Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada5-1Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada3-1 Body...

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 5-1Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 3-1

Body RhythmsBody Rhythmsand Mental Statesand Mental States

Chapter 5Chapter 5

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 5-2Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 3-2

Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• Biological Rhythms: The Tides of ExperienceBiological Rhythms: The Tides of Experience

• The Rhythms of SleepThe Rhythms of Sleep

• Exploring the Dream WorldExploring the Dream World

• The Riddle of HypnosisThe Riddle of Hypnosis

• Consciousness-Altering DrugsConsciousness-Altering Drugs

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 5-3

Biological RhythmsBiological Rhythms

• ConsciousnessConsciousness

– Our awareness of ourselves and the Our awareness of ourselves and the environmentenvironment

• Biological rhythmsBiological rhythms

– A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological systembiological system

– Rhythms can be synchronized with external Rhythms can be synchronized with external ((entrainmententrainment) or internal cues () or internal cues (endogenousendogenous))


Circadian RhythmsCircadian Rhythms

• Circadian rhythmsCircadian rhythms occur approximately occur approximately every 24 hours (e.g., sleep-wake cycle)every 24 hours (e.g., sleep-wake cycle)

– Commonly entrained to external time cuesCommonly entrained to external time cues

– Endogenous rhythm averages around 24.3 hrsEndogenous rhythm averages around 24.3 hrs

– Controlled by biological clock in Controlled by biological clock in suprachiasmatic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)nucleus (SCN)

• Regulates levels of Regulates levels of melatoninmelatonin secreted by pineal secreted by pineal glandgland


Out of Sync?Out of Sync?

• Internal desynchronizationInternal desynchronization

– A state in which biological rhythms are not in A state in which biological rhythms are not in phase (synchronized) with one anotherphase (synchronized) with one another

– Changes in your normal routines can cause Changes in your normal routines can cause desynchronizationdesynchronization

– May also occur in response to jet lag, rotating May also occur in response to jet lag, rotating shift work, daylight savings timeshift work, daylight savings time


Moods & Long-Term RhythmsMoods & Long-Term Rhythms

• Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

– Controversial disorder in which a person Controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during the winter and experiences depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the springan improvement of mood in the spring

– Treatments may involve phototherapy or Treatments may involve phototherapy or exposure to fluorescent lightexposure to fluorescent light

– Inconsistent findings with respect to prevalence Inconsistent findings with respect to prevalence and effectiveness of treatments and effectiveness of treatments


Moods & Menstrual CyclesMoods & Menstrual Cycles

• ““Premenstrual syndrome” (PMS)Premenstrual syndrome” (PMS)

– Vague cluster of physical & emotional symptoms Vague cluster of physical & emotional symptoms associated with the days preceding associated with the days preceding menstruation that was labeled as an ‘illness’menstruation that was labeled as an ‘illness’

– Physical symptoms (e.g., cramps, water Physical symptoms (e.g., cramps, water retention) are commonretention) are common

– Emotional symptoms (e.g., irritability, Emotional symptoms (e.g., irritability, depression) are raredepression) are rare

Moods, PMS, & ResearchMoods, PMS, & Research

• Expectations and Expectations and beliefs may be related beliefs may be related to PMS symptom to PMS symptom reportingreporting

• Women recalled feeling Women recalled feeling more irritable in more irritable in retrospect during retrospect during premenstrual times but premenstrual times but this differed from daily this differed from daily journal reports at the journal reports at the timetime


The Rhythms of SleepThe Rhythms of Sleep

• During sleep, we cycle between periods of REM & During sleep, we cycle between periods of REM & non-REM sleep (~ 90 minutes)non-REM sleep (~ 90 minutes)

– Rapid eye movement (REM) Rapid eye movement (REM) – characterized by eye – characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and dreamingmovement, loss of muscle tone, and dreaming

– Non-REM (NREM) sleep Non-REM (NREM) sleep – characterized by fewer eye – characterized by fewer eye movements than in REMmovements than in REM

• Divided into 4 stages with different brain waves Divided into 4 stages with different brain waves

• Relaxed brain associated with Relaxed brain associated with alpha wavesalpha waves


The Rhythms of SleepThe Rhythms of Sleep



The Stages of SleepThe Stages of Sleep

• Stage 1: feel on the edge of consciousness; light sleepStage 1: feel on the edge of consciousness; light sleep

