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Crop Growth and Phenology –

Species Variability

K. Raja ReddyMississippi State University

Mississippi State, MS

Effects of multiple environmental factors on crop growth and phenology across many important crop species.

Can we use environmental productivity index concept across the species to quantify the responses and to develop functional relationships?

Crop Growth and Development and Environment Species Variability

Crop Growth and Development and Environment Major Crops – Global Statistics - 2008

Crop Area, Million ha

Production, Million Mt.

Productivity, Mt. ha-1

Wheat 224 690 3.0Maize/Corn 161 823 5.1Rice 159 685 4.3Soybeans 97 231 2.4Barley 57 158 2.8Sorghum 45 65 1.5Millets 37 36 0.96Seedcotton 31 66 2.1Rapeseed 30 58 1.9Beans, dry 28 20 0.73

Environmental and Cultural Factors Influencing Crop Phenology

Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (indirect) Solar Radiation (indirect) Photoperiod (direct on flowering, no effect on

modern cotton cultivars) Temperature (direct) Water (indirect) Wind (indirect) Nutrients (N, P and K) (direct & indirect) Growth Regulators (PIX) (indirect)

• Provides the dietary needs of 1.6 billion with another 400 million rely on rice for one-quarter or one-half of their diet.

• 2004 stats are: Area = 151 Million ha, production = 606 Million Mt, and average yield = 4.02 t ha-1.

• 53% Irrigated flooded-paddy

• 27% Rainfed lowland

• 12% Rainfed upland

• 8% Deep-water

Rice – Some Crop Statistics

Rice Production Statistics

USA

Japa

n

Braz

il

Philip

pine

s

Mya

nmar

Thai

land

Viet

nam

Bang

lade

sh

Indo

nesi

a

Indi

a

Chi

na

Ric

e pr

oduc

tion

area

, Mha

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

Ric

e pr

oduc

tion,

MM

t

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

AreaProduction

Year 2004

USA

Japa

n

Braz

il

Philip

pine

s

Mya

nmar

Thai

land

Viet

nam

Bang

lade

sh

Indo

nesi

a

Indi

a

Chi

na

Ric

e pr

oduc

tion

area

, %

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Ric

e pr

oduc

tion,

%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

AreaProduction

Year 2004, Area = 151.3 Mha, Production = 605.8 MMt


Year1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Ric

e yi

eld,

t ha

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8USA, r2 = 0.90, 70 kg yr-1

Indonesia, r2 = 93, 77 kg yr1

Japan, r2 = 0.51, 32 kg yr-1

India, r2 = 0.92, 42 kg yr-1

Thailand, r2 = 0.82, 21 kg yr-1

China, r2 = 96, 102 kg yr-1

World 2004 average = 3.97 t ha-1

World, r2 = 0.98, 53 kg yr1


B)

A)

d le

af-1

Phyl

loch

ron

Inte

rval

Pani

cle

Appe

aran

ceD

ays

to 5

0 %

VEGETATIVE

REPRODUCTIVE

TEMPERATURE, °C20 25 30 35 40

60

65

70

75

80

85

2

4

6

8

10

12

Phenology – Species Variability – Rice

Phenology and Temperature – cv IR 30

Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - Rice

Temperature, C0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Sow

ing

to P

anic

le E

mer

genc

e, d

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

S.K. Leong and C.K.Ong. 1983. J. Expt. Bot. 34: 1551-1561.

IR 36

Carreon

Phenology – Species Variability – Rice

Phenology and Temperature –Photoperiod

Corn or Maize, Zea mays L.

Corn is the 3rd most important food crops globally in terms of energy and protein (FAO, 2004).

