Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Memory Chapter 10.

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

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MemoryMemory

Chapter 10Chapter 10


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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• Reconstructing the pastReconstructing the past• Memory and the power of suggestionMemory and the power of suggestion• In pursuit of memoryIn pursuit of memory• The three-box model of memoryThe three-box model of memory• The biology of memoryThe biology of memory• How we rememberHow we remember• Why we forgetWhy we forget• Autobiographical memoriesAutobiographical memories


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Reconstructing the PastReconstructing the Past

• The Manufacture of MemoryThe Manufacture of Memory

• The Fading FlashbulbThe Fading Flashbulb

• The Conditions of ConfabulationThe Conditions of Confabulation


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The Manufacture of MemoryThe Manufacture of Memory

• Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve informationinformation

• Memory is a reconstructive processMemory is a reconstructive process• Recovering a memory is not playing a Recovering a memory is not playing a

videotapevideotape• Source amnesiaSource amnesia

– The inability to distinguish what you originally The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told experienced from what you heard or were told later about an eventlater about an event


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The Fading FlashbulbThe Fading Flashbulb

• Some unusual, shocking or tragic Some unusual, shocking or tragic events hold a special place in memoryevents hold a special place in memory

• These memories are called