AAL-TDR..62-33

SMILITARY SMAL'L GROUP PERFORMANCE UNDER

ISOLATION AND STRESS

"CRITICAL REVIEW

III. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND BEHAVIOR ECOLOGY

TECHNICAL DOCUMENTARY REPORT AAL-TDR-62-33

June 1962

~~L;

U ARCTIC AEROMEDICAL LABORATORY

AEROSPA(,E MEDICAL DIVISIONAIR FORCE.; SYSTEMS COMMAND

FORT WAINWRIGHT, ALASKA

Project 8243-11

(Prepared under Contract AF 41(657)-323 byJ. R. Braun and S. B. Sells,Texas Christian University,

Fort Worth, Texas)

NOTICES

When US Governmaent drawings, specifications, or other data are .sedfor any purpose other than a definitely related government procu',_":•entoperation, the government thereby incurs no responsibility nor an: obliga-tion whatsoever; and the fact that the government may have formu 4ted,furnished, or in any way supplied the said drawings, specification.., orother data is not to be regarded by implication or otherwise, as 'a anymanner licensing the holder or any other person or corporation. - r con-veying any rights or permission to manufacture, use, or sell a. jatentedinvention that may in any way be related thereto.

US Government agencies and other qualified ASTIA users r'iy obtaincopies of this report from the Armed Services Technical Inf,',hmationAgency, Documerits Service Center, Arlington lZ, Virginia.

This report has been released to the Office of Technical Services, U.S.Department of Commerce, Washg.wtui, 25, D. C., for sale to the generalpublic.

FOREWORD

This review is part of a bibliographic study of research onfactors related to the effectiveness of Aircraft Control and Warning(AC&W) sites in Alaska. The literature surveyed has previouslybeen summarized in a series of annotated bibliographies (ReportsAAL TR 61-19 to 61-24). The critical reviews based on this liter-ature have been prepared as a series of five reports, covering thefollowing topics: I. Informal, Natural Groups: Development,Structure, and Function; II. Dimensions of Group Structure andGroup Behavior; III. Environmental Stress and Behavior Ecology;IV. Organizational Staffing; and V. Psychological Principles ofManagement and Leadership. The assistance of Mr. George Havenis acknowledged in the preparation of these reviews.

ABSTRACT

A critical research review of behavioral effects of iaolation,cold, and general stress, with particular reference to AC&WJ sitesin Alaska. On the basin: of the literature, environmental stress doesnot appear as a major threat to adjustment of troops stationed atAC&W sites. Human engineering has contributid _reatly to the com-fortization and control of the environment, and th.izre appears to bea wide difference between conditions of the area and conditions of thespecific work and living environment, except in cases of emergency.The possibillty of such emergenmies may be a threat, but few haveoccurred. The positive values of motivation, training, and groupdynamics (iricluding leadership) as factors which offset the disorgan-izing effects of environmental stress are pointed out.

PUBLICATION REVIEW

HORACE F. DRURY vDirector of Research

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Section 1. Introduction 1

Section 2. Isolation 2

Confinement to a Limited Space 3

Separation from Valued Stimuli 4

Separation from the Environment byReduction of Stimulation 5

Section 3. Cold Stress 7

Section 4. Stress 9

Section 5. Results of Morale Survwys Among PersonnelExposed to Isolation, Cold, and Stress 14

References 17

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MILITARY SMALL GROUP PERFORMANCE UNDER ISOLATION ANDSTRESS - CRITICAL REVIEW

III. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND BEHAVIOR ECOLOGY

SECTION 1 . INTRODUCTION

This report presents a selective review of research on theeffects of environmental stress on individual and group performancewith particular reference to the conditions experienced by Air Forcepersonnel at AC&W sites in Alaska. An annotated bibliography, withabstracts of selected studies in this area, has been published in anearlier report of this project (44).

The literaturc on adaptation of mien AL1 equipment to coldweather conditions is largely confinee to, biological .:ad medicalresearch, both in the laboratory and in the field. There is a sub-stantial amount of psychological research on "stress," includingisolation (4, 11, 20, 22, 29, 34, 37, r0), but most of this workhas restricted relevance to the present problem. Psychological re-search on Arctic problems is surprisingly limited, particularly inview of the ecurrcnt importance of Arctic (and AntarcLic) operations.As recently as 0960, Philip Law (33), an Australian Antarctic expertwith exyesi.-<'ae in 30 polar expeditions, remarked on the dearth ofpsychological information in the polar literature. The Arctic Biblio-graphy (3) of the Arctic Institute of North America, covering the years1947 to 1959, contains 43,640 references, but very little of a psy-chological nature. Edgerton, et al( (17), in 1953, found less than200 articles sufficieintly pertinent for inclusion in their study of per-sonnel factors in polar operations, after reviewing American,Canadian and British research and naturalists' reports.

