Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada7-1Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Learning and...

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 7-1Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada

Learning and ConditioningLearning and Conditioning

Chapter 7Chapter 7

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 7-2Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada -2

Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning in Real LifeClassical Conditioning in Real Life

• Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Principles of Operant ConditioningPrinciples of Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning in Real LifeOperant Conditioning in Real Life

• Learning and the MindLearning and the Mind

Basics of LearningBasics of Learning

• Learning:Learning: A relatively permanent change in behaviour A relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behavioural potential) due to experience(or behavioural potential) due to experience

• Behaviourism: Behaviourism: Approach that emphasizes the study of Approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviour and the role of the environment observable behaviour and the role of the environment as a determinant of behaviouras a determinant of behaviour

• Conditioning: Conditioning: Basic kind of learning that involves Basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the associations between environmental stimuli and the organism’s responsesorganism’s responses

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 7-3

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

• Pavlov’s works with salivation in dogs led to discovery of Pavlov’s works with salivation in dogs led to discovery of learning principleslearning principles

• Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning: process by which a process by which a previously neutral previously neutral stimulus acquires the stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a capacity to elicit a response through response through association with a association with a stimulus that already stimulus that already elicits a similar or related elicits a similar or related responseresponse


New Reflexes from OldNew Reflexes from Old

• Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US)

– A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning (e.g., food)absence of learning (e.g., food)

• Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR)

– Reflexive response elicited Reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence by a stimulus in the absence of learning (e.g., salivation) of learning (e.g., salivation)


New Reflexes from OldNew Reflexes from Old

• Neutral stimulus Neutral stimulus

– Stimulus that does not yet produce a responseStimulus that does not yet produce a response

– Regularly paired with Regularly paired with unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus

– Neutral stimulus becomes Neutral stimulus becomes “conditioned” to “conditioned” to elicit a response elicit a response


New Reflexes from OldNew Reflexes from Old• Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)

– An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food bowl)an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food bowl)


• Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)

– A response that is elicited by A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; occurs a conditioned stimulus; occurs after the CS is associated with after the CS is associated with the US (e.g., salivation)the US (e.g., salivation)

Principles of Classical ConditioningPrinciples of Classical Conditioning

• ExtinctionExtinction

– The weakening & The weakening & eventual disappearance eventual disappearance of a learned responseof a learned response

– Occurs when the CS is Occurs when the CS is no longer paired with the no longer paired with the USUS

– May experience May experience spontaneous recovery spontaneous recovery of of response after extinctionresponse after extinction



• Higher-order conditioningHigher-order conditioning

– A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a A procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulusalready established conditioned stimulus



• Stimulus generalizationStimulus generalization– Tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles Tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles

one involved in original conditioningone involved in original conditioning– Occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS Occurs when a stimulus that resembles the CS

elicits the CRelicits the CR

• Stimulus discriminationStimulus discrimination– Tendency to respond differently to two or more Tendency to respond differently to two or more

similar stimulisimilar stimuli– Occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to Occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to

evoke the CRevoke the CR


What is Actually Learned?What is Actually Learned?

• Classical conditioning is most effective when Classical conditioning is most effective when stimulus to be conditioned precede the stimulus to be conditioned precede the unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the Conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus

• To become a CS, a neutral stimulus must To become a CS, a neutral stimulus must reliably signal or reliably signal or predictpredict the US (Rescorla) the US (Rescorla)


Classical Conditioning in Real LifeClassical Conditioning in Real Life

• Learning to Like:Learning to Like:

– Classical conditioning involved in our positive emotional Classical conditioning involved in our positive emotional responses to objects, people, symbols, events, & placesresponses to objects, people, symbols, events, & places



• Learning to Fear:Learning to Fear:

– May learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with May learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with something that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassmentsomething that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassment

– Humans come biologically “prepared” to learn certain Humans come biologically “prepared” to learn certain fears faster than others (evolutionary basis)fears faster than others (evolutionary basis)

