Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada14-1 Development over the Lifespan Chapter 14.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada 14-1

Development over Development over the Lifespanthe Lifespan

Chapter 14Chapter 14


Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• From Conception through the First YearFrom Conception through the First Year

• Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

• Learning to Be GoodLearning to Be Good

• Gender DevelopmentGender Development

• AdolescenceAdolescence

• AdulthoodAdulthood

• The Wellsprings of ResilienceThe Wellsprings of Resilience


Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

• Developmental psychologyDevelopmental psychology

– The study of how people change and grow over time, The study of how people change and grow over time, physically, mentally, and socially (includes physically, mentally, and socially (includes socializationsocialization))

• 2 methods used in developmental psychology:2 methods used in developmental psychology:

– Cross-sectional:Cross-sectional: subjects of different ages are compared subjects of different ages are compared at a given timeat a given time

– Longitudinal:Longitudinal: subjects are followed and periodically subjects are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of timereassessed over a period of time


Conception to First YearConception to First Year

• MaturationMaturation

– The sequential unfolding of genetically influenced The sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behaviour & physical characteristicsbehaviour & physical characteristics

• Stages of prenatal development:Stages of prenatal development:

1.1. Germinal:Germinal: begins at conception, sperm unites with egg begins at conception, sperm unites with egg (fertilized cell called (fertilized cell called zygotezygote))

2.2. Embryonic:Embryonic: begins once implantation of begins once implantation of embryoembryo has has occurred until 8 weeks after conceptionoccurred until 8 weeks after conception

3.3. Fetal:Fetal: begins at 8 weeks until birth, further development begins at 8 weeks until birth, further development of organs & systems in of organs & systems in fetusfetus


Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

• Harmful influences that can cross the placental Harmful influences that can cross the placental barrier:barrier:

1.1. German measles (rubella)German measles (rubella)

2.2. X-rays or other radiation & toxic chemicals such as leadX-rays or other radiation & toxic chemicals such as lead

3.3. Sexually transmitted diseasesSexually transmitted diseases

4.4. Cigarette smokingCigarette smoking

5.5. Regular consumption of alcohol (risk of Regular consumption of alcohol (risk of fetal alcohol fetal alcohol syndromesyndrome))

6.6. Drugs other than alcohol (Drugs other than alcohol (teratogensteratogens))


The Infant’s WorldThe Infant’s World

• Many infant physical & perceptual abilities are Many infant physical & perceptual abilities are present at birthpresent at birth

– Motor reflexes:Motor reflexes: automatic behaviours that are necessary automatic behaviours that are necessary for survival (see Table 14.1)for survival (see Table 14.1)

– Perceptual abilities for sight, sound, touch, smell, tastePerceptual abilities for sight, sound, touch, smell, taste

• Newborn’s visual range of focus reflects about the Newborn’s visual range of focus reflects about the distance between faces of infant & caregiverdistance between faces of infant & caregiver

• Can discriminate primary caregiver from others very Can discriminate primary caregiver from others very early by sight, smell, soundearly by sight, smell, sound


Infant ReflexesInfant Reflexes


AttachmentAttachment

• Attachment theoryAttachment theory (Bowlby) (Bowlby)

– Describes the relatively stable pattern of Describes the relatively stable pattern of relationships that one forms from birth to deathrelationships that one forms from birth to death

• Attachment begins with Attachment begins with contact comfortcontact comfort

– The innate pleasure derived from close physical The innate pleasure derived from close physical contact; basis of infant’s first attachmentcontact; basis of infant’s first attachment

• E.g., Harlow’s studies – infant monkeys sought out E.g., Harlow’s studies – infant monkeys sought out contact comfort over foodcontact comfort over food


AttachmentAttachment

• Once attached, infants may show Once attached, infants may show separation separation anxietyanxiety if primary caregiver leaves if primary caregiver leaves

– Distress that most children develop, at about 6-8 months Distress that most children develop, at about 6-8 months of age, when their primary caregivers temporarily leave of age, when their primary caregivers temporarily leave them with strangersthem with strangers

• Attachment bonds studied through Attachment bonds studied through Strange Strange Situation TestSituation Test (Ainsworth) (Ainsworth)

– Three categories of attachments based on reactions: Three categories of attachments based on reactions: secure, avoidant, anxious/ambivalentsecure, avoidant, anxious/ambivalent


Attachment, Culture, & TimeAttachment, Culture, & Time

• Separation anxiety peaks around one year of Separation anxiety peaks around one year of age & then declinesage & then declines

• Cultural variations: those in more communal Cultural variations: those in more communal cultures showed less anxietycultures showed less anxiety– Attached to many adults at same timeAttached to many adults at same time


