayedalargeroleinthislife.
Danceperformedaneducationalfunction;providedalanguagethroughwhichAfricansof
differentbackgroundcouldcommunicateorcommentontheirwork,eachother,ortheir
Moore 19
masters;helpedorganizebehavior;andformedastructureforsocialmorality.With
emancipationanduponleavingtheplantation,aprocessofdeculturationand
neoculturationoccurredoncemore:thecommoncultureoftheplantationwasuprooted
andwasreplacedbythecultureoffreeddominantandoftenhostilesociety(Ortizxxvi).
DeterritorializedoncetotheNewWorldplantations,emancipation
deterritorializedAfricansinAmericaonceagain,removingthelittlestructuretheyhad
beenabletocreateforthemselvesandgivingmanyfamiliesfullresponsibilityfortheirown
upkeepforthefirsttimeinunfamiliar,hostilesurroundings.“Increasedautonomyshould
haveallowedforamorevariedsociallifeforAfrican‐Americans,butwhitessuccessfully
continuedtorestrictmostfacetsoftheirlives”(Buzzard‐Gordon66).
The“Blues”developedinresponsetothishostilityandinjuxtapositionwiththe
RaceImprovementDancesthatweresimultaneouslydevelopingofatypicallymore
privilegedAfricanAmericanclass.The“Jook”10,fundamentallylinkedtothecultureofthe
Blues,becamesynonymouswitha“Negropleasurehouse…abawdyhousefordancing,
drinkingandgambling”(Emery220‐1).BothfreedAfricanAmericanswhohadmigrated
northwardandthosewhoremainedinthesouth—“free”butstillsegregated—soughttofill
avoidwiththecreationoftheirownspacesofentertainmentandspacestoexpresstheir
culture.Intheintensificationofwhitesupremacy,AfricanAmericanswerefurther
separatedfrommainstreamsocietyandfurtherforcedintosmaller,tight‐knitAfrican
Americancommunities.JooksprovidedcommunityandentertainmentspacewhenAfrican
AmericanswereoftennotadmittedintoplacesofentertainmentforEuropeanAmericans.
Jooksallowedthemtoenjoyagreatersenseoffreedomthanwasfeltoutsideandallowed
themtocreateandcelebratetheirownculture,theirownmusic,andtheirowndancesin
relativefreedomandontheirownterms.Theirhistoryofslaveryhadprecludedtheoption
opentomostothernewcomerstotheUnitedStates:assimilation.TheBlues,then,
temperedthedesiretoassimilateintoasocietythatwasnotreadytoacceptthem,
assimilatedornot:
Inearlierdays,musicalexpressionssuchasspiritualshadgrownoutofthecommunalexperienceofadeepmetaphysicalsuffering.Theblueswereasensuous
10SeeAppendixC.
Moore 20
moanthatweldedtogetherpainandpleasurewithseamlessirony.Jazzbecametheblackmusicthatexpressedadesiretobefreeofculturalrestraints.TheseartisticexpressionsmirroredtheparadoxAfricanAmericansfaced—theparadoxofbeingandnotbeingAmerican.(Perpener91)
Duringthisperiod,thedancesofworking‐andlower‐classAfricanAmericansin
particularrelinquishedsomeoftheirEuropeanAmericancharacteristics.Severaltrends
emergedwiththeriseoftheBluesandtheJook,includingafurthersecularizationofmany
dancesoncelinkedtoritualisticorreligiousimportanceandthediminishingroleofthe
group,placinggreaterimportanceontherelationshipbetweenpartners.
TheJookprovidedaspacewhere,“animmeasurableamountofcoreblackculture
includingfood,language,communityfellowship,mateselection,music,anddancefounda
sanctuaryofexpressionwhennoothersecularinstitutionflourishedamongthefolk,”
Hazzard‐Gordonexplains(insidecover).TheJookwasasecularinstitutionbothrootedin
WestAfricantraditionandnecessarilyanoffspringoftheclandestinedancesheldon
plantations.SlaveryhadfosteredthecreationofAfricanAmericansocialinstitutionsthat
defiedEuropeanAmericancontrol,whichinturncontinuedtofosterarecurringpatternof
covertsocialactivity(Genovese570‐1).Tofolksexcludedfromthedominanteconomy,the
Jookprovidedeconomicalternativesforentertainment,includingquasi‐legalactivities
suchasliquorsales,gambling,illegallotteriesandnumbers.IntheseJooks,dancesand
cultureweresecularizedandshared,andnewdanceswerecreatedbyordinaryAfrican
AmericanswhobroughttheiruniqueAfricanAmericanexperienceswiththemintheGreat
Migration.“Whenblacksmovedfromonecommunitytoanother,oneoftheirfirstactswas
tofindaJookJointandshowoffthenewdancestepstheyhadlearnedduringtheirtravels”
(Sherman61).ThisculturemeantthatJookswereofthefirsttosee“large‐scalecross‐
fertilizationofdances,asthousandsoffreedmensharecroppersaswellastraveling
entertainersmigratedfromtownsandfarawayregionssearchingforemployment”
(Hazzard‐Gordon81,ascitedinHurston44).
Inadditiontoafurthershifttowardthesecular,thenatureofthecommunityand
themovementalsochangedinthenewcontext.Insomewaysitreachedbacktoward
Africancultureofmovement,andinotherwaysitdistanceditselffromelementsofthe
Africanaestheticinitsnewurbanenvironment,farfromthevillageorthefields.Hipand
Moore 21
torsomovementreemergedfromanAfricanculturethathadnosenseofshameassociated
withsex,asAfricanAmericansrejectedthedominantEuropeanAmericanculturethat
deniedhumansexuality.Thehip‐shakingandpelvicinnuendocharacteristicofmuch
Africandancereturned,butitbecamemoredirectedtowardone’spartnerthantowardthe
community.These“inappropriate”movementsweredevelopingonthedancefloorsof
working‐classAfricanAmericanswhere“upperclass[EuropeanAmerican]notionsof
respectabilityhadlittlepower”(Hazzard‐Gordon130).