• E.g., snakes, spiders, heightsE.g., snakes, spiders, heights

– Phobias:Phobias: an exaggerated unrealistic fear of a specific an exaggerated unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or objectsituation, activity, or object


The Case of Little AlbertThe Case of Little Albert• Classic Watson & Raynor (1920) experimentClassic Watson & Raynor (1920) experiment

• Conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by Conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noises)stimulus (loud noises)

• Days later, fear had also generalized to other furry objectsDays later, fear had also generalized to other furry objects


The Case of PeterThe Case of Peter

• Jones (1924) and Watson demonstrated that fears can also Jones (1924) and Watson demonstrated that fears can also be unlearned (e.g., Peter’s fear of rabbits)be unlearned (e.g., Peter’s fear of rabbits)

• Counterconditioning: Counterconditioning: process of pairing a conditioned process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned responseincompatible with an unwanted conditioned response



• Accounting for Taste:Accounting for Taste:

– Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to like & Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to like & dislike many foods and odoursdislike many foods and odours

– Researchers have taught animals to dislike foods/odours Researchers have taught animals to dislike foods/odours by pairing them with drugs that cause nausea or other by pairing them with drugs that cause nausea or other unpleasant symptomsunpleasant symptoms

• E.g., Seligman & dislike of Béarnaise sauceE.g., Seligman & dislike of Béarnaise sauce• E.g., the “Garcia effect” & biological preparednessE.g., the “Garcia effect” & biological preparedness



• Reacting to Medical Treatments:Reacting to Medical Treatments:

– Stimuli associated with drug Stimuli associated with drug treatments that produce nausea treatments that produce nausea can become conditioned stimuli can become conditioned stimuli

• E.g., chemotherapy treatments E.g., chemotherapy treatments for cancer patientsfor cancer patients

– Placebos may help to reduce Placebos may help to reduce pain & anxiety without side effectspain & anxiety without side effects


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

– The process by which a response becomes The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequencesconsequences

– Organism’s response Organism’s response operatesoperates or produces or produces effects on the environment which influence effects on the environment which influence whether response will occur againwhether response will occur again

– Principles of Thorndike and B.F. SkinnerPrinciples of Thorndike and B.F. Skinner


Consequences of BehaviourConsequences of Behaviour

• Skinner argued that a response (“operant”) can Skinner argued that a response (“operant”) can lead to three types of consequences:lead to three types of consequences:

1.1. A neutral consequence neither increases or decreases the A neutral consequence neither increases or decreases the probability that the response will recurprobability that the response will recur

2.2. ReinforcementReinforcement strengthens the response or makes it more strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recurlikely to recur

3.3. PunishmentPunishment weakens the response or makes it less likely to weakens the response or makes it less likely to recurrecur


Reinforcement & PunishmentReinforcement & Punishment

• Reinforcement:Reinforcement: the process the process by which a stimulus or event by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the strengthens or increases the probability of the response probability of the response that it followsthat it follows

• Punishment:Punishment: the process the process by which a stimulus or by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces event weakens or reduces the probability of the the probability of the response that it followsresponse that it follows


Primary & Secondary Primary & Secondary ConsequencesConsequences

• Primary reinforcerPrimary reinforcer– Stimulus that is inherently Stimulus that is inherently

reinforcing, typically reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological satisfying a physiological need (e.g., food)need (e.g., food)

• Secondary reinforcerSecondary reinforcer– Stimulus that has acquired Stimulus that has acquired

reinforcing properties reinforcing properties through association with through association with other reinforcersother reinforcers

• Primary punisherPrimary punisher– Stimulus that in inherently Stimulus that in inherently

punishing (e.g., electric punishing (e.g., electric shock)shock)

• Secondary punisherSecondary punisher– Stimulus that has acquired Stimulus that has acquired

punishing properties punishing properties through association with through association with other punishersother punishers