Area: 147 Million haTotal production: 721 Million MtAverage yield: 4.93 t ha-1


USA

Chi

na

Braz

il

Mex

ico

Fran

ce

Indi

a

Rom

ania

Arge

ntin

a

Indo

nesi

a

Nig

eria

Sout

h Af

rica

Mai

ze p

rodu

ctio

n ar

ea, M

ha

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Mai

ze p

rodu

ctio

n, M

Mt

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350AreaProduction

Year 2004, Area = 147 Mha, production = 721 MMtWorld average = 4.93 t ha-1


USA

Chi

na

Braz

il

Mex

ico

Fran

ce

Indi

a

Rom

ania

Arge

ntin

a

Indo

nesi

a

Nig

eria

Sout

h Af

rica

Cor

n pr

oduc

tion

area

, %

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Cor

n pr

oduc

tion,

%

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

AreaProduction



Year1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Mai

ze y

ield

, t h

a-1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

France, r2 = 0.88, 138 kg yr-1

Brazil, r2 = 0.83, 47 kg yr-1

USA, r2 = 0.84, 114 kg yr-1

India, r2 = 0.79, 24 kg yr-1

China, r2 = 0.96, 100 kg yr-1

World, r2 = 0.95, 62 kg yr-1

Nigeria, r2 = 0.29, 10 kg yr-1

Argentina, r2 = 0.87, 99 kg yr-1

Phenology – Species Variability

Phenology – Leaf Appearance Rates (Phyllochrons); Maize or Corn.

• Notice the base temperature which is much different than that of cotton.

• The rate of development is also linear across a wide range of temperatures.


Phenology and Silking to Maturity: Maize or Corn

• Notice the base temperature which is much different than that of cotton, but similar to maize leaf appearance rates.

• The rate of development is also linear across a wide range of temperatures (10 to 30°C).

Corn Growth – UV-B Radiation – Species Variability

UV-B radiation, kJ m-2 d-10 5 10 15

UV-

B In

dice

s

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Stem extensionleaf area expansionLeaf developmentBiomass

Sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench

Sorghum is the 4th most important food crops globally in terms of energy and protein (FAO, 2004).2004 stats are:Area: 43.1 Million haTotal production: 57.8 Million MtAverage yield: 1.3 t ha-1

United States = 2.64 Mha, 4.4 t ha-1, 11 MMt India = 9.4 Mha, 0.8 t ha-1, 7.53 MMtNigeria = 7.1 Mha, 1.13 t ha-1, 8.03 MMtChina = 0.57 Mha, 4.1 t ha-1, 2.34 MMt Mexico = 1.91 Mha, 3.35 t ha-1, 6.4 MMt Sudan = 6.0 Mha, 4.33 t ha-1, 2.6 MMt


Sorghum – Cultivar Differences

Phenology – Panicle Initiation.

• Notice the base temperature which is almost similar to corn.

• The rate of development can be described by a bilinear model.

Sorghum – Phenology – Cultivar Differences

Phenology – Leaf development.

• Notice the base temperature which is almost similar to corn.

• The rate of development can be described by a bilinear models. Also, notice the genotypic variability.

0

40

80

120

160

0

6

12

18

24

30

32/22 36/26 40/30 44/340

5

10

15

20

32/22 36/26 40/30 44/340.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

Plan

t hei

ght (

cm)

700 mol CO2 mol-1A B

C D

Inte

rnod

e le

ngth

(cm

)

Air temperature (°C)(daytime maximum/nighttime minimum)

Nod

es (n

o. p

lant

-1)

Stem

dia

met

er (c

m)

350 mol CO2 mol-1

Sorghum – Vegetative Growth and Development

0

20

40

60

80

0

6

12

18

24

30

32/22 36/26 40/30 44/340.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

32/22 36/26 40/30 44/340

5

10

15

20

Tota

l dry

wei

ght

(g p

lant

-1)

700 mol CO2 mol-1A B

C D

Har

vest

inde

x

Air temperature (°C)(daytime maximum/nighttime minimum)

Seed

dry

wei

ght

(g p

lant

-1)

Seed

size

(mg

seed

-1)

350 mol CO2 mol-1

Sorghum – Vegetative and Reproductive Growth and Development

Sorghum – Reproductive Growth and Development

0

500

1000

1500

2000

0

25

50

75

100

32/22 36/26 40/30 44/340

25

50

75

100

Polle

n pr

oduc

tion

(no.