InAfricaandontheplantation,danceshadoftenmimickedlifeinthefields,workat
theplantationhouse,andmovementsofwildanimals.Dancesadjustedtoanurban
environmentofnewoccupations,constantlyreconstructedtofitnewpurposes.The
“MilkingtheCow”oftheplantation,forexample,became“RollingtheToiletPaper”ofthe
serviceworker.Dancebecamemoreuprightandlessflat‐footed,bothsubtlechangesthat
indicatedamoveawayfromagrarianmovement.Attimes,dancesremainedidenticalto
theirpredecessorsontheplantations;atothertimestheywerederivativesofthosedances.
Thefriendlycompetitionand“songsofillusion,dancesofderision”seenintheCakeWalk
andcommontoAfricanverbalanddancetraditionremainedapartofJookdances,taking
theshapeofacompetitionoffriendlyone‐upmanshipknownas“cutting”.This
characteristichaslastedinAfricanAmericanculturethroughtheplantationtoJooks,Jazz
clubs,PlayingtheDozens11,HipHop,andisstillanintegralcomponentofAfricanAmerican
culturetoday.
Bluesmusic—anextremelybroadcategorydependingontimeandlocation—
integratedAfricancallandresponseandvaryingamountsofEuropeanharmonicstructure.
InaJook,oneguitarwasenoughtodance,oneortwomorewouldhavebeenconsidered
excellent.Laterpianosandeventuallyplayerpianos12becamepartoftheJookexperience.
“Musicallyspeaking,theJookisthemostimportantplaceinAmerica.Forinitssmelly
11SeeAppendixC.12PlayerpianoswereacceptedintoAfricanAmericanculturalspacemuchlaterthantheywereacceptedelsewhereinmainstreamAmericansociety.Thisisbecausetheplayerpianonecessarilyremovesthecallandresponsedialoguebetweenmusician,dancerandotherparticipantsthatisfundamentaltotheAfricanandAfricanAmericantradition.Hadthisstyleofset,unchangeablemusicbeenfullyacceptedintoAfricanAmericanculturesooner,laterformsofJazzandSwingdancesmayhaveneverdevelopedastheydid.
Moore 22
shoddyconfineshasbeenbornthesecularmusicknownastheblues,andontheblueshas
beenfoundedjazz”(Hazzard‐Gordon83,ascitedinHurston44).
Whilebyandlargetheworkingclasswasrebellingagainstmainstreamsociety,
assimilationinthehigherclassesremainedcommon.Consequently,eliteAfrican
AmericanshadbeenthemorevisiblearbitersofpubliclydisplayedAfricanAmerican
cultureintheNorthandincities.Thiswasfinallybeginningtochange.Asmoresouthern
AfricanAmericansmigratedNorthattheturnofthetwentiethcentury,theoldelitebecame
aminoritywithinaminority.Thecultureofthesouthernworkingclassestooktheplaceof
perceiveddominanceandsetthenewstandardsamongAfricanAmericans,andsoon,
amongsocietyatlarge.
CrossingtheRacialDividetoFindUniquelyAmericanFormsinSwingDances
Thetrendtowardtheadoptionofanythingblack—andparticularlyofAfro‐American
dance—allbeganwith‘ShuffleAlong,RunningWild,andtheCharleston,’asLangstonHughes
wrote.–Stearns223
Timeline
Bythe1920sand1930sparticularlyinNewYork,theimmenseamountofartthat
AfricanAmericanswereproducing—musicanddance,butadditionallynovels,short
stories,poetry,paintings,andsculptures—caughtgrowingattentionbeyondtheAfrican
Americancommunity,leadingtoaperiodofgreatcreativityknownastheHarlem
Renaissance.AfricanAmericanartformswereincreasinglyappreciated,andinresponse
AfricanAmericansusedartincreasinglytogainaccessandacceptance.“Theblack
intelligentsiaoftheHarlemRenaissancesawartisticpursuits(asopposedtoeconomicor
politicalpursuits)asarelativelyeasywayforAfricanAmericanstogainentryinto
mainstreamAmericansociety”(Perpener22).TheHarlemRenaissanceartistcapitalized
onarttoadvocateasocialagenda,“Likeblackwritersandintellectualsofthetime,[black
dancers]adoptedtheunderlyingphilosophyoftheHarlemRenaissance:artshouldserve
thespecificsocialmissionofchanginghowtheirpeoplewereperceivedbytherestofthe
Moore 23
world”(24).Swingdanceswereabletoslowlychangethisperception,withstepsthat
crossedtheracialdivide.
TheCharleston
ShuffleAlongin1921wasthefirstsuccessfulAfricanAmericanmusical.Itmarked
thebeginningoftheHarlemRenaissanceandintroducedtheBlackBottom13tomainstream
culture.“TheBlackBottom[hadbeen]awell‐knowndanceamongsemi‐urbanNegrofolk
intheSouthlongbefore1919.…”butShuffleAlongpopularizedit.“LiketheCharlestonand
alltheotherdancesthatweretooabandonedintheirearlyphases…theBlackBottomwent
througharefiningstageinwhichthemovementsandstepsweremodifieduntilitfinally
emergedasadancesuitablefortheballroom14’”(Stearns110‐1).“AlltheSwingstepsthat
migratedwiththepeople—TheCharleston,Messin’Around,SusieQ.,Pickin’theCherries,
allalittlesuggestive—eventuallycleanedup”tobeacceptableoutsideoftheJook
environmentandinmainstreamAmerica(Davidson1).TwoyearsafterShuffleAlong,the
1923musicalRunningWildpopularizedtheCharleston.