ReinforcementReinforcement

• Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement

– When a response is followed by the presentation or When a response is followed by the presentation or increaseincrease in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; response becomes response becomes moremore likely to occur likely to occur

• Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

– When a response is followed by the removal, delay, When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or or decreasedecrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes response becomes moremore likely to occur likely to occur


PunishmentPunishment

• Positive punishmentPositive punishment

– When a response is followed by the presentation or When a response is followed by the presentation or increaseincrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes response becomes less less likely to occurlikely to occur

• Negative punishmentNegative punishment

– When a response is followed by the removal, delay, When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or or decreasedecrease in intensity of a pleasant stimulus; in intensity of a pleasant stimulus; response becomes response becomes less less likely to occurlikely to occur


Positive & Negative ConsequencesPositive & Negative Consequences

• Reinforcement:Reinforcement: • Punishment:Punishment:


Principles of Operant ConditioningPrinciples of Operant Conditioning

• Paradigms often used a Paradigms often used a Skinner boxSkinner box

– A cage equipped with a device that delivers food into a A cage equipped with a device that delivers food into a dish when an animal makes a desired responsedish when an animal makes a desired response


ExtinctionExtinction

• ExtinctionExtinction

– The weakening and eventual disappearance of a The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned responselearned response

– Occurs when a response is no longer followed Occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcerby a reinforcer

– Spontaneous recovery Spontaneous recovery of responses also may of responses also may occur in operant conditioningoccur in operant conditioning


Generalization & DiscriminationGeneralization & Discrimination

• Stimulus generalizationStimulus generalization

– Tendency for a response that has been reinforced (or Tendency for a response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of another similar stimulibe suppressed) in the presence of another similar stimuli

• Stimulus discriminationStimulus discrimination

– Tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one Tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other, similar stimuli stimulus but not in the presence of other, similar stimuli that differ from it on some dimensionthat differ from it on some dimension

– May involve a May involve a discriminative stimulusdiscriminative stimulus


Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous schedule of reinforcementContinuous schedule of reinforcement

– A schedule where a particular response is always A schedule where a particular response is always reinforcedreinforced

• Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcementIntermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement

– A schedule in which a particular response in sometimes A schedule in which a particular response in sometimes but not always reinforcedbut not always reinforced

– Can be Can be fixedfixed or or variablevariable, and involve the number of , and involve the number of responsesresponses (ratio) or (ratio) or intervalinterval between responses between responses


ShapingShaping

• When behaviours are not likely to occur When behaviours are not likely to occur spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to others spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to others (e.g., animals & children)(e.g., animals & children)

• ShapingShaping

– An operant conditioning procedure in which successive An operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforcedapproximations of a desired response are reinforced

– Successive approximations: Successive approximations: behaviours that are ordered behaviours that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired responsedesired response


Biological Limits on LearningBiological Limits on Learning

• Principles of learning limited by genetic Principles of learning limited by genetic dispositions & physical characteristicsdispositions & physical characteristics

• Instinctive driftInstinctive drift

– During operant learning, the tendency for an During operant learning, the tendency for an organism to revert to instinctive behaviourorganism to revert to instinctive behaviour

• E.g., animal trainingE.g., animal training


Operant Conditioning in Real LifeOperant Conditioning in Real Life

• Behaviour modificationBehaviour modification

– The application of operant conditioning techniques The application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behaviourmaladaptive or problematic behaviour

– Also called Also called applied behaviour analysisapplied behaviour analysis

• E.g., teaching tasks to mentally challenged adultsE.g., teaching tasks to mentally challenged adults• E.g., seat belt program in QuebecE.g., seat belt program in Quebec


The Pros of PunishmentThe Pros of Punishment

• Punishment can be effective when applied Punishment can be effective when applied correctly:correctly:

– Punishment most effective when it occurs Punishment most effective when it occurs immediatelyimmediately after the undesirable behaviour after the undesirable behaviour