an

ther

-1)

7 00 mol CO 2 mo l -1A

B

C

In-v

itro

pol

len

germ

inat

ion

(%)

Air temperature (°C)(daytime max imum/nighttime minimum)

Pol

len

viab

ility

(%)

3 50 mol CO 2 mo l -1

0

10

20

30

0

10

20

30

0 10 20 30 400

10

20

30

7 00 mo l CO 2 mol -1A 32/22°C

B 36/26°C

C 40/30°C

Time after tagging (d)

Indi

vidu

al s

eed

weig

ht (m

g se

ed-1

)

3 50 mo l CO 2 mol -1

• Provides 20% of the energy and 25% of the protein requirements of over 6 billion population.

• 2004 stats are:

Area = 217 Million ha

Production = 633 Million Mt

Average yield = 2.84 t ha-1.

Wheat – Some Crop Statistics

http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/fieldday/kids/pictures/kidsfield600/cg_wheat_closeup.jpg

N.a

.N.

Chi

na

Indi

a

USA

Rus

sian

Fed

.

Fran

ce

Ger

man

y

Can

ada

Aust

ralia

Turk

ey

Ukr

aine

Paki

stan

Whe

at p

rodu

ctio

n ar

ea, M

ha

0

20

40

60

80

100

Whe

at p

rodu

ctio

n, M

Mt

0

20

40

60

80

100

AreaProduction


Wheat – Production Trends

N.a

.N.

Chi

na

Indi

a

USA

Rus

sian

Fed

.

Fran

ce

Ger

man

y

Can

ada

Aust

ralia

Turk

ey

Ukr

aine

Paki

stan

Arge

ntin

a

Kaza

khst

an

Whe

at p

rodu

ctio

n ar

ea, %

0

5

10

15

20

Whe

at p

rodu

ctio

n, %

0

5

10

15

20

AreaProduction

Year 2004 Year 2004, Area = 215.8 Mha, Production = 627.1 MMt


Year1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Whe

at y

ield

, t h

a-1

0

2

4

6

8

10

France, r2 = 0.93, 114 kg yr-1

USA, r2 = 0.81, 26 kg yr-1

India, r2 = 0.97, 50 kg yr-1

China, r2 = 0.97, 87 kg yr-1

World, r2 = 0.97, 42 kg yr-1

Australia, r2 = 0.40, 18 kg yr-1

Germany, r2 = 0.94, 111 kg yr-1


Wheat and PhenologyTemperature Effects on Flowering to maturity

Soybean Production Statistics

Soybean the most important protein and oilseed crop globally (FAO, 2004).

Area: 91.4 Million haTotal production: 204.4 Million MtAverage yield: 2.23 t ha-1

USA

Braz

il

Arge

ntin

a

Chi

na

Indi

a

Para

guay

Can

ada

Boliv

ia

Indo

nesi

a

Italy

Soyb

ean

prod

uctio

n ar

ea, M

ha

0

20

40

60

80

100

Soyb

ean

prod

uctio

n, M

Mt

0

20

40

60

80

100AreaProduction



USA

Braz

il

Arge

ntin

a

Chi

na

Indi

a

Para

guay

Can

ada

Boliv

ia

Indo

nesi

a

Italy

Soyb

ean

prod

uctio

n ar

ea, %

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Soyb

ean

prod

uctio

n, %

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

AreaProduction

Year 2004


Year1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Soyb

ean

yiel

d, t

ha-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

Italy, r2 = 0.81, 47 kg yr-1

Brazil, r2 = 0.95, 36 kg yr-1

USA, r2 = 0.81, 26 kg yr-1

India, r2 = 0.58, 14 kg yr-1

China, r2 = 0.92, 26 kg yr-1

World, r2 = 0.95, 26 kg yr-1


CO2, ppm Temp. °C Plastochron interval, d leaf-1

Final node number, no. plant-1

300 26/19 4.2 10.3

31/24 3.3 11.5

36/29 3.2 12.0

600 26/19 3.9 11.2

31/24 2.7 11.4

36/29 2.6 12.1

Temperature and CO2 Effects on Soybean Developmental Rates

4-week old cotton seedlings

Crop Growth and Development - EnvironmentResponse to temperature - Soybean biomass and seed yield