The“Charleston”,whichhademergedasearlyasplantationtimesandinJooks,
madeparticularuseofmovementsandimprovisationcharacteristicoftheAfrican
aesthetic.15Thesecharacteristicsseemedtohavefinallyaffectedmainstreamsocietyas
theirroughedgesweresoftenedandtheywereshowcasedonstage.AstheCharleston
crossedtheracialdivideintothemainstream,“thedistinctionbetweenpopulardancesto
watchandpopulardancestodancewaseradicated:everybodywasdoingit”(Stearns113).
Itsgenericstepcouldbevariedinseeminglylimitlessways,butitwassimpleenoughthat
itcouldbetaughtinballroomdanceclasses,themethodofdancetransmissiontypicalin
EuropeanandEuropeanAmericanculture.Oneman’sdescriptionsummarizesmainstream
culture’sfascinationwiththeCharlestonatthetime,
13SeeAppendixC.14Atthetime,dancestudioswerealltherageincitiesformiddleandupperclasswhitesociety.TeacherslikeVernonandIreneCastleandArthurMurrayoften“cleanedup”populardancestomakethemmoreacceptablefortheballroom.15SeeAppendixC.
Moore 24
ThefirstimpressionmadebytheCharlestonwasextraordinary.…[Ifelt]pleasureinseeingadancewhichusesthewholebodyfarmorethanthenowconventionalstepsoftheFoxTrotandOne‐Step(bothdancesofEuropeanorigin).TheCharlestonasanexhibitiondanceemployedtoadvantagewhattheextravagantshimmyhadbroughtin—thequiverofthebodyotherwisemotionless,theuseofthetorsoindance;itaddedthemovementsofthehips,thighs,buttocks,madefamiliarsinceShuffleAlong—thecharacteristicnegrofreedomofmovement,frankandengaging;thepattingwhichaccompaniestheBlueswasvariedtoslappingandthehandfellonanyportionofthebody,inafrenzy.Asifexcitedbythedancetothepointwheretheydidnotcarewhethertheyweregracefulornot,thechorusassumedthemostawkwardpostures—knock‐knees,legs“akimbo,”toesturnedinuntiltheymet,squattings,comiclittleleapssidewise.Andthenthevisualhighpointofthedance,theseseeminglygrotesqueelementswereactuallywoven,intherhythmofthedance,intoapatternwhichwasfullofgraceandsignificance,whichwasgayandorgiasticandwild.(Emery226,ascitedinSeldes283)
FirsttheBlackBottomandthentheCharlestonsuppliedtoAmericawhatEuropean
danceswerelacking.TheyallowedthefreedomalreadyassociatedwiththeAmerican
spirit,andtheirengaging,full‐bodymotionanddisregardforwhatwasgracefulandwhat
wasn’tspoketoanation“attemptingtobreakawayfromtheconstraintsofpost‐Victorian
moralityandintothefreedomofthemodernworld”(Perpener9).Inatimecommonly
referredtoas“TheRoaringTwenties”andthe“JazzAge”inadditiontothe“Harlem
Renaissance”,theymarkedaculturalrevolutioninmanystrataofsociety.Asthesenew
socialdancesalongwiththenewdanceculturespread,oneconventiontobebrokenwas
dress.TheaestheticattirethatcametobeassociatedwithSwingdancesmixedAfricanand
EuropeandressnormsintwentiethcenturyAmerica.Europeanskirtsrosetoexposemore
ofthecalvesandtopsshrunktobarethearms.Popularwoman’sCharlestonattireoften
hadtassels,fringe,bows,orpleatsaroundthewaist,accentingthemovementofthecore.
ThisrunsincontrastwithwhatwasacceptableintheEuropeanorJudeo/Christian
aestheticinwhichsuchattentiondrawntoawoman’ssexualitywouldhavebeen
forbidden.InmanyAfricancultures,however,usingcostuming,beads,andcowryshellsto
accentawoman’swaist,behind,orbreastswouldhavebeenbothcommonandentirely
acceptable.TheclassicZootSuitoftheJazzAgemalealsowasamixofEuropeanand
Africanaesthetics.Thesuitofthemodernmaledevelopedpantswithbaggylegsandtight
ankles,andthejacketgrewlonger,looser,andfreeflowing.Thebillowingthatthiscreated
Moore 25
gavetributetoanAfricanaestheticofflowingclothestoaccentbodilymovement(Salaam
2010).
TheLindyHop
Thenumerouspublicdancehallsthathademergedinthenineteenthcenturyoften
maintainedapolicyof“Whites‐only”.Mosteventuallyadoptedonedayaweekdedicated
totheAfricanAmericancommunity,butthecommitmenttosegregationwasclear.
Althoughdividedpublicly,asAfricanAmericanswerecreatingnewstyles,mainstream
Americanculturebecamemoreandmoreinterestedinwhattheyhadtooffer.Young
EuropeanAmericanmenbegansneakingouttofrequentlocalesofAfricanAmerican
entertainment,mesmerizedbywhattheysaw,takingbacknewtrickstotheirowndance
hallsandleadingtothemoreadoptionofAfricanAmericandance,music,andcultureby
mainstreamsociety.ThenewopportunitiescreatedduringtheHarlemRenaissancefor
AfricanAmericanstoentertaincreatedanenvironmentripeforexchange.