In the preparation of this review, emphasis has been placed

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on empirical investigations in preference to observational and anec-dotal reports. As a result, some topics that should be included, suchas effects of prolonged day and night, whiteout, glare, and othersare omitted. The list of references includes several general biblio-graphies and review articles.

On the basis of the literature reviewed, environmental stressdoes not appear as a major threat to adjustment of troops stationedat AC&W sites. Human engineering has contributed greatly to thecomfortization and control of the environment and there appears to bea wide difference between conditions of the area and conditions ofthe specific work and living environment, except in cases of emer-gency. The possibility of such emergencies may be a threat, butfew have occurred. The positive values of motivation, training, andgroup dynamics (including leadership) in offsetting the disorganizingeffects of environmental stress are pointed out.

The discussion is in four parts: (1) ecological dimensions ofisolation; (2) adaptation and adjustment to cold; (3) a brief survey ofstress concepts and stress research; and (4) some results of moralesurveys among personnel exposed to tsoi•,±iio, cold, and stress.

SECTION 2. ISOLATION

The analysis of isolation phenomena involves three separate,but related modes of isolation: confinement, separation from valuedstimuli, and reduction of sensory stimulation (44). This classifica-tion is convenient for grouping the published studies.

Confinement to a Limited Space

The essential aspect of this mode of isolation is the restraintof iexzcdom of movement, and most reports agree that it is a serioussource of strain.

Biderman (6) discussed this mode in relation to problems in-volved in fallout shelters, where freedom of movement is necessarilylimited. He pointed out that inactivity, boredom, and monotonyincrease distress and discomfort from many sources. He also men-tioned that this generalization has g .. .vanco to persons whoare well-fed and possess a surplus ..f energy beyorm that requiredto sustain existence than it does to btciived, exhausted, or debili-tated persons.

Gaito, et al (21) at the Air Crew Equipment Laboratory(Naval Air Materiel Center, Philadelphia) studied experimentally theeffects of -onf~nement and crowding in a small space. S~x young menwere confi.-ea In a small chamber for seven days. As the experimen-tal period rontinued, performance on various psychomotor tasks de-creased in efficiency and accuracy, while tests of Judgment, learning,and reasoning showed no decrement. Morale was initially very high,but dropped drastically after a few days.

Kinsey and Murphree (32)found that some individuals in thesubmarine service have shown cldustropnobic responses to confine-ment, especially in escape training.

Jones (30) has advanced some evidence to indicate that people

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who have trouble with auithority are more prone to trouble in confine-ment. This may include people who rebel against authority, or whocling to it.

Wexler, et al. (48) confined subjects individually in a tank-type respirator for periods of up to 36 hours. They reported that:

"Though there was considerable variation in indi-vidual responses, all (17) subjects showed impairedability to concentrate, distortions in time judgment,and degrees of anxiety. Eight had psychosomaticdelusions, illusions, or hallucinations."

Rohrer (40, 41), describing men at Antarctic stations, notedthat as the "deepfreeze" winter approached, signs of depressionappeared. In accounting for this he emphasized the limitations onwork activities as a result of the low temperatures and darkness.It Is likely that the confinement and decreased freedom of movementbrought about by these conditions may also be a contributory factor.

Separation from Valued Stimuli

Grinker and Spiegel (23), writing of Men Under Stress, de-scribed this stress pointedly, as follow3:

"The thought of home intrudes itself disagreeably onthe soldier's mind when there are special causes forwony which increase his preoccupation with the sub-Ject and decrease his fighting efficiency. Lack ofmaij, worrisome letters, suspicion of wives unfaith-fulness, broken engagements, financial troubles anda host of other problems far away at home make theflier feel helpless and impotent in solving his impor-tant personal problems and stimulate his anxiety andinsecurity. These create powermll" forces that augmentthoughts of home till they become persistent obses-sions."

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In such cases enforced separation frustrates the desire tocope with p• •blems at home. This type of problem is not uniquelyassociated with remote sites, but may apply to any situation awayfrom home. Nevertheless, the remoteness, in association with otherunpleasant aspects of weather, cold, long nights, and confinement,may intensify the problems.

Gross and Miller (24) distinguished between the geographicaspects of isolation (being far from surrounding towns) and culturalaspects (being located in an alien culture). Both aspects involve aseparation from the usually valued stimuli for an individual. Chance(10) has written of the rapid cultural changes in Eskimo villages inregions of DEW line installations. Although such changes willoperate to make the regions surrounding these installations some-what less alien to site personnel, profound differences will stillexist between such regions and those to which the personnel areaccustomed.