• Stage 2: presence of Stage 2: presence of sleep spindlessleep spindles; minor noises won’t ; minor noises won’t disturb youdisturb you

• Stage 3: Stage 3: delta waves delta waves begin; breathing & pulse have slowed begin; breathing & pulse have slowed down; hard to awakendown; hard to awaken

• Stage 4: delta waves predominant; deep sleep; most likely Stage 4: delta waves predominant; deep sleep; most likely stage for sleepwalkingstage for sleepwalking

• Rapid eye movement (REM) sleepRapid eye movement (REM) sleep: increased eye : increased eye movement, loss of muscle tone and dreamingmovement, loss of muscle tone and dreaming

Typical Sleep Stage PatternTypical Sleep Stage Pattern


Why We SleepWhy We Sleep

• Exact function of sleep unclear but allows for Exact function of sleep unclear but allows for certain processes to occur:certain processes to occur:

– Body eliminates waste products from musclesBody eliminates waste products from muscles– Repairs cellsRepairs cells– Conserves & replenishes energy storesConserves & replenishes energy stores– Strengthens immune systemStrengthens immune system– Recovers abilities lost during the dayRecovers abilities lost during the day– Necessary for normal mental functioningNecessary for normal mental functioning


Consequences of SleeplessnessConsequences of Sleeplessness

• Chronic sleep deprivationChronic sleep deprivation– Increases cortisol levels which can impair neurons Increases cortisol levels which can impair neurons

involved in learning & memory involved in learning & memory

• Chronic insomniaChronic insomnia– Difficulty falling or staying asleep; about 10% of adults Difficulty falling or staying asleep; about 10% of adults

experience thisexperience this

• Daytime sleepiness linked to inadequate sleep Daytime sleepiness linked to inadequate sleep during night, associated with decreased mental during night, associated with decreased mental performanceperformance


Sleep DisordersSleep Disorders

• Sleep apneaSleep apnea– Disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing Disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing

person to choke & gasp and momentarily awakenperson to choke & gasp and momentarily awaken

• NarcolepsyNarcolepsy– Disorder involving sudden & unpredictable daytime attacks of Disorder involving sudden & unpredictable daytime attacks of

sleepiness or lapses into REM sleepsleepiness or lapses into REM sleep

• REM behaviour disorderREM behaviour disorder– Muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur, Muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep does not occur,

and sleeper (mostly males) may “act out” their dreamsand sleeper (mostly males) may “act out” their dreams


Benefits of SleepBenefits of Sleep

• Memory Memory consolidationconsolidation

– Process by which the synaptic changes Process by which the synaptic changes associated with recently stored memories associated with recently stored memories become durable and stable, causing memory to become durable and stable, causing memory to become more reliablebecome more reliable

– Linked to REM & slow-wave sleepLinked to REM & slow-wave sleep

• May also enhance problem-solving abilitiesMay also enhance problem-solving abilities


Exploring the Dream WorldExploring the Dream World

• Most people dream, although may not be awareMost people dream, although may not be aware

– Lucid dreamingLucid dreaming: dream in which the dreamer : dream in which the dreamer isis aware aware that they are dreaming, may be able to exert some that they are dreaming, may be able to exert some control over dreamcontrol over dream

• Various theories proposed to explain the purpose Various theories proposed to explain the purpose of dreamsof dreams

– Psychoanalytic, problem-focused, cognitive, Psychoanalytic, problem-focused, cognitive, activation-synthesisactivation-synthesis


Dreams as Unconscious Wishes Dreams as Unconscious Wishes

• Psychoanalytic approach to dreaming (Freud)Psychoanalytic approach to dreaming (Freud)

• Dreams provide insight into unconscious wishes Dreams provide insight into unconscious wishes & desires& desires

– Manifest content: Manifest content: aspects of dreams that are aspects of dreams that are consciously experienced; may involve “day residue”consciously experienced; may involve “day residue”

– Latent content: Latent content: aspects of dream that are unconscious aspects of dream that are unconscious wishes being expressed symbolicallywishes being expressed symbolically


Dreams as Problem-Solving Dreams as Problem-Solving

• Problem-focused approach to dreamsProblem-focused approach to dreams

– Explanation in which the symbols and metaphors Explanation in which the symbols and metaphors in a dream do not disguise its true meaning; they in a dream do not disguise its true meaning; they convey itconvey it