Harlem’sSavoyBallroomwasoneofthefewentertainmentexceptionsthatopened
itsdoorssimultaneouslytobothAfricanandEuropeanAmericans,anditmayhave
changedthecourseofhistorybecauseofit.Itopenlycateredtointegrateddancing,making
itimmenselypopularandinfluentialintheconvergenceandsharingofculture(not
withoutcausingsubstantialconcernandunrest).EuropeanAmericansfromdowntown
wentuptovisitfamousHarlemnightspotsliketheSavoyBallroom,theCottonClub,and
Smalls’Paradise,drivingmoreimprovisationandleadingtothespreadofthesenew
AfricanAmericandancesbeyondHarlemandoutintomainstreamsociety.16Langston
Hugheswroteofthetime,
Thelindy‐hoppersattheSavoy[Ballroom]evenbegantopracticeacrobaticroutines,andtodoabsurdthingsfortheentertainmentofthewhites,thatprobably
16Tobeclear,bytheearlytwentiethcenturytheterm“AfricanAmericandance”referstodanceintheUnitedStatesbelongingpredominantlytotheAfricanAmericancommunity.ItisimportanttonotethatwhileoftheAfricanAmericancommunity,AfricanAmericandanceatthispointhadbeenheavilyinfluencednotonlybyEuropeandanceformsbutbyfactorspresentinAmericancultureandtheAmericanexperience.
Moore 26
neverwouldhaveenteredtheirheadstoattemptmerelyfortheirowneffortlessamusement.(Stowe43)
UniquelynewtomanyAfricanAmericans,theHarlemRenaissancewasgivingthemthe
opportunitytotakeprideintheartthattheycreated.
The“LindyHop”foundtheperfectmarriagebetweentheindividualityofAfrican
danceandthepartneringofEuropeandance.Itwasapartnerdance,butwhatmadeit
uniquetopartnerdanceswasthebreakaway.“Thebreakawayisatime‐honoredmethod
ofeliminatingtheEuropeancustomofdancingincouples,andreturningtosolodancing—
theuniversalwayofdancing,forexample,inAfrica”(Stearns324).Bywayofthe
breakaway,LindyHopperswereabletoincorporatemanyotherdancestepsintoits
generalframe—includingthosederivedfrombothAfricanAmericansandEuropean
Americans—andtocreatemanynewones.Thesmallbutubiquitous‘itching’
improvisationmovement,forexample,wasadirectdescendentfromAfricandance.The
influenceof“songsofillusion,dancesofderision”emergedinLindyHopjustasithadinthe
satireoftheCakeWalkandthecuttingoftheBlues.JustasintheJook,coupleswould
standbackinacircletoallowagoodcoupletotakecenterfloor.Thennewcoupleswould
jumpinoneortwoatatimeasasortofsociablegameofcompetition,drivinginnovation.
ThedressofLindyHopperscontinuedtopushboundariessetbymainstream
culture.Allofthelegsandevenundergarmentswereexposedintheaerialsthatbecame
common,somethingthatwouldhavecreatedevenmoreculturalcontroversyifithadnot
beenforthefleetingnatureofsuchfastmovement.Thisnewdressaestheticfurther
integratedAfricanandEuropeanAmericansocietyintooneAmericansociety:justlikethe
musicandthedance,itwasenjoyedbyboth.
TheLindyHopandSwingmusicevolvedco‐dependently.“Greatmusiciansinspire
greatdancers—andviceversa—untilthecombinationpyramidsintothegreatest
performancesofboth....Oneofthereasonsfortheearlydevelopmentofgreatbig‐bandJazz
attheSavoywasthepresenceofgreatdancers”(Stearns325).Thetempoquickened,and
inreplythedancersincreasedtheirenergyandspeedofexecution,anecessarypreliminary
fortheacrobaticstocome.LeonJamesdescribedanightattheSavoyin1937,“Dizzy
GillespiewasfeaturedinthebrasssectionofTeddyHill’sscreamingband.…Everytimehe
Moore 27
playedacrazylick,wecutacrazysteptogowithit.Andhedugusandblewevencrazier
stufftoseeifwecoulddancetoit,akindofgame,withthemusiciansanddancers
challengingeachother”(Stearns325).Swingmusic’smixofelementsfromAfricanand
Europeanculturesmadeituniquelyaccessibletoall.Swing“physicalizedthepervading
spiritofabandonofthe1920s”(Perpener17).The“sensuousmoan”oftheBlueshadbeen
revveduptocreatethefastpaced,“spiritofabandon”(91)ofSwing.
Thesedescriptionsofimprovisationthatrespondtofactorsintheenvironment
alongwithatypicalrhythmsandscalesaremuchmoretraditionaltoAfricanmusicaland
dancetraditionsthantothoseofEurope.Jazzinstruments,however—thesaxophone,bass,
tuba,piano,snaredrumandcymbals—arenearlyallfromaEuropeanschoolofmusic.Just
asontheplantationenslavedAfricanswhowereemployedtoplaymusicduringtheparties
oftheplantationfamilytookaspectsofthemusicandtheinstrumentsbacktotheirown
dances,thesameoccurredtocreateJazz.AfricanAmericanJazzmusicianslearnedtouse
Europeaninstruments,learnedtoplayEuropeanmelodiesandlearnedEuropeanmusical
structure,buttheythenaddedsomeofthesyncopation,sound,andpolyrhythmwithwhich
theyhadgrownup.Ratherthanplayingthepianowiththebent,gentlefingersofMozart,
forexample,theyplayeditasapercussiveinstrument(Salaam2010)withtheflatfingers
andheavystrikesofadjembe17playerfromMali.Butunlikethemusicofthatdjembe
playerandmoreakintothatofMozart,Jazzmusicdidhavearelativelyfirmandsystematic
mathematicalstructure.