Separation from the Environment by Reduction of Stimulation

The well-known McGill Unrversity studies, by Bexton, Heron,and Scott (5) (See also Heron, 26W) (n t nsory depri'vdtion fall inthis category. These and other related studies have produced im-pairments of behavior by reducing markedly the patterning or varia-bility of sensory stimulation. Lilly (,6), at Bethesda, carried outrelated studies by reducing the absolute intensity of stimulation.The explanation of such phenomena is neurophysiological. It is be-lieved that t-.I arousal mechanisms of the ascending reticular systemare fired by continual, varied sensory Inpult (5).

Freedman and Greenblatt (20) have found that perceptual dis-tortions and hallucinations seem to be most directly related to a lackof patterning or absence of order and meaning. Thus a homo.geneousvisual field, regardless of its intensity, seemed to produce cognitiveeffects. Greater perceptual distortion cccurred with diffuse lightthan with a blacked-out visual field.

Holt and Goldberger (27, 28) compared the effects of 100gamma of the psychotomimetic drug, LSD-25, with those of 8 hours

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of perceptual isolation. They found that LSD "produces a state sub-jectively more striking and qualitatively different from the effects of8 hours of isolation." In addition they investigated the personologi-cal correlates of reactions to perceptual isolation, using a widerange of tests and clinical Q-sort ratings.

Levy, Ruff, and Thaler (35) kept men inside a soundproof darkchamber containing a bed, chair, refrigerator, and chemical toiletfor up to seven days. Tests of intellectual functions showed no dec-rement, although the men reported less interest and motivation inthinking. No unusual perceptual phenomena were reported.

Jones and Goodson (31) were concerned with the effects ofboredom on suggestibility in a situation which they described asfollows: "Each cadet in the isolation group was seated in a narrowstall, 2 feet wide and 3 feet deep. No matter where he looked, for-ward, backward, up, down, or to the side, he saw only blank walls.The separation between the hard wood bench on which he sat and thetable top on which he rested his head and arms was so slight that hecoulan't stand up without stepping out of the stall, which he was for-bidden to do."

The subjects were kept in these surroundings for approximatelyeight hours and then tested individually for suggestibility by meansof the Hull body-sway technique. The results indicated that the iso-lated subjects were more suggestible, and that these findings couldnot be attributed just to muscular immobility.

it should be clear that the three aspects of isolation whichhave been discussed, (1) confinement to a limited space, (2) separa-tion from valued stimuli, and (3) separation from the environment byreduction of stimuli, are not mutually exclusive. In many situationsall may be operating simultaneously with cumulative effects. Allthree may occur at Alaskan AC&W sites, but effects directly attribu-table to such stress have not been evaluated in the field.

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SECTION 3. COLD STRESS

As indicated by Washburne (47), much of the work in thisarea has been from a medical-biological standpoint. Adams (1, 2)has provided a useful discussion of the physiological, neurophysio-logical, and endocrinological principles involved in the control ofbody temperature and Carlson and Thursh (9) compiled a selected,annotated bibliography of material on human acclimatization to cold.Studies by Davis and Joy (12) appear to demonstrate that man canadapt physiologically to cold. These authors believe "cold adapta-tion can be artificially induced at a faster rate and to a greater de-gree than naturally occurring cold acclimatization, that acclimatiza-tion in clothed individuals is similar in rate and degree regardlessof ambient environmental temperatuie, that heat acclimatization doesnot affect either artificial or natural cold acclimatization, and thatartificial cold acclimatization is retained through the summer monthswhile seasonal acclimatization is not."

Debons (14) investigated the psý,nhoiogical chafacteristicsof frostbite cases occurring durfnl 'Operation Sweetbriar" in thewinter of S4 9 -1 5 0 . His results support the belief that the casualtieswere incapacitated to perform effectively in the field, possibly dueto underlying psychological conditiors. Subjectively, the Frostbitecasualty was characterized by his associates in the field in suchterms as "did not do anything to help himself," "just forgot all helearned," "re'used to do what others did," and "was less active thanothers." Dobons concluded that: "These indications are consistentwith the Opinion Questionnaire results typifying the Frostbite caseas an individual resistant to change and categorized, according tothe work by this laboratory in adjustment, as Non-Adjusting toAlaska."

Blair and Gottschalk (7), working with the Army MedicalResearch Laboratory at Ft. Knox, Kentucky, used a specially con-structed "cold room" to test four young Signal Corps operators forthe operation of radar, radio, and switchboard equipment at low tem-peratures. Even though the subjects wore special kinds of clothing

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i i I .ill _._d .-- _ I -.I I I i

and mittens, efficiency on the radar apparatus dropped to 75 per centat -25°C and to 50 per cent at -390C. Radio and switchboard opera-tion efficiency was even lower.