– Dreams often contain material related to our Dreams often contain material related to our current concerns (ecurrent concerns (e.g., relationships, work, sex, health).g., relationships, work, sex, health)

– May provide opportunities to resolve problemsMay provide opportunities to resolve problems


Dreams as ThinkingDreams as Thinking

• Cognitive approach to dreamingCognitive approach to dreaming

• Dreams reflect modifications of cognitive Dreams reflect modifications of cognitive activity that goes on when we are awakeactivity that goes on when we are awake

– E.g., most likely to dream about topics that occupy E.g., most likely to dream about topics that occupy waking thoughtswaking thoughts

• Cut off from sensory input and external Cut off from sensory input and external feedback during dreamingfeedback during dreaming


Dreams as Brain ActivityDreams as Brain Activity

• Activation-synthesis Activation-synthesis theory of dreamingtheory of dreaming

– Dreaming results from Dreaming results from cortical synthesis & cortical synthesis & interpretation of neural interpretation of neural signals triggered by signals triggered by activity in the lower part activity in the lower part of the brainof the brain


Evaluating Dream TheoriesEvaluating Dream Theories


The Riddle of HypnosisThe Riddle of Hypnosis

• HypnosisHypnosis

– Procedure in which the practitioner suggests Procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of the thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of the participantparticipant

– Variety of methods used to induce hypnosis, Variety of methods used to induce hypnosis, most involve relaxationmost involve relaxation


The Nature of HypnosisThe Nature of Hypnosis

1.1. Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the efforts & qualities of the person being efforts & qualities of the person being hypnotized than on the skills of the hypnotisthypnotized than on the skills of the hypnotist

2.2. Hypnotized people cannot be forced to do Hypnotized people cannot be forced to do things against their willthings against their will

3.3. Feats performed while under hypnosis can be Feats performed while under hypnosis can be performed by motivated people without performed by motivated people without hypnosishypnosis


The Nature of HypnosisThe Nature of Hypnosis

4.4. Hypnosis does not increase the accuracy of Hypnosis does not increase the accuracy of memorymemory

5.5. Hypnosis does not produce a literal re-Hypnosis does not produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago eventsexperiencing of long-ago events

6.6. Hypnotic suggestions have been used Hypnotic suggestions have been used effectively for many medical and psychological effectively for many medical and psychological problemsproblems


Dissociation Theory of HypnosisDissociation Theory of Hypnosis

• Two views on hypnosis: Two views on hypnosis:

– Involves dissociation or a Involves dissociation or a split in consciousness in split in consciousness in which one part of mind which one part of mind operates independently operates independently from the rest (presence from the rest (presence of of hidden observerhidden observer))

• Control of executive function (frontal lobes) weakened Control of executive function (frontal lobes) weakened to altered (not dissociated) state of consciousness to altered (not dissociated) state of consciousness


Sociocognitive Theory of HypnosisSociocognitive Theory of Hypnosis

• Effects of hypnosis result from an Effects of hypnosis result from an interaction between:interaction between:

– the social influence the social influence of the hypnotistof the hypnotist

– the abilities, beliefs, the abilities, beliefs, and expectations of and expectations of the subjectthe subject


Consciousness-Altering DrugsConsciousness-Altering Drugs

• Cultural history of practices designed to Cultural history of practices designed to release people from confines of ordinary release people from confines of ordinary consciousness (may involve substances)consciousness (may involve substances)

• Psychoactive drugPsychoactive drug

– A substance that alters perception, mood, A substance that alters perception, mood, thinking, memory, or behaviour by changing the thinking, memory, or behaviour by changing the body’s biochemistrybody’s biochemistry


Classifying DrugsClassifying Drugs

1.1. StimulantsStimulants– Drugs that speed up activity in the CNSDrugs that speed up activity in the CNS

• E.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, E.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetaminesmethamphetamines

2.2. DepressantsDepressants– Drugs that slow activity in the CNSDrugs that slow activity in the CNS

• E.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, barbiturates, inhalants E.g., alcohol, tranquilizers, barbiturates, inhalants