Day/night temperature, °C28/18 32/22 36/26 40/30 44/34 48/38

Biom

ass

/ see

d yi

eld

(g/p

lant

)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40Biomass

Seed yield

CO2 = 700 ppm

Temperature, °C15 20 25 30 35 40

Rat

e of

ger

min

atio

n, 1

/d-1

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

Tim

e to

ger

min

atio

n, d

4

6

8

10

12

AG 5332Progeny 5333

Y = 25.93 - 1.241x + 0.01827x2; r² = 0.93

Y = -0.1967 + 0.02227x - 0.0003082x2; r² = 93

A

B

Temperature, °C15 20 25 30 35

Sow

ing

to fl

ower

ing,

d

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Dai

ly d

evel

opm

enta

l rat

e, 1

/d-1

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04Daily rate, y = -0.0971 + 0.009271x - 0.00001686x2; r2 = 0.88

Temperature, °F59 68 77 86 95

Rate of development to R1

Days to flower or R1

Days to R1, y = 253 - 15.97x + 0.2887x2; r2 = 0.92

Temperature and Soybean Developmental Rates

Seed Germination

Sowing to Flowering

Temperature and Soybean Developmental Rates

Sowing to Floweringcv. Johnston

Mean daylength, h

12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0

Tim

e fro

m R

0 to

R1,

day

s

10

15

20

25

30

35Y = for X > 13 h,-82.3 + 7.59x; R2 = 0.71

Acock et al. 1994. Biotronics. 23: 93-104

Temperature and Soybean Developmental RatesFlowering to seed maturity (R1 to R8)

Flo

wer

ing

to m

atur

ity (R

1- R

8), d

60

70

80

90

100

AG 5332PR 5333

Y = 182 - 7.91x + 0.144x2; R2 = 0.84Y = 139 - 5.25x + 0.093x2; R2 = 0.99

Temperature, °C15 20 25 30 35

Dev

elop

men

tal r

ate,

1/d

-1

0.010

0.012

0.014

0.016

Y = -0.0025 + 0.0012x - 0.000021x2; R2 = 0.84Y = 0.0005 + 0.0011x - 0.000019x2; R2 = 0.99

(A)

(B)

Temperature, °C15 20 25 30 35 40

Mai

nste

m le

aves

, no.

pla

nt-1

0

2

4

6

Plan

t hei

ght,

cm

0

5

10

15

20

25

AG 5332Progeny 5333

A

B

Temperature and Soybean Growth Rates

Rangeland grass – Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii)

• C4 photosynthetic pathway

• Clump forming perennial grass

• Grows 3 to 6 feet tall but occasionally up to 9 feet.

• Lower stems are a purplish or bluish color

• Leaves are 1/2 inch wide and up to 20 inches long.

• Arrangement of the flowers in three dense elongate clusters is the reason for the common name of turkey-foot grass.

• Grows best in moist well drained soil in full sun and is a major component of the tallgrass prairie.

Temperature, °C15 20 25 30 35 40

Pani

cle

initi

atio

n ra

te, 1

/d-1

0.008

0.010

0.012

0.014

0.016360 µL L-1 700 µL L-1

y = 0.0056 + 0.0002781X; R2 = 0.99 for T = <26°Cy = 0.0207 - 0.00030009X; R2 = 0.97 for T = >26°C

96

77

99

8588

Rangeland grass – Big Bluestem, A. girardii

Reproductive Response – Panicle initiation

Stem

elo

ngat

ion

rate

(cm

d-1

)

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

360 L L-1

y = -3.672+0.523x+-0.011x2; R2 = 0.96

760 L L-1

y = -2.118+0.396x+-0.009x2; R2 = 0.92

Temperature (oC)