Duetobothitspopularityandfactorsofthetimes,thenewSwingculture
disseminatedbeyondbigcities,acrossracialboundaries,andacrosstheUnitedStates.This
wasmadepossiblebecauseoftherisesimultaneouslyinthespeedandfrequencyoftravel
andthespeedofmasscommunication.Itsspreadoccurredquicklybetweenthe1920sand
1940s,atimewhenrailroadtrainsweremovingpeopleandcargoacrossthenationand
showslikeTheEdSullivanShowweremovingcultureandideas.Pullmanporterson
passengerandfreighttrainswerefrequentlyAfricanAmericans;thejobwasdifficultbut
providedmobilityandthuspossibility.Segregation,forbetterorworse,ensuredthatinall
citiesandstopsalongthetracks,therewouldhavebeenanentertainmentspaceforAfrican
17SeeAppendixC.
Moore 28
Americanstocongregate.Oneachextendedstop,itwasherethatPullmanporterscould
showoffthenewdancemovesorthelatestmusicalriffsthattheyhadlearnedinthelast
city,ensuringaquickspreadofnewmaterial.
Bythe1950s,teenagerswerewatchingtheLindyHopontelevisionandthentrying
itoutatlocaldances.“TheLindybecamethefirststepyoungsterslearned,anditremained
thefoundationofmostoftheirdancing”(Stearns329).Despiteitsgrowingappeal,this
newartformcontinuedtostruggleforacceptance:theapparentlackoforderterrified
manymiddleclassparents,andtheabandonwithwhichLindyHoppersdancedwiththe
wholebodyensuredthatcertainlyitwouldcorruptthemoralfabricofsociety.The
“Jitterbug”isoftenthetermusedtodescribeaLindyHopmodifiedtomeetEuropean
Americantasteshalfway,taughtatdancestudiosinAmerica’sbigcities,smalltownsand
suburbsacrossthecountry.AsteenagersdancedtheseversionsofSwingathighschool
proms,itslowlygainedacceptanceasdance,regardlessofage,raceorsocialstatus.It
causedageneralrevolutioninpopulardanceintheU.S.,referredtobysomeas“theonly
trueAmericanfolkdance”(Stearns329).
ThebridgethatSwingdancecreatedopenedthestageformanyAmericandance
andmusiccreationsthatweretocome.TheStearnscredittheAfricanAmericantradition:
“AllinalltheNegrostyleofdancing…wasintheAfro‐Americantradition,whichstresses
twocharacteristics:continualimprovisationandpropulsiverhythms.Thesequalities
becameenergizingfactorsinAmericanvernaculardance.”Theythenillustrateitsinfluence
in20thcenturydanceintheUnitedStates:
FromthisAfro‐Americantradition,muchthatcamelatersurfaced—fromthetastytappingofBillRobinsonandFredAstaire…throughthenaïveshimmyofGildaGrayandsocialdancessuchastheCharleston,totheLindy(orJitterbug)andotherballroomdances,upto,including,andafter,theTwist.Mostofthedancingweseetodayonstageandscreen,inballroomsandnightclubs,atdiscothequesandontelevision,oweswhatvitalityithastothisbarelytappedreservoirofAmericanvernaculardance.(Stearns83‐84)
AfterSwingdances,Americandancecontinuedtoevolve.Itrespondedtouniqueattitudes
intheAmericanexperience,oftenunconsciouslytippingitshattoboththeAfricanand
Europeandancesofitspast.
Moore 29
InSummary
FromtheAfrican’sfirstforcedencounterwiththeNewWorldthroughtothe
twentiethcentury,dancehasplayedanimportantroleinboththeAfricanAmericanand
theAmericanexperience.ItevolvedasaheterogeneousmixofAfricanandEuropean
culturesandtraditionswereforcedtomixontheplantation;itevolvedasitcontinuedto
mixwithEuropeanAmericancultureandhostility;andittookpartincreatingentirelynew,
uniquelyAmericandanceformsoutoftheencounter.Ananalysisofthedifferent
trajectoriesofAfricanAmericandanceformsgoesfarbeyondthescopeofdance.This
papertoldonesmallstory,followingafewofthethousandsofuniquetrajectoriesthat
dancetook.Thesetrajectorieswereshapedinresponsetothesurroundingconditions,
makingthemusefulindicatorsforassessingthoseconditions.Withthisstudy,wecan
exploreandinterpretthepsychological,thesociological,theeconomic,thepolitical,andthe
culturalrealitiesatdistincttimesandplacesintheexperienceoftheAfricanAmericanin
theUnitedStates.
Inaddition,thisstudymaybringattentiontotheprofoundinfluenceofAfrican
AmericansonthecultureoftheUnitedStates,allayingconcernbythosesuchasthe
HistorianSterlingStuckey:
Despitethefactthatslaveart,andtheartofthedescendantsofslaves,hasleftamajorimprintonAmericanculture,itdoesnotappearthatwhiteAmericansregardthemselves,inanydegree,asAfricansculturally,amatterseldomdiscussedeveninspecializedstudiesofslavery.Fewscholars,whiteorblack,havesomuchastouchedonthissubject.(Stuckey1)
Stuckeydrawsattentiontoourlackofculturalself‐awarenessintheUnitedStates.
Withhope,theworkofthisthesiswillinspireagreaterunderstandingofthecollective
influencesthatmergedtomakeourcultureandournationwhatitistoday.
Moore 30
TopicsforFurtherStudy
Thisthesislaysthegroundworkforfutureresearch.Iaddressedarelativelysmall
sampleofdancesthatstoppedwiththe1950s,leavinganopportunityfordeeperanalysis
expandedinbreadth.Inmyresearch,theroleofmusicandsongwasconstantlyatopic
thatIfeltnecessarytoexplorebutfromwhichIhadtodrawback,lestIclutterthethesis.