Dusek (16) used a similar cold room at the Army Quartermas-ter Research and Engineering Center at Natick, Massachusetts.Eighteen barehanded subjects were given tests of manual dexterityin temperatures ranging from 35°F to 550F. Fine finger dexterity wasespecially susceptible to cold, but gross hand movements were lessaffected. Teichner and Wehrkamp (45) found that hand-eye coordi-nation is also affected by cold.

Few studies have dealt with the effects of cold on intellec-tual functioning. Blair, Urbush, and Reed (8) used questionnairesto obtain impressions of possible changes in reasoning power andmemory from 78 Army enlisted men who had been stationed at Ft.Churchill, Canada for four winter months. Fifty-nine out of the 78reported no change in "reasoning power," and 57 reported no changein memory.

Fine and Gaydos (19) studici the relationship between indi-vidual personality variables a;id body t,rpe:ature res;onse patternsin the cold. Their subjects were placed in a cold room at 50°F andthen observed during recovery at 780F. Changes in ±ectal tempera-tures served as a measure of rate of physiological reoovery. Indi-viduals with certain types of Minnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory scores were found to take longer to recover normal tempera-ture than did raiers.

App.arently, fine manual dexterity is impaired by intensecold, even with special clothing and mittens. However, cold doesnot appear to be a serious threat to adjustment for the majority ofmilitary personnel.

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SECTION 4. STRESS

The literature on stress is highly contradictory and con-fusing. There is hardly any agreement on definition of the term.Environmental stress, in the context of this report, refers to dis-turbing effects on individuals or groups resulting fiom their inter-actions with particular aspects of the environment. The concept ofstress emphasizes the interaction of the organism and environment.Neither physical aspects of the environment, such as intense cold,nor ps'-ahophysiological states, such as fear or anxiety, separately,defirae stress, which reflects the joint contributions of both. Thereactions of people or groups of people to disturbing characteristicsof the environment, and the effects of such reactions on their per-formance of normal duties, are of primary interest in the study ofstress.

Harris, Mackie, and Wilson (25, p. 28, 40), among others,have pointed out the considerable v-:i:t"-- in conceptualization ofperformance under stress as used .n current experdn1ents and theoreti-cal writings. Their argument includas the following which highlightssome of the difficulties involved in a meaningful definition of stress:

"It is possible that a high level of perform-ance may be maintained under stress but at a con-siderable cost to the organism. For example, asold'.,r may perform efficiently for long periods oftime under combat stress while marked changes inhis physiological functioning are occurring. Theeventual result of stress may be a sudden and com-plete breakdown, a loss of the ability or the will toperform at all. For this reason, it would seem to bequite important to s•ample behavior on several dimen-sions (performance, personality and physiological)to detect possible inte.irelationships among responsesand to observe it under relatively long-term stress

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conditions . .... Of all the stress studies cited,only one finding appears sufficiently consistent tobe generalized: Some people are better able towithstand stressful conditions than are others--there are wide variations in individual reacUons tostress. "

An interpretation that we favor is that "Stress reactions arebest explained by reference to the concepts of stress as the pres-sures imposed on or perceived by the tndividual and strain as thereactions, physiological and psychological, of the individual to thestress. Such reactions are characterized by generalized homeo-static mechanisms; that is, the individual constantly strives tomaintain himself in a comfortable, balanced state. This is done byadapting (adjtustIIgj) to stimuli, either within himself or in the en-vironment, which disturb his comfort, balance or equilibrium.Stress stimuli differ from other disturbing stimuli primarily in theirseverity, suddenness or duratIon" (43).

Chilcs (11) presented an interestiig at.empt to considerstress in terms of the psychological fi'am.weork dvelope-, by Brownand Farber for an analysis of the approach-avoidance situation, andMiller, Bouthilet and Eldridge (37) compiled a useful bibliographyfor the development of stress-sensitive tests.

However, Gorham and Orr (22), Harris, Mackie, and Wilson(25), and other. ha,,e found the stress research literature confusedand contradictory. The latter reviewers, in a critique of studies in-vestigating the effect of stress on performance, expressed the viewwhich most critical reviews of the stress and fatigue literature haveaccepted. There are indeed wide variations in individual reactions,but the factors that account for these, particularly within the rangeof normal, well-adjusted individuals, are difficult to pin down.

Holtzman and Bitterman (29) concur on the importane of in-dividual differences in response to stress. They noted that "Pub-lished reports indicate that while nearly all flyers experience someanxiety before and during combat, the intensity of this experience

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varies greatly. Furthermore, under strong emotional tension someindividuals are capable of more effective control of behavior thanare others who soon become badly incapacitated."