15 20 25 30 35 40

Leaf

add

ition

rate

(no.

d-1

)

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

360 L L-1

y = -0.130+0.027x+-0.001x2; R2 = 0.94

720 L L-1

y = -0.057+0.013x+-0.001x2; R2 = 0.92

[CO2] *T ***[CO2] x T NS

[CO2] *T ***[CO2] x T *


Growth and Developmental Responses

Dry

wei

ght (

g pl

ant-1

)

0

5

10

15

20

25

360 L L-1; y = -3.752-0.427x; R2 = 0.97

760 L L-1; y = -7.881-0.677x; R2 = 0.87

0

5

10

15

20

360 L L-1; y = -22.788+3.158x-0.065x2; R2 = 0.91

760 L L-1; y = -25.561+3.759x-0.082x2; R2 = 0.95

0

1

2

3360 L L-1; y = -7.227+0.754x-0.014x2; R2 = 0.97

760 L L-1; y = -4.538+0.514-0.009x2; R2 = 0.94

Temperature (oC)

15 20 25 30 35 400

5

10

15

360 L L-1; y = -26.37+2.886x-0.053x2; R2 = 0.91

760 L L-1; y = -3.143+1.452x-0.032x2; R2 = 0.92

Leaf

Stem

Panicle

Root

[CO2] ***T ***[CO2] x T **

[CO2] NS

T ***[CO2] x T NS

[CO2] NS

T ***[CO2] x T NS

[CO2] -T -[CO2] x T -

Num

ber (

plan

t-1)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

360 L L-1; y = 30.004-2.425x-0.059x2

; R2

= 0.98

760 L L-1; y = 12.957-0.871x+0.027x2

; R2

= 0.92

0

1

2

3

4 360 L L-1; y = -4.331+0.576x-0.011x2; R2 = 0.96

720 L L-1; y = -5.4296+0.673x-0.014x2; R2 = 0.90

0

2

4

6

810

12

14360 mL L-1; y = -34.595+3.425x-0.065x2; R2 = 0.98

720 mL L-1; y = -29.201+2.974x-0.058x2; R2 = 0.96

Temperature, °C

15 20 25 30 35 400

5

10

15

20

25 360 L L-1; y = -87.732+8.004x-0.149x2; R2 = 0.94

760 L L-1; y = -75.556+6.902x-0.129x2; R2 = 0.93

Tillers

Tillers with panicles

Nodes with panicles

Panicles

[CO2] **T **[CO2] x T NS

[CO2] NS

T ***[CO2] x T NS

[CO2] **T ***[CO2] x T NS

[CO2] *T ***[CO2] x T NS


Growth and Developmental Responses

Temperature (oC)

15 20 25 30 35 40

Seed

s (n

o. p

anic

le-1

)

0

50

100

150

200 360 L L-1; y = -378.860+42.571x-0.898x2; R2 = 0.84

760 L L-1; y = -483.020+50.557x-1.052x2; R2 = 0.98

[CO2] NS

T ***[CO2] x T NS

Temperature (oC)

15 20 25 30 35 40

Tota

l bio

mas

s (g

pla

nt-1

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

360 L L-1; y = -59.272+7.245x-0.134x2; R2 = 0.95

760 L L-1; y = -21.178+4.796x-0.093x2; R2 = 0.94

[CO2] NS

T ***[CO2] x T NS


Total weight response

Seed number and weight response

Temperature, °C

15 20 25 30 35

See

d w

eigh

t, g

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

0.22

0.24

0.26

0.28

720 µL L-1

360 µL L-1

Chickpea is a cool-season crop grown substantially in South and West Asia, the Mediterranean region, and South and Central America.

Chickpea - Cicer arietinum L.

Production and distribution

• Chickpea is a cool season food legume crop grown on >10 million ha in 45 countries of the world.

• Chickpea is either the first or the second most important, rainfed, cool season food legume, grown mainly by small farmers in the semi-arid tropics (SAT) and West Asia and North Africa (WANA) regions.