However,theroleofcodificationinsongontheplantationandlaterinBluesandJazzisa
rolethatmeritsdeeperanalysisinaseparatestudy.IalsohopetoexpanduponWest
AfricandanceandmusicduringthetimeofenslavementandtheMiddlePassagetothe
Americas.AbetterunderstandingoftheroleofdanceandmusicinAfricansocietywillaid
inanunderstandingoftheirroleintheDiasporaandthereasonswhycertainelements
remainedrelativelyunchanged,certainelementsevolvedinthenewcontext,andothers
weredisregardedentirely.
Moore 31
Acknowledgements
MysuccessfulcompletionofthisThesiscouldnothavehappenedwithoutthehelp
ofseveralpeople.Firstandforemost,Iextendmythankstomythesisadvisor,Dyane
Harvey.Shehasactedasamentorformepersonallyandacademically,andformythesis
sheprovidedmewithendlessleads,connectionsandresources.InextthankDr.Zilkia
Janer,mymentorwithintheDepartmentofGlobalStudies,forassumingtheextraroleof
unofficialadvisorwithinthedepartmentandformakingsurethatmythesismaintainedthe
levelofacademicandliteraryintegritythatmyresearchdeserved.Inextthanktheseveral
individualswhogenerouslygavetheirtimetositwithmeforinterviews:(inalphabetical
orderandnotorderofimportance)AyandaClarke,MickeyDavidson,Dr.FatouGittens,and
AbdelSalaam.MyearlyinterviewwithMickeyhelpedmetounderstandhowdanceswere
spreadandhowoneevolvedintoanother,andmylaterinterviewwithAyandahelpedme
tofillinwhereIlackedunderstandingwithmusicanditsimportantroleinthisevolution.
Dr.Gittensprovidedmewiththeimportantconceptof“Songsofillusion,dancesof
derision”thatwassonecessarytotheevolutionthatAfricanAmericandanceculturetook,
andsheprovidedmewithampleinformationformyfutureresearchinatopicclosely
relatedtothisthesisbutintheendnotincluded.Mr.Salaam’sinspiringchoreographyand
artisticvisionprovidedmewithmyinitialinterestinthistopic,andhisexpertiseonsucha
wideareawasabletofillinthegapsofinformationthatIhadbeenunabletofindanywhere
else.IthankDyaneandalloftheseintervieweesprofuselyforthewealthofinformation
theyshared:theyprovidedmewithenoughmaterialtowritevolumes,hardlyreflectedin
the[relative]brevityofmyfinalthesis.
MyparentsJanetandDavidMooredeservefullgratitudeforbeingmyfinaleditors,
notonlymorallysupportivebutalsooncall24/7.IthankDr.GrantSaffandthe
DepartmentofGlobalStudiesforapprovingandallowingmySeniorThesistobesocross
disciplinary,notonlychoosingdanceasmytopicbutchoosingaprofessorfromwithinthe
dancedepartmentasmythesisadvisor.Lastly,Iwouldliketocollectivelythankthethree
professorswhosatonmythesisreviewcommittee:DyaneHarvey,Dr.ZilkiaJaner,andDr.
LindaLongmire.Inadditiontobeingextremelyencouraging,theyprovidedmewithvery
constructivecriticismthatIwillbeabletouseforfuturerevisionsandforfurtherstudy.
Moore 32
WorksCited
Abrahams,RogerD.“PlayingtheDozens.”TheJournalofAmericanFolklore.75.297(1962):
209‐220.
Asante,KariamuWelsh.MovingHistory.“CommonalitiesinAfricanDance:AnAesthetic
Foundation”144‐149.
Clarke,Ayanda.Interview.24Nov2010.
Davidson,Mickey.Interview.3Nov2010.
Emery,LynneFauley.BlackDance:From1619toToday.Second,RevisedEdition.
Princeton:PrincetonBookCompany,1988.
Genovese,Eugene.RollJordanRoll.NewYork:RandomHouse,1976.
Gittens,Dr.Fatou.Interview.13Nov2010.
Gottschild,BrendaDixon.DiggingtheAfricanistPresenceinAmericanPerformance:Dance
andOtherContexts.Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress.1996.
Hazzard‐Gordon,Katrina.Jookin’:TheRiseofSocialDanceFormationsinAfricanAmerican
Culture.Philadelphia:TempeUniversityPress,1990.
Hurston,ZoraNeal.“CharacteristicsofNegroExpression.”NegroAnthology.Ed.Nancy
Cunard.NewYork:NegroUniversitiesPress,1969.
Jonas,Gerald.Dancing:ThePleasure,Power,andArtofMovement.NewYork:HarryN
Abrams,Inc.,1992.
Nicholls,RobertW.“AfricanDance:TransitionandContinuity.”AfricanDance:AnArtistic
Historical.41‐60.
PerpenerIII,John.O.AfricanAmericanConcertDance:TheHarlemRenaissanceand
Beyond.Chicago:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2001.
Salaam,Abdel.Interview.7Nov2010.
Sherman,Shantella.“TheHistoryofBlackDanceinAmerica.”TheNewCrisis.
January/February2000.
Stearns,MarshalandJean.JazzDance:TheStoryofAmericanVernacularDance.NewYork:
SchirmerBooks,1968.
Stowe,DavidW.SwingChanges:BigBandJazzinNewDealAmerica.Cambridge:President
andFellowsofHarvardCollege,1994.
Moore 33
Stuckey,P.Sterling.Ed.SusanLeighFoster.“ChristianConversionandtheChallengeof
Dance.”ChoreographingHistory.Indianapolis:IndianaUniversityPress,1995.
‐‐‐.“SlaveryandtheFreeingofAmericaHistoryIntroduction”.AmericanHistorical
Association.April1995,
http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/1995/9504/9504TEC.CFM.