Applezweig and Moeller (4) proposed that a meaningfulapproach to an understanding of psychological stress is throughan evaluation of individual motivation. They conceived stress asan environment-person interaction, dependent upon both the situa-tion and the person. Their view is that: "Stress research concen-trating on the environment alone might produce only deceptivegeneralizations about what situations might be stressful to mostpeople. It might be more fruitful to ask what situations might bedamaging to what aspirations or values or motives held by perbonspossibly subject to exposure to thase situations." They arguedthat analysis of both motive systems and the behavior modes de-veloped to serve them is necessary.

A similar view was advanced by Lazarus, Deese, and Osler(34), who concliided that-

"The successful understanding of an individual'sperformance under stress depe-ds upon some wayof measuring the kinds and strength of his motiva-tions and relating them to the characteristics of thesituation in which he must perform. The fulfillmentof this aim, is, indeed, no simple affair."

In iabc' atory investigations, Deese and Lazarus (15) foundthat well-learned habits are more resistant to the adverse effects ofstress than are poorly learned habits. In this connection, Sells (43)noted that: "Prior experience in meeting emergencies, even simulatedpractice emergencies, together as a team and training and practicetogether under a wide range of situations gives every member of thegroup many advantages to help face new problems." A particularadvantage mentioned by Sells, as an outcor. 9 of training in workingtogether as a team, is that: "Each man has developed a set of ex-pectations which enable him to anticipate who does what, when andhow to give and receive relevant information economically andmeaningfully."

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Similarly, Torrance (46) observed that "Under stress, theselinkages between members may become confused and thus people donot have a clear perception of what they can expect from one another,with whom they can relate, how they can relate to one another, andso on." Students of both civilian disasters (Wolfensteen, 49) andmilitary emergencies and extreme conditions (Torrance, 46) have rec-ognized the Importance of overlearning through rehearsal and practice,particularly of emergency procedures. This conclusion was also em-phasized by Biderman (6), after the Korean War: "One possiblelesson from the military experience is that training and informationcan create a general disposition to act in a crisis--to attempt tocope with the crisis. Here, the contributions of training were quitemanifest statistically among the Air Force Korean group . . . The es-cape traditions of the RAF as well as of the USAF in World War II,also illustrate how the disposition to act in crisis can b; developed."

In addition to demonstrating the importance of training as afactor in coping with stress, many of these studies may be seen asshowing the importance of group support. Popular expressions, suchas strength in numbers, strength in unity. "United we stand; dividedwe fall," and "A house divided againat itself cannot stand", reflectthis also.

Torrance had approximately 200 ,nterviews coiducted withAir Force personnel who had been dowrad over enemy territory duringWorld War II or the Korean conflict. Approximately 1,000 criticalincidents were abstracted and analyzed to develop hypotheses con-cerning effect-, e and ineffective functioning under actual survivalconditions. Group structure seemed to be one of the more importantfactors invdved in such stressful situations. "It appears that thecapacity of a group to survive depends in no small part upon itsskill in orgarnizing its efforts."

On this point, Sells wrote that: "Whan men function as a team,instead of milling about like a disorganied mob, they have morestrength, skill, ingenuity, stress tolerance and stamina than any ofthem individually and their odds against failure are multiplied manyfold. The plan and goal of the group gives a plan and goal to everyman. The eyes and ears of many see for all."

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The stresses involved in the survival situations differ fromthose which are brought about by the isolation and cold of the remotesites. Washburne (47) spelled out these differences beautifully inhis concept of the passive def6nder. Basing his observations onpersonnel interviewed at antiaircraft artillery (pre-Nike) sites inGreenland and Alaska, he noted that:

"Soldiers at such stations are not faced with fre-quent crises. Rather, their existence is markedby monotony and seeming purposelessness. Likeother soldiers, they are there to meet crisis whenit comes. The difference is that crisis does notcome to them in peacetime and their lot is to waitand to watch. . . . Passive defense, with its vigi-lance tasks and its monotony, certainly offersdifferent stresses and different rewards from thoseoffered to the soldier in the field."

Ewart (18) discussed similar factors as being involved poten-tially at ballistic missile sites. it iL a ).,..'.ble hypothesis thatleadership and effective group organ--ation will be 1-xneficial inmeeting these chronic, more subtle stresses, as well as thosestresses involved in survival situations.

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SECTION 5. RESULTS OF MORALE SURVEYS AMONG PERSONNELEXPOSED TO ISOLATION, COLD, AND STRESS

Washburne (47), generalizing on the basis of five large-scale surveys of human adjustment problems in the northern lati-tudes (carried out at the Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory), concludedas follows: "In general, the studies revealed that most of the mal-adjustment to life in Alaska was related to dissatisfaction with themanner in which certain services were provided for the men and theirfamilies; men complained, for instance, of the lack of Interestingthings to do, inadequate social outlets, and lack of faith in the AirForce system of military law."