• The crop is also grown in southern and eastern Africa (particularly important in Ethiopia), Europe, the Americas and, more recently, Australia.

• World production is 7 million tones. • International trade in chickpeas has increased over the

years.

Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - Sowing to 50% Emergence

Chickpea Cultivars

Average Air emperature, C10 15 20 25 30 35

Day

s to

50%

Em

erge

nce

0

2

4

6

8

10

Chaffa - Early = 10.1 - 0.26*X, R2=0.79G 130 - Late = 11.3 - 0.30*X, R2=0.87Rabat - Mid-late = 13.5 - 0.33*x, R2=0.61

Roberts et al., 1980. Expt. Agric.16:343-360.

Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - Sowing to First Flower

Chickpea Cultivars

Average Air emperature, °C10 15 20 25 30 35

Day

s fro

m S

owin

g to

Firs

t Flo

wer

20

40

60

80

100

Chafa-Early = 61-1.3*X, r2 =0.44G 130 - Late = 102-1.9*X, r2 = 0.14Rabat - mid-late = 86-1.1*X, r2 = 0.08


Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - First Flower to Maturity

Chickpea Cultivars

Average Air Temperature, °C10 15 20 25 30 35

Day

s fro

m F

irst F

low

er to

Mat

urity

25

50

75

100

125

150

Chaffa-Early = 203 - 5.8*X, r2 = 0.69 G 130 - Late = 167 - 4.7*X, r2 = 0.77Rabat - Mid-late = 173-4.8X, r2 = 0.63


Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - Sowing to Maturity

Chickpea Cultivars

Average Air Temperature, °C10 15 20 25 30 35

Cro

p D

urat

ion

(sow

ing

to m

atur

ity),

d

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

Chaffa - Early = 264 - 7.1*X, r2 = 0.72G 130 - Late = 270 - 6.6*X, r2 = 0.64Rabat - mid-late = 261 - 5.9*X, r2 = 0.64


Groundnut, an important cash crop, is an annual legume. Its seeds are a rich source of edible oil (43-55%) and protein (25-28%). About two thirds of world production is crushed for oil and the remaining one third is consumed as food. Its cake is used as feed or for making other food products and haulms provide quality fodder.

Groundnut or Peanut(Arachis hypogaea L.)

1 23

4

5

6

7

WCA1Mali2Niger3Nigeria

SEA3Kenya4Malawi5Zimbabwe

Asia7India

Semi-aridtropics

MaliNigerNigeria

KenyaMalawiZimbabwe

India

The semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa (WC = western and central Africa;

SEA = southern and eastern Africa (Source: http://www. cgiar.org/icrisat/)

Groundnut or Peanut(Arachis hypogaea L.)

Distribution:Groundnut originated in the southern Bolivia/north west Argentina region in south America and is presently cultivated in 108 countries of the world.

Asia with 63.4% area produces 71.7% of world groundnut production followed by Africa with 31.3% area and 18.6% production, and North-Central America with 3.7% area and 7.5% production.

Important groundnut producing countries are China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam in Asia; Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Zaire, Chad, Uganda, Cote d'Ivory, Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mozambique, and Cameroon in Africa; Argentina and Brazil in South America and USA and Mexico in North America.

Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - Groundnut (Peanut, cv. Robut 33-1)

Temperature, C5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Rat

e of

Dev

elop

men

t

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4Leaf appearance

Branching

FloweringPeggingPodding



Phenology - Species VariabilityTemperature - Groundnut (Peanut, cv. Robut 33-1)

Leaf appearnce = 0.018*T - 0.183, r2 =0.79, 56 10.0Branching = 0.0097*T - 0.0924, r2 =0.89, 103 9.5Flowering = 0.00186*T - 0.0201, r2 =0.96, 538 10.8Pegging = 0.00149*T - 0.0158, r2 =0.90, 669 10.6 Podding = 0.00139*T - 0.0158, r2 =0.98, 720 11.4

Event Equation CGDD Tbase

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

ICGV 92116

ICGV 92118

55-437

Susceptible Moderate

Tolerant

Temperature (C)

Polle

n ge

rmin

atio

n (%

)

Effect of temperature on percentage pollen germination of susceptible(Topt < mean-LSD), moderately tolerant (Topt = mean) and tolerant(Topt > mean+LSD) genotypes. Symbols are observed values and linesare fitted values.