Moore 1
AppendixA:
BasicPrinciplesoftheEuropeanDanceAesthetic
ConventionandUniformity—Ratherthanemphasisonindividualimprovisation,
invention,orfreedomofexpression,theemphasiswasonconventionanduniformity.
DancingMasters—Tobecomefluentinthedancesofthetime,itwasexpectedthat
everyone(inthesocio‐economicclassesthatcouldaffordit)takeprivateclassesfroma
danceinstructorwhoarrangedandtaughtinalimitednumberofrepeatablepatterns.
FixedSteps—Dancingmasterstaughtalimitednumberoffixedstepsinrepeatable
patterns,allowingforonlyslightimprovisation
FloorPatternsandLegMovement—Europeandanceputverylittleemphasisonarm
movement,anddeemphasizedentirelythemovementofthetorso.Instead,walking
patternsandchallenginglegpatternswereimportant.Theidealwasanerectbackand
torsohightowardtheheavens.
MaleDominance—Menweregiventheroleoforderingthesefixedstepswiththeirown
ingenuitywhilethewomenlearnedabroadrepertoireoffixedstepsbutsubmitted
themselvestobeingled.
MaleFemaleCouple—Bytheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,popularEuropean
danceshaddevelopedtoputfullfocusonthecouple—reflectingsocietalgenderroles—
ratherthanonthelargergrouporindividual.
MeteredMusic—Europeanmusicistraditionallyverymathematicallysituatedinmeter
andcountingschemes.Themaininstrumentsarewind,string,andpiano.
SlowRateofChange—ParticularlyinthecasesofBaroqueandclassicaldance,neither
dancenormusiccouldevolvetooquicklybecausetheywerebothdependentupon
society’sacceptablerateofchange.Artistsneededtofitthemusicandstepsthey
presentedintothatframeworkinordertobecommissioned.InGeneral,howmuch
nuanceisacceptableisdeterminedbytradition,andsuchnuanceorchangewas
generallylessacceptableinEuropeanartthaninAfrican(Clarke2010).
Moore 2
AppendixB:
BasicPrinciplesoftheAfricanDanceAesthetic
AestheticoftheCool—Thegoalistopresenttheselfwithamixofcarelessnessand
calculatedaestheticclarity.Thedancer’sfacemayremaindetachedandcoolwhilethe
bodyandenergymaybeworkingfastandhard,andhis/herexpressionmayplaywith
opposites,jugglingcoolwithsinisterorseductive.
Collective—Thegroupisextremelyimportantandmostfrequentlytakestheformofa
circleformation.Individualsolosorsmallergroupsinthecenterareencouragedwhile
thereisashyingawayfromanybodilycontactbetweeneithersex.
EmbracingtheConflict—Thisistheencounterofopposites.Dealingwithoppositesis
inherentinAfricanistcultures’worldview,andisthusinherentintheirdance.
Ephebism—(fromGreekephebe,meaningyouth.)Thisprincipleencompassesattributes
suchaspower,vitality,flexibility,drive,andattack.Aliveandarticulatemovementis
morevaluedthanalignmentorform.
HighaffectJuxtaposition—Mood,attitude,ormovementbreaksmayomitthetransitions
andconnectivelinksvaluedinEuropeanaesthetic.Thisalsoincludestheemphasison
balancethroughthecombinationofopposites.1(Gottschild11‐19).
BareFeet—Dancetakesplaceoutsideonthenakedearth.Thisisimportantforthelackof
sound,unliketheEuropeanJigorClogwheresoundisanintegralfactortothedance.
Centrifugal—Dancebeginsinthehipsandradiatesoutward.
Curvilinear—Seeninform,shapeandstructure,itappliestotheindividualandtothe
group.Thereispoweremphasizedinthecircleandsymmetry.
Dimensionality—Thisistextureinmusicandmotion.
EpicMemory—Thisdrawsuponmemories,feelings,andexperience.
1ThesearethefiveelementsthatBrendaDixonGottschildcodifiesasthemostvisibleintheAfricanDiaspora.
Moore 3
Grounded—Dancingwithaflatfootonearthencouragestheuseofgliding,shuffling,and
draggingsteps.Thecombinationofbeinggroundedwithbarefeetlatercombineswith
Europeaninfluencestoproducetapdance.
Holism—Thepartsofacreationarenotemphasizedoraccentuatedbeyondthewhole.
Imitation—Africandancefrequentlyimitatesthemotionsofdailylifesuchasharvesting
thecrop,anditimitatesanimalsinrealisticdetail.
Improvisation—Africandanceplacesahighimportanceonallowingfreedomof
expressionandflexibilityinevolutionofdance.
Polycentrism/Polyrhythm—Polycentrismreferstothenumerouscentersfromwhich
movementemanates,countertoEuropeanaestheticsinwhichtheidealisfor
movementtoemanatefromonelocus.Africandanceispolyrhythmicbecausedifferent
partsofthebodymayfollowtherhythmsofdifferentdrums,maintainingdistinct
patterns.
Repetition—Thereisfrequentlyrepetitionandtheintensificationofonemovement,one
sequence,ortheentiredance.2
2Theseelementscanbefoundinseveralsources.ItookthemspecificallyfromKariamuWelshAsante,JeanandMarshallStearns,andAbdelSalaam.
Moore 4
AppendixC:
DefinitionsofTerminology
Bantaba—InWestAfricanDance,the“CircleoftheBantaba”,orliterallyinterpretedas
“TheDancingGround”,isacommunityspacearoundwhichthecommunityrevolves.