Gross and Miller (24) explored the impact of isolation onworker adjustment at military installations in both the United Statesand Japan. Recreation, both on and off the site was found to be aserious problem at isolated sites situated in both countries. Theystated that: "The military installation which provides a varied rec-reational program and relates itself tc Lhc '.1.--1 community builds aminiature society. Without the rudiirtnts of a full so-ial life,civilian soldiers will not be likely to ach.eve high morale on protec-tive or occupation assignments. The consequences may be exhibitedin low site efficiency and a low re-enl'stment rate. Leisure problems,in this context, should receive top prioriry at all Command Levels."

Acc,)rdirj to McCollum (38), the recreational aspects ofAlaskan duty have received undue emphasis as "morale" determinants.An anonymo'I survey questionnaire administered to airmen at eightAlaskan USAF bases found that no particular sport engages more than17 per cent of the airmen, while vicarious escapes (e.g., reading,movies) were overwhelmingly supported by the men. Over 17 per centof the men registered the feeling that "things on the base were gen-erally 'messed up'."

Debons (13) administered a 20-item questionnaire to 485 Armyand 360 Air Force personnel after the joint ground-air defense trainingexercise "Dutch Door". Of the total sample 25 per cent were criticalof their leadership.

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According to Edgerton (17), "There is evidence in the litera-ture on leadership in the Arctic regions that psychological adjustmentin this region is not governed by the severity of the cold itself, butrelates to the success or failure of leadership provided by officersin dispelling effects of isolation which the cold produces. Whenthere is good leadership at a base, even very poor living conditionsappear to have no serious effect on the morale of the men. One studywas made at a base in which there were very good living conditions;however, the leadership was poor and the morale was low. This basewas compared with another one which had very poor living conditionsbut good leadership and the morale was high. . . . Administrativepolicies are of great importance in keeping morale high in coldweather operations."

The finding that environmental variables do not necessarilyrelate to behavior in a one-to-one manner should perhaps not surprt 3eus. The Western Electric studies by Roethiisberger and Dickson (3')at the Hawthorne Works An Chicago have furnished a precedent forthis finding. They investigated the effects of factors such as tem-perature, humidity, and illumination on production, and found thatwithin a wide range of values these " are secondary to humanrelations factors.

Perhaps it should be re-emphasized also, that most of thework cited is more applicable to "pas.'tve defenders" rather than totroops under field conditions. They may be located at a longitudeand latitude involving quite low temperatures, but characteristically,they do not hav,) to be exposed to such temperatures foi" very long.Their actual "-'orking and living conditions involve comfortable tem-peratures. Man does, after all, mold the pl ysical environment tomake it mnore suitable for him.

Isolation, in the senses of confinement to a limited space,separation from valued stimuli, and to some extent separation fromthe environment by reduction of stimulation, would still be presenteven under comfortable temperatures. Lkewise one might argue thatthe threat or possibility of exposure to the unfavorable ecology wouldbe present even under comfortable temperatures, thus providing achronic source of anxiety or threat. We indicated earlier the hypo-thesis that leadership and effective group organization may be found

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to be of benefit in meeting such long-term, subtle stresses, as wellas the stresses involved in an unusual crisis. The previously citedfinding of Edgerton that "When there is good leadership at a base,even very poor living conditions appear to have no serious effect onthe morale of the men" may be seen as supporting this hypothesis.

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REFERENCES

1 Adams, Thomas. The control of body temperature. Ladd AirForce Base, Alaska: Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory,AAC, July, 1960. (AAL TR 59-21) (Tech. Rep. 59-21)

2. Adams, Thomas. Environmental fsctors iinfluencinc thermalexchange. Ladd AFB, Alaska: Arctic AeromedicalLaboratory, AAC, September, 1960. (AAL-TR-59-22)(Tech. Rep. 59-22)

3. Arctic Institute of North America. Arctic Bibliography (8 vols.)Washington, D.C.: Arctic Institute of North America,1947-1949.

4. Applezweig, Mortimer H., & Moeller, George. The role ofmotivation in Psvcholooical stress. New London,Conn.: Connecticut Cc".-cA flept. of Psychology,Jan., 1957. (ONR cotract No. Nonr 996 (02), ProJ.NR 171-228)

5. Bexton, W. H., Heron, W., & Scott, T. H. Effects ofdecreased variation in t!e sensory environment.Canadian .j of Psychol., 1954, 8, 70-76.

6. Biderm?,,, Albert D. The relevance of internment for the problemof shelter habitability -, 'orkinu a Washington:Disaster Research Group, Division of Anthropology andPsychology, National Academy of Sciences, NationalResearch Council, 1958.

7. Blair, E. A., & Gottschalk, C. W. Efficlency of signal corsoperators in e>treme cold. rt. Knox, Ky.: ArmyMedlccl Researclh Laboratory, 1947. Report 2.