Temperature – Pollen Germination

% Tb Topt Tmax

40 13.8 26.5 38.551.5 11.7 30.6 40.770.3 11.9 31.9 45.2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

ICGV 92116ICGV 9211655-437

Temperature (C)

Temperature – Pollen Tube Growth

% Tb Topt Tmax

1280 16.0 36.4 45.51080 15.3 30.5 37.71410 14.5 37.6 45.1

Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata belong to the family

Fabaceae.

Cowpeas were originally native to Asia and are now an important forage and cover crop in the southern United States. The seeds, usually called black-eyed peas or black-eyed beans, are cooked and eaten.

Phenology – Species Variability – Cowpea Lines

Sowing to Flowering

Phenology and Growth - Species Variability Cardinal Temperatures - Major Crops

Sanchez et al. (2014), Global Change Biology, 20:408-417

Phenology and Growth - Species Variability Temperatures Response Functions - Major Crops

Temperature, °C10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Clip

ping

yie

ld, g

m-2

0

20

40

60

80Latitude 36, Y = -70.432 + 6.5202x - 0.0959x2; r² = 0.90MSB-285, Y = -42.856 + 3.9114x - 0.0347x2; r² = 0.99Tifway, Y = -57.719 + 5.7073x - 0.00896x2; r² = 0.99TifEagle, Y = -67.303 + 6.6061x - 0.1026x2; r² = 0.99

Temperature, °C10 15 20 25 30 35

Clip

ping

yie

ld, g

m-2

0

20

40

60

80Penn A1/A4, Y = 6.508 + 2.8872x - 0.07446x2; r² = 0.87Penncross, Y = 1.301 + 3.6046x - 0.09145x2; r² = 0.90Midnight, Y = -26.368 + 6.3349x - 0.1622x2; r² = 0.97Fiesta 4, Y = -29.371 + 8.4339x - 0.2180x2; r² = 0.98Fiesta 5, Y = -26.967 + 6.9053x - 0.01613x2; r² = 0.73

Warm-season Turf Grasses

Cool-season Turf Grasses


Horticultural Crops

Phenology – Species Variability – Crops and weedsSpecies Tmin or Tbase, °C GDD per leaf tipMaize 8 39Sorghum 8 48Pearl millet 12 26Wheat 0 99Barley 1 75Rice 5 90Soybean 7 54Sunflower 9 29Cowpeas 16 30Sugar beet 2 30Velvet leaf 8 24Pigweed 10 12Banana 8 196

Phenology and Seed Germination:

• The minimum or the base temperature, heat sum (s) or the growing degree days (GDD) from that base temperature for a number of horticultural crops.


EPI Concept and Plant Growth and Development

One way to quantify the effects of environmental factors on plant growth and development is to use the EPI concept similar to the one that we used in cotton as model crop.

EPI-phenology = Temperature (potential) * Nutrient Index (C, N, P, K) * Water index * PPF Index * PGR Index etc.,

EPI-growth = Temperature (potential) * Nutrient Index (C, N, P, K)* Water index * PPF Index * PGR Index etc.,

Once the potential is defined and quantified, then we can use EPI concept to decrease that potential to account for the effects of multiple environmental factors on given process such growth or development of any plant/crop species as in cotton crop.

EPI Concept and Plant Growth and Development

Environmental productivity index concept, if applied, works across species and locations.

EPI also allows one to interpret and to understand stresses in the field situations.

If we know the factor that is limiting most at any point of time during the growing season, then, we can make appropriate management decisions to correct that limitation.

EPI concept is the way to quantify the effects of multiple environmental factors on plant growth and development (photosynthesis, phenology, and growth) and thus productivity of any species or crop.

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