• E.g., radar versus photo radar ticketsE.g., radar versus photo radar tickets

– The The consistencyconsistency of punishment is more of punishment is more important than the severity of punishmentimportant than the severity of punishment


The Cons of PunishmentThe Cons of Punishment

1.1. People often administer punishment inappropriatelyPeople often administer punishment inappropriately

2.2. The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or ragefear, or rage

3.3. The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary and The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary and depends on the presence of the punisherdepends on the presence of the punisher

4.4. Most misbehaviour is hard to punish immediatelyMost misbehaviour is hard to punish immediately

5.5. Punishment conveys little informationPunishment conveys little information

6.6. An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing because it bring attentionbecause it bring attention


Intrinsic & Extrinsic RewardsIntrinsic & Extrinsic Rewards

• Rewards may not work as planned as they can be Rewards may not work as planned as they can be misused, and may backfiremisused, and may backfire

– Extrinsic reinforcers: Extrinsic reinforcers: reinforcers that are not inherently reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforcedrelated to the activity being reinforced

– Intrinsic reinforcers: Intrinsic reinforcers: reinforcers that are inherently reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforcedrelated to the activity being reinforced

• Sometimes people become too reliant on extrinsic Sometimes people become too reliant on extrinsic reinforcement and stop experiencing pleasure of doing reinforcement and stop experiencing pleasure of doing something for its own sakesomething for its own sake


Learning and the MindLearning and the Mind

• Theorists argued that behaviour can be Theorists argued that behaviour can be explained by specifying the explained by specifying the behavioural ABC’sbehavioural ABC’s

A.A. Antecedents (events preceding behaviour)Antecedents (events preceding behaviour)

B.B. BehaviourBehaviour

C.C. Consequences Consequences

• But is behaviour more than just the ABC’s?But is behaviour more than just the ABC’s?


Latent LearningLatent Learning• Latent learningLatent learning

– A form of learning A form of learning that is not that is not immediately immediately expressed in an expressed in an overt responseovert response

– Occurs without Occurs without obvious obvious reinforcementreinforcement

• Tolman & Honzik’s Tolman & Honzik’s

(1930) experiments with rats(1930) experiments with rats


Social Cognitive TheoriesSocial Cognitive Theories

• Social-cognitive theoriesSocial-cognitive theories

– Theories that emphasize how behaviour is Theories that emphasize how behaviour is learned and maintained through observation and learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefsand beliefs

– Learning is more than just standard conditioning Learning is more than just standard conditioning proceduresprocedures


Observational LearningObservational Learning

• Observational learningObservational learning

– Process in which an individual learns new responses by Process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather than through than through experienceexperience

– E.g., Bandura’s bobo E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll experimentsdoll experiments


The Case of Media ViolenceThe Case of Media Violence

• Does media violence make people behave more Does media violence make people behave more aggressively?aggressively?

– Meta-analyses show that the Meta-analyses show that the greatergreater the exposure to the exposure to violence in movies/TV, the stronger the likelihood of violence in movies/TV, the stronger the likelihood of behaving aggressivelybehaving aggressively

– But some researchers argue that most people who view But some researchers argue that most people who view violence don’t become aggressive violence don’t become aggressive

– Children & adults who are Children & adults who are already aggressive already aggressive are more are more drawn to violent media & more affected by themdrawn to violent media & more affected by them


Social-Cognitive View Social-Cognitive View on Aggressionon Aggression

• Social-cognitive theorists would say that there is a Social-cognitive theorists would say that there is a relationship between media violence & aggression relationship between media violence & aggression

– Repeated acts of aggression model behaviour; Repeated acts of aggression model behaviour; provide people with scripts; promote permissive provide people with scripts; promote permissive beliefs about aggression; desensitizationbeliefs about aggression; desensitization

– BUT ... BUT ... perceptions, interpretations, and personality perceptions, interpretations, and personality dispositions intervene in determining our responsesdispositions intervene in determining our responses


Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada7-1Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada Learning and...

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