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8. Blair, J. R., Urbush, F. W., & Reed, I. T. Preliminary obser-vations on physiological, nutrition_, andpholocal

problems in extreme cold. Ft. Churchill, Canada:Army Medical Research Lab., 1947. Report 8.

9. Carlson, L. D., & Thursh, H. L. Human acclimatization tocold A..selected annotated bibliocrath7 of the con-cepts of adaptation and acclimatization as studied inman. Ladd AFB, Alaska: Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory,Sept., 1960.

10. Chance, Norman A. Culture change and integration: anEskimo example. Amer. Anthro.., 1960, §1(6), 1-26.

11. Chiles, Dean W. Psycholoy stress A I. theoretical conceptWright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Wright Air DevelopmentCenter, Air Research and Development Command, USAF,July, 1957.

12. Davis, Thomas R. A., & Juy, Robert J. T. Natural and arti-ficial cold acclimatizat~in in" -in, ft. Knox, Ky.:Division of P wivronmctId Medicine, U. S. ArmyMedical Research Labow.toty. (USAMRL Proj. No.6X61-06-001, Task 5)

13. Debons, Anthony. Aurve I nraction of m and Air Forcepersonnel, LLAdd AFB, toward certain asi)ects Pertinenttc the defense of their installation (Post Exercise"-Dutch Door"). Ladd AFB, Alaska: Arctic AeromedicalLaboratory, Feb., 1951.

14. Debons, Anthony. Psychological inquiry into sevwral casesof frostbite occurring jffing "Operation Sweetoriar".Ladd AFB, Alaska: Arctic Aeromedical I.Tboratory,March, 1951.

15. Deese, James, & Lazarus, Richard S. The effects of psycho-logical stress upon perceptual-motor performance.

San Antonio: Lackland AFB, Air Training Command,Human Resources Center, June, 1952.

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16. Dusek, E. R. Manual performance and Ainger temperature asSfulction of ambient temperature. Natick, Mass.:

Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, 1957.(Tech. Rep. EP - 68)

17. Edgerton, Harold A., etj&. Personnel factorf j olar oDera-tions. New York: Richardson, Bellows, Henry, May,1953. (Contract No. Nonr. 871 (00))

18. Ewart, E. S. ._suRvey of potential morge motivation, garetention problems at ballistic Mj_ lle sites*. SanAntonio: Personnel Laboratory, WADC, Air Researchand Development Command, Lackland APB, Oct., 1958.(ASTIA Document No. AD 203 399)

19. Fine, B. J., & Gaydos, H. F. Relationship between indi-vidual personality variables and body temperatureresponse patterns in the cold. Psvchol Reports,1959, ._ 71-78.

20. Freedman, Sanford J., & Greenr!',11. 11Ilton. 6tudies in humanisolation. Wright-Padterson AFB, Ohio! AerospaceMedical Laboratory, Wr~qht Air Devel"-n,:ent Center,Air Research and Development Command, USAF, Sept.,1953. (Cont'act No. AF 33(616)-5663, ProJ. No. 7220;Task No. 71141)

21. Gaitn, J., Hanna, T. D., Bowe, R., & Greco, S. Environ-mental effectsof sealed cabins for space and orbitalflights P . Performance habitability aspects ofextended confinement. Philadelphia: Naval AizMateriel Center, 1958.

22. Gorham, William A., & Off, David B. Research on behaviorimvairment due to stress. Washington: AmericanInstitute for Research, Air Force Personnel and TrainingCenter, Air Research and Development Command, USAF,San Antonio, Texas.

19

23. Grinker, Roy R., & Spiegel, John P. Men under stress.Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945.

24. Gross, Edwa.d, & Miller, Delbert C. The impact of isolationon worker adjustment in military installations of theUnited States and Japan. (Unpublished report, research,in part supported by USAF Contract AF 33(038) - 26832,monitored by HRRI, ARDC Maxwell AIB, Alabama.)

25. Harris, William, Mackie, Robert R., & Wilson, Clark L.Performance under stress: a review and critique of re-cent studies. Los Angeles: Human Factors Research,Inc., July, 1956. (Contract Nonr 124 (00))

26. Heron, W. The pathology of boredom. Scientific American1957, CXCVI, 52-56.

27. Holt, Robert R., & Goldberger, Leo. Personological correlatesof reactions to Perceptual isolation. Wright-PattersonAFB, Ohio: Aerospace Medical Laboratory, Wright AirDevelopment Center, Ah i and DevelopmentCommand, USAF', Nove:.z,.:r, 1959. (Co.ntract No. AlF33(616) - 6103)

28. Holt, Robert R., & Goldberger, T.a Research on the effectsof isolation on cognitive functioning. Wright-PattersonAFB, Ohio: Wright Air Development Division, March,1160. (Contract No. AF 33(61b) - 6103)

29. Hoitznan, W. H., & Bitterman, M. E. Psychiatric screeninyof flying personnel. Randolph Field, Texas: Air Univ.,USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Dec., 1952. (Con-tract No. 21-37-002, Report No. 6)

30. Jones, M. B. Personal autonomy and confinement in the Navalservice. Pensacola, Fla.: U.S. Navy, School ofAviation Medicine, 1956.