CakeWalk—TheCakeWalkoftentookplaceatcrop‐overorharvesttime,oratother
timesofcelebrationasacommonfestivaldance.Inthedance,enslavedAfricanswould
dressupintheoldclothesoftheplantationfamilyandimitatethatwhichtheysaw
goingoninatthebigwhitehouse.Everyone—plantationownersandenslaved—would
assembleenmasse,andtheenslavedwouldentertaintheplantationfamilieswith
music,strutting,andotherantics.Oftenthewinnerwouldreceiveaprizecake,thus
creatingthename“CakeWalk”.SometimesCakeWalkerswouldalsowalkwithapail
atoptheirhead,competingtoseewhocouldbalanceitbestintheirstrut.Justasinthe
RingShout,TheCakeWalkintegratedelementsofdailylifeintoitsmovement.“Pitchin’
Hay,”“CornShuckin’,”and“Cuttin’Wheat”wereoftenusedasembellishments.
Charleston—TheCharlestonwascreatedinAfricanAmericancommunitiesintherural
South(namedafterCharleston,NorthCarolina)andbecameapopulardancecrazein
the1920sstartinginHarlemandgrowinginternationally.Atthetimeconsidereda
provocativedance,thestepsfollowthebasicmovementofwalking,doneinplacewith
variouslevelsofexaggeration.Movementcanbeassimpleasarelaxedtwistingofthe
feetandcanalsospeeduptofastkickingforwardandback,low,high,withtapsand
without.Thearmsswingoppositethelegs,theentireperformancetakingonthe
relaxed,“aestheticofthecool”characteristic.Itcanbedancedaloneorwithapartner.
Concubinage—ConcubineswerefairlycommoninmostregionsofAfricanslavery,
includingFrenchLouisiana,Haiti,DutchGuinea,Martinique,Guadeloupe,Jamaica,Peru,
andMexico(Hazzard‐Gordon53).
Moore 5
Djembe—AdrumcommontoWestAfrica,especiallyMali.
Jook—CommonlyknownasaJookHouseorJookJoint,thiswasacommunityspace
fundamentalinthepost‐emancipationeraforthecreationandsharingofAfrican
Americanculture.WhileIreferuniformlytotheJook,awidevarietyofsimilarly
clandestinespacesforthesharingofcoreAfricanAmericancultureareincluded:after‐
hoursjoints,HonkyTonks,rentparties,houseparties,andmembershipclubs.
LindyHop—TheLindyHopwasnamedafterLindbergh’s“hop”acrosstheAtlanticin1927.
Itsbasicstepwasasyncopatedtwo‐stepaccentingtheoffbeat.TheLindyHopmixed
theAfricanaesthetic’straditionalimprovisation,Europeanpartnerdance,andearlyBig
BandJazzorSwingmusic.Thebreakawaythatdeveloped,whenthedancersseparated
andhadtheopportunitytobeindependentlycreativewithimprovisation,setitapart
fromallotherdances.
Patakato—See“SongsofIllusion,DancesofDerision”.
PlayingtheDozens—PlayingtheDozensisanAfricanAmericanoraltraditionofusing
insultstobothgainverbaldexterityandtoconfineaggressiveexpressionwithinthe
AfricanAmericancommunity,directingitawayfromitssourcewithinoppressive
mainstreamsocietywhereitsexpressioncouldleadtodangerousconsequences
(Abrahams213).Itisaformof“Songsofillusion,dancesofderision”thatdevelopedas
ahealthymeansofexpressionandhascontinuedinAfricanAmericanculture,greatly
influencingHipHopandRap.
RingShout—Participantsmovearoundtheradiusofacirclecounterclockwise,bodies
movingasone.Oneparticipantbeatsalargestickrhythmicallyontheground.
Commonmovementelementsincludeshuffling,swaying,stamping,clapping,and
shouting.Alsoincludedareimitationmovementsofdailylifeontheplantation,suchas
shuckingthecorn,polishingthesilver,rockingthebaby,orworkingthefields.
Individualsdetachthemselvesfromthecollectivecircleoneortwoatatime,moveto
Moore 6
theinside,andimprovisemorecomplicatedstepsbeforejoiningthecircleagain.Inthe
circle,allparticipantsareconnectedinacontinuousringwithclearvisionofeachother.
SongsofIllusion,DancesofDerision—Thiscanmanifestitselfinnumerousways.Inthe
cultureofcallandresponse,thismeansthefriendlycompetitionofone‐upmanship
betweendancersorbetweendrummer/musiciananddancer.Acompetitionof
creativity,stamina,anddexterityproceedsbackandforthaseachseemstosaytothe
other,“thatwasneatwhatyoujustdid,butwatchthisasImatchyouringenuityand
thendobetter.”ThissamecompetitioncanbeseenlaterinBluesandLindyHop.Inall
cases,itisbothflatteryandachallenge.
Itcanalsomanifestitselfinadifferentsortofmimicry.IntheNigeriandancethe
Patakato,dancerswouldaddbustlestotheirwaisttomimicthecontemporarystyleof
Europeanfemalefashion,wearwhitemasksandwigs,anddancearoundinpetit
movementsemulatingEuropeans.Suchpoliticaldanceswereoftencreatedtomakefun
ofEuropeansastheirpresenceincreasedatthebeginningoftheColonialEra.Inthese
cases,themimicryismoreofanoutletforfrustrationthanacompliment.AsAfricans
feltgrowingpressurebroughtonbytheirEuropeanColonizers,satirethroughdance
wasoneacceptableoutletfortheirdiscomfortandfrustration.
Moore 7
AppendixD
SelectionofDanceVideo
RingShout
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrDJ0aIBu7k&feature=related
CakeWalk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7sDnVIeSn_k
CharlestonandBlackBottomHistoricalTimeline
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGPnPHrrZeA
CharlestonandSwing
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJsBa2u9aMQ
Jitterbug
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSpWJss5Gjc&p=F3CF73269FD5FE0D&index=
8&feature=BF
LindyHop
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mTg5V2oA_hY