Insecure AttachmentsInsecure Attachments

• Factors that promote insecure attachments:Factors that promote insecure attachments:

1.1. Abandonment and deprivation in the first two Abandonment and deprivation in the first two years of lifeyears of life

2.2. Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic because the parent is chronically irresponsible because the parent is chronically irresponsible or depressedor depressed

3.3. The child’s own genetically influenced The child’s own genetically influenced temperamenttemperament

4.4. Changing, stressful circumstances in the Changing, stressful circumstances in the child’s familychild’s family


Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

• One milestone of cognitive development is One milestone of cognitive development is language acquisitionlanguage acquisition

• Begins in the first few months (responsive to Begins in the first few months (responsive to pitch, intensity, sound)pitch, intensity, sound)

– Parentese:Parentese: adult use of baby talk, pitch is adult use of baby talk, pitch is higher and more varied than usual, higher and more varied than usual, exaggerated intonation, emphasis on vowelsexaggerated intonation, emphasis on vowels

• Continues in rapid progression (see Table)Continues in rapid progression (see Table)


Language DevelopmentLanguage Development


Development of ThinkingDevelopment of Thinking

• According to According to PiagetPiaget, cognitive development , cognitive development consists of mental adaptations to new observations consists of mental adaptations to new observations & experiences& experiences

• Two forms of adaptation:Two forms of adaptation:

– Assimilation:Assimilation: the process of absorbing new information the process of absorbing new information into existing cognitive structuresinto existing cognitive structures

– Accommodation:Accommodation: the process of modifying existing the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experiencescognitive structures in response to experiences


Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentStages of Cognitive Development

1.1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age two)Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age two)

– Learning through concrete actionsLearning through concrete actions

– Coordinates sensory information with bodily Coordinates sensory information with bodily movementmovement

– Major accomplishment is Major accomplishment is object permanenceobject permanence

• The understanding that an object continues to exist The understanding that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see or touch iteven when you cannot see or touch it



2.2. Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)

– Focused on limitations in children’s thinkingFocused on limitations in children’s thinking

• Children lack ability to engage in mental Children lack ability to engage in mental operationsoperations

• Engage in Engage in egocentric thinkingegocentric thinking (inability to take (inability to take another person’s perspective)another person’s perspective)

• Cannot grasp concept of Cannot grasp concept of conservationconservation (understanding that physical properties of objects (understanding that physical properties of objects can remain the same even when their form or can remain the same even when their form or appearance changes)appearance changes)



3.3. Concrete Operations Stage (ages 7-12)Concrete Operations Stage (ages 7-12)

– Earlier limitations overcome but primarily with Earlier limitations overcome but primarily with concrete informationconcrete information

– Continue to make errors in reasoning about Continue to make errors in reasoning about abstract conceptsabstract concepts

– Understand principles of conservation, Understand principles of conservation, reversibility, cause and effectreversibility, cause and effect



4.4. Formal Operations Stage (ages 12-adult)Formal Operations Stage (ages 12-adult)

– Teenagers become capable of abstract Teenagers become capable of abstract reasoningreasoning

– Ideas/concepts can be compared and Ideas/concepts can be compared and classified just like objectsclassified just like objects

– Can formulate hypotheses, test ideas, search Can formulate hypotheses, test ideas, search for answers to solve problemsfor answers to solve problems


Socio-cultural InfluencesSocio-cultural Influences

• VygotskyVygotsky emphasized socio-cultural emphasized socio-cultural influences on cognitive development in influences on cognitive development in childrenchildren

– Mental representations of the world developed Mental representations of the world developed through culture and languagethrough culture and language

– Private speech:Private speech: how children talk to themselves how children talk to themselves to direct their own behaviourto direct their own behaviour

• Over time, private speech becomes internalized and Over time, private speech becomes internalized and silentsilent


Current Views on DevelopmentCurrent Views on Development

• Current views on cognitive development:Current views on cognitive development:

1.1. Cognitive abilities develop in continuous, overlapping Cognitive abilities develop in continuous, overlapping waves rather than discrete stageswaves rather than discrete stages

1.1. Children understand far more than Piaget gave them Children understand far more than Piaget gave them credit for – and some adults understand far lesscredit for – and some adults understand far less

1.1. Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thoughtPreschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought

1.1. Cognitive development is spurred by the growing speed Cognitive development is spurred by the growing speed & efficiency of information processing& efficiency of information processing

1.1. Cognitive development is greatly affected by a child’s Cognitive development is greatly affected by a child’s cultureculture


Learning to Be GoodLearning to Be Good

• Children’s ability to understand right from wrong Children’s ability to understand right from wrong (reasoning about moral dilemmas) evolves with (reasoning about moral dilemmas) evolves with cognitive abilities (Kohlberg)cognitive abilities (Kohlberg)