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31. Jones, Marshall B., & Goodson, James E. The effect of bore-doma on suggestibility. Pensacola, Fla.: U. S. NavalSchool of Aviation Medicine, U.S. Naval AviationMedical Center, July 1, 1959. (Research Proj. NM 1601 11, Subtask 16, Report No. 1)

32. Kinsey, J. L., & Murphree, H. B. Claustrophobic reactionsto some stresse of the submarine service, New London,Conn., U. 3. Navy, Submarine Medical Research Lab-oratory, 1955.

33. Law, Philip. Personality problems in Antarctica. Med..I.Australia Feb. 20, 1960, 273-282. (The Sir RichardStawell Oration, delivered to the VicLorian Branch ofthe British Medical Association.)

34. Lazarus, Richard S., Deese, James, & Osler, Sonia F. Reviewof research on effects of psychological stress upoperformance. San Antonio: Lackland AFB, Air TrainingCommand, Dec., 1951- (Research Bulletin 51-28)(Contract No. AF 33(0.^) - .:2ý3)

35. Levy, E. Z., Ruff, G. E., & Tnalur, V. H. Studies in humanisolation. .T. Amer. Med. Assoc., 1959, 169, 236-239.

36. Lilly, John C. Effects of Phys'-cal restraint and of reductionof ordinary levels of physical stimuli on intact, healthpersons. (A paper presented to the Group for the Ad-vancement of Psychiatry, November 1'3, 1955, AsburyPark, N.J.) (typewritten)

37. Miller, James G., Bouthilet, Lorraine, & Eldridge, Carmen.A bibliography for the development of stress-sensitivetests. Washington: Psychological Research Associates,Oct., 1953.

38. McCcllum, Ernest L. Survey. of adjustment problems in thenorthern latitudes - morale survey o2f Alaskan AirCommand. Ladd AFB, Alaska: Arctic AeromedicalLaboratory, August, 1950.. (Proj. No. 21-01-022, Pro-gram C, Part 1-C)

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39. Roethlisberger, F. J., & Dickson, Williamson J. Manage-ment and the worker--an account of a research programconducted bj the Western Electric Co., HawthorneWorks, Chicago. Cain•bridge, Mass.: Hariiard Univ.Press, 1939.

40. Rohrer, John H. Some impression� of psychic adjustment toolar isolation. Washington: Georgetown Univ.

Medical School, March, 1958. (Mimeo)

41. Rohrer, John H. Human adjustment to Antartic isolationWashington: Dept. of Navy, Office of Naval Research,June, 1959.

42. Sells, S. B. Emerging problems of human adaptability to mili-tary flyin missions. (Presented at the Human FactorsTechnical Symposium, Chicago, 5-6 June, 1956)

43. Sells, S. B. Lecture notes on the psychological aspects ofsurvival for U.S.A.F. combat crews. r rdolph AFB,Texas: School of Aviation .,,,

44. Sells, S. B. Military small group Performance under isolationand stress. An annotated bibliography. III. Environ-mental stress and behavir ecology Arctic AeromedicalLaboratory, Fort Wainwright, Alaska, Report No. AAL-TR-GI-21, October, 1961.

45. Teichner, W. H., & Wehrkamp, R. F. Visual-motor perform-ance as a function of short-duration ambient tempera-ture. J.. exp. Psychol., 1954, 4..7, 447-450.

46. Torrance, E. Paul. The behavior of small groups under thestress conditions of "survival". Amer. soc, Rev.,1954, 19 (6), 751-755.

47. Washburne, Norman F. A survey of human factors in militaryperformance in extreme cold weather. (Research Memo-randum). Washington: George Washington Univ.,HumRRo, June, 1960.

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48. Wexler, Donald, Mendelson, Jack, Seiderman, P. Herbert, &Soloman, Philip. Sensory deprivation. A.M_.A. Arch.of Neural. Psychiat., Feb., 1958, 79, 225-233.

49. Wolfensteen, Martha. Disaster. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press,1957.

50. Zimmer, Herbert. Psychological impact of polar climate:selected bib.iographv. Washington, D.C.: GeorgetownUniversity Medical Center, Sept., 1958. (ONR Con-tract Nonr 1530 (06))

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