3.3. OpiatesOpiates– Drugs, derived from opium poppy, that relieve Drugs, derived from opium poppy, that relieve

pain and commonly produce euphoriapain and commonly produce euphoria• E.g., opium, heroin, morphine, methadoneE.g., opium, heroin, morphine, methadone

4.4. Psychedelic drugsPsychedelic drugs– Drugs that produce hallucinations, change Drugs that produce hallucinations, change

thought processes, or disrupt the normal thought processes, or disrupt the normal perception of time & spaceperception of time & space• E.g., LSD, mescaline, salvia divinorum, psilocybinE.g., LSD, mescaline, salvia divinorum, psilocybin



• Other more commonly used drugs not in these Other more commonly used drugs not in these categoriescategories

– Anabolic steroids:Anabolic steroids: synthetic derivatives of testosterone synthetic derivatives of testosterone that are taken by pill or injection; used to increase that are taken by pill or injection; used to increase muscle mass & strengthmuscle mass & strength

– Marijuana:Marijuana: contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); related to mild euphoria, relaxation, intense sensations, related to mild euphoria, relaxation, intense sensations, reduced pain, & various cognitive deficitsreduced pain, & various cognitive deficits


Physiology of Drug EffectsPhysiology of Drug Effects

• Psychoactive drugs produce their effects by Psychoactive drugs produce their effects by acting on brain neurotransmitters (NTs)acting on brain neurotransmitters (NTs)

– Increase/decrease release of NTsIncrease/decrease release of NTs

– Prevent reabsorption of excess NTsPrevent reabsorption of excess NTs

– Block effects of NTs on receiving cellsBlock effects of NTs on receiving cells

– Bind to receptors that would ordinarily be Bind to receptors that would ordinarily be triggered by NTstriggered by NTs


The Case of CocaineThe Case of Cocaine

• Cocaine blocks Cocaine blocks reabsorption of dopamine reabsorption of dopamine & norepinehrine& norepinehrine

• Results in over-stimulation Results in over-stimulation of brain circuits to produce of brain circuits to produce euphoric “high”euphoric “high”

• Later depletion of Later depletion of dopamine results in dopamine results in “crash”“crash”


Physiology of Drug EffectsPhysiology of Drug Effects

• Use of some psychoactive drugs (e.g., heroin, Use of some psychoactive drugs (e.g., heroin, tranquilizers) can lead to tranquilizers) can lead to tolerancetolerance

– Increased resistance to a drug’s effects Increased resistance to a drug’s effects accompanying continued useaccompanying continued use

• When heavy users stop, may suffer severe When heavy users stop, may suffer severe withdrawal symptomswithdrawal symptoms

– Physical & psychological symptoms that occur Physical & psychological symptoms that occur when someone addicted to a drug stops taking itwhen someone addicted to a drug stops taking it


Psychology of Drug EffectsPsychology of Drug Effects

• Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on:Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on:

– Individual factors such as weight, metabolism, level of Individual factors such as weight, metabolism, level of emotional arousal, personality, physical toleranceemotional arousal, personality, physical tolerance

– Experience or number of times drug has been takenExperience or number of times drug has been taken

– Environmental setting or context where drug is takenEnvironmental setting or context where drug is taken

– Mental set or expectations about drugs effect & reasons Mental set or expectations about drugs effect & reasons for taking itfor taking it


The Drug DebateThe Drug Debate

• UseUse versus versus abuseabuse: : – Distinguish based on how much a drug Distinguish based on how much a drug

interferes with functioning & relationshipsinterferes with functioning & relationships

• Many “legal” drugs are commonly consumed Many “legal” drugs are commonly consumed (e.g., coffee, tobacco, alcohol)(e.g., coffee, tobacco, alcohol)

• Many “illegal” drugs may have positive or Many “illegal” drugs may have positive or medicinal uses (e.g., marijuana)medicinal uses (e.g., marijuana)


The Drug DebateThe Drug Debate

• Debates continue surrounding skewed Debates continue surrounding skewed negative views of substances that are illegal negative views of substances that are illegal versus legal versus legal

– E.g., cocaine versus prescription painkillersE.g., cocaine versus prescription painkillers

• Canadians debate over marijuana use & Canadians debate over marijuana use & benefits, as well as harm reduction programs benefits, as well as harm reduction programs providing safe injection sites to drug addictsproviding safe injection sites to drug addicts


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