• Methods used to enforce moral standards:Methods used to enforce moral standards:

– Power assertion:Power assertion: parent uses punishment and authority parent uses punishment and authority to correct child’s misbehaviourto correct child’s misbehaviour

– Induction:Induction: parent appeals to child’s own resources, parent appeals to child’s own resources, abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting the child’s misbehaviourcorrecting the child’s misbehaviour


Gender DevelopmentGender Development

• Gender identityGender identity

– The fundamental sense of being male or femaleThe fundamental sense of being male or female

– Independent of whether a person conforms to Independent of whether a person conforms to the social and cultural rules of genderthe social and cultural rules of gender

• Gender typingGender typing

– The process by which children learn the abilities, The process by which children learn the abilities, interests, and behaviours associated with being interests, and behaviours associated with being masculine or feminine in their culturemasculine or feminine in their culture


Complexity & GenderComplexity & Gender

• Complexity evident in cases that do not fit Complexity evident in cases that do not fit categories of male & femalecategories of male & female

– Intersex conditions:Intersex conditions: condition occurring where condition occurring where chromosomal or hormonal anomalies cause a child chromosomal or hormonal anomalies cause a child to be born with ambiguous genitals or genitals that to be born with ambiguous genitals or genitals that conflict with chromosomesconflict with chromosomes

– Transgender:Transgender: term describing category of people term describing category of people who do not fit comfortably into usual categories of who do not fit comfortably into usual categories of male & femalemale & female


Influences on Gender DevelopmentInfluences on Gender Development

• Biological influences:Biological influences:

– Early play and toy preferences have a basis in prenatal Early play and toy preferences have a basis in prenatal hormones (i.e., androgens), genes, or brain organizationhormones (i.e., androgens), genes, or brain organization

• Cognitive influences:Cognitive influences:

– Toy preferences are based on Toy preferences are based on gender schemasgender schemas– Early recognition that there are two sexes (faces)Early recognition that there are two sexes (faces)– Change behaviours to conform to category they label Change behaviours to conform to category they label

themselves as themselves as


Influences on Gender DevelopmentInfluences on Gender Development

• Learning influences:Learning influences:

– Gender socialization instills messages about what boys Gender socialization instills messages about what boys & girls are & girls are supposedsupposed to do to do

• Signals provided very early on as to how to treat the child based Signals provided very early on as to how to treat the child based on actions, clothing, portrayalson actions, clothing, portrayals

– Gender appropriate play may be reinforced by parents, Gender appropriate play may be reinforced by parents, teachers, and peersteachers, and peers

– Beliefs about “natural” talents for males & females also Beliefs about “natural” talents for males & females also expressedexpressed


AdolescenceAdolescence

• AdolescenceAdolescence

– Period of development between puberty and adulthoodPeriod of development between puberty and adulthood

– Culture variations in the duration of adolescence Culture variations in the duration of adolescence according to when youth are expected to assume adult according to when youth are expected to assume adult responsibilities responsibilities

• PubertyPuberty

– Age a person becomes capable of sexual reproductionAge a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction

– Onset depends on genetic & environmental factorsOnset depends on genetic & environmental factors


Physiology of AdolescencePhysiology of Adolescence

• FemalesFemales– Development of breastsDevelopment of breasts– Menarche: onset of menstruation (depends on critical Menarche: onset of menstruation (depends on critical

level of body fat for onset)level of body fat for onset)

• MalesMales– Onset of nocturnal emissions & growth of testes, Onset of nocturnal emissions & growth of testes,

scrotum, and penisscrotum, and penis

• Hormones involved in emergence of Hormones involved in emergence of secondary secondary sex characteristicssex characteristics (e.g., pubic hair) (e.g., pubic hair)


Adolescents, Brains, & the LawAdolescents, Brains, & the Law

• Development has implications for legal settingsDevelopment has implications for legal settings

• U.S. Supreme Court banned execution of juveniles U.S. Supreme Court banned execution of juveniles under the age of 18 in 2005under the age of 18 in 2005

– Basis of decision was that brains are still neurologically Basis of decision was that brains are still neurologically immatureimmature

– Synaptic pruning in prefrontal cortex (linked to impulse Synaptic pruning in prefrontal cortex (linked to impulse control & planning) and limbic system (emotional control & planning) and limbic system (emotional processing)processing)

– Full neurological & cognitive maturity not reached until Full neurological & cognitive maturity not reached until around 25around 25


Psychology of AdolescencePsychology of Adolescence

• Adolescent “turmoil” & major problems are Adolescent “turmoil” & major problems are exception not the ruleexception not the rule

• Studies of self-esteem Studies of self-esteem indicate no significant indicate no significant drop in adolescence drop in adolescence for either sexfor either sex

• Most common problems: Most common problems: conflict with parents, mood swings conflict with parents, mood swings & depression, and higher rates of & depression, and higher rates of risky behaviourrisky behaviour


AdulthoodAdulthood

• Lifespan approach to psychological development Lifespan approach to psychological development proposed by proposed by EriksonErikson

• Erikson argued that adults go through stages just Erikson argued that adults go through stages just like children dolike children do

• Each stage characterized by a challenge or “crisis” Each stage characterized by a challenge or “crisis” that should be resolvedthat should be resolved

• Recognized that cultural and economic factors Recognized that cultural and economic factors affect people’s development through these stagesaffect people’s development through these stages


Erikson’s StagesErikson’s Stages

1.1. Trust versus mistrust (0-1)Trust versus mistrust (0-1)

2.2. Autonomy versus shame Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-2)and doubt (1-2)

3.3. Initiative versus guilt (3-5)Initiative versus guilt (3-5)

4.4. Competence versus Competence versus inferiority (6-12)inferiority (6-12)

5.5. Identity versus role Identity versus role confusion (13-19)confusion (13-19)• Involves Involves identity crisisidentity crisis

6.6. Intimacy versus isolation Intimacy versus isolation (20-40)(20-40)

7.7. Generativity versus Generativity versus stagnation 40-65)stagnation 40-65)

8.8. Ego integrity versus Ego integrity versus despair (65+)despair (65+)


Transitions of LifeTransitions of Life

• Transitions & events tend to occur at Transitions & events tend to occur at particular times in lifeparticular times in life

• Gauge progress by our Gauge progress by our social clockssocial clocks

– Norms governing what people of the same age Norms governing what people of the same age and historical generation are expected to do, and historical generation are expected to do, used by people to determine whether they are used by people to determine whether they are on time for transitions or off timeon time for transitions or off time



• Emerging AdulthoodEmerging Adulthood– Phase of life of many young people aged 18-25 who Phase of life of many young people aged 18-25 who

are in college or university and at least partially are in college or university and at least partially dependent financially on their parentsdependent financially on their parents

– In some ways, consider themselves to have In some ways, consider themselves to have reached adulthood but, in other ways, are not yet reached adulthood but, in other ways, are not yet adultsadults



• The Middle Years (35-65)The Middle Years (35-65)

– Usually associated with the prime of life, Usually associated with the prime of life, involvement & reflectioninvolvement & reflection

– Crises related to specific life-changing events Crises related to specific life-changing events and not agingand not aging

– Menopause:Menopause: the cessation of menstruation and the cessation of menstruation and of the production of ova; it is usually a gradual of the production of ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several yearsprocess lasting up to several years



• Old AgeOld Age

– Some cognitive functions decline with age (but not all)Some cognitive functions decline with age (but not all)

– Fluid intelligence:Fluid intelligence: capacity for deductive reasoning & capacity for deductive reasoning & ability to use new information to solve problems; tends ability to use new information to solve problems; tends to decline in old ageto decline in old age

– Crystallized intelligence:Crystallized intelligence: cognitive skills and specific cognitive skills and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; tends to remain stable over the lifetimetends to remain stable over the lifetime


Mental Functioning Over TimeMental Functioning Over Time


Old AgeOld Age

• Apparent senility in the elderly is often caused by the Apparent senility in the elderly is often caused by the combination of medicationscombination of medications

• Depression & passivity may result from loss of meaningful Depression & passivity may result from loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation, and control over eventsactivity, intellectual stimulation, and control over events

• Weakness & frailty are caused by sedentary lifestylesWeakness & frailty are caused by sedentary lifestyles

• Gerontologists estimate that only 30% of the physical Gerontologists estimate that only 30% of the physical losses associated with old age are genetically basedlosses associated with old age are genetically based

• Aerobic exercise & strength training are protective factorsAerobic exercise & strength training are protective factors


Wellsprings of ResilienceWellsprings of Resilience

• Assumption that early childhood trauma has Assumption that early childhood trauma has long-lasting negative effects (incorrect)long-lasting negative effects (incorrect)

– Research indicates that Research indicates that mostmost children are children are resilient not disordered following traumaresilient not disordered following trauma

– Recovering from adversity is not as rare as Recovering from adversity is not as rare as previously believed previously believed

– Powerful aspect of resilience is that we are Powerful aspect of resilience is that we are constantly interpreting our experiencesconstantly interpreting our experiences


End of Chapter 14End of Chapter 14

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada14-1 Development over the Lifespan Chapter 14.

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Transcript of Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education Canada14-1 Development over the Lifespan Chapter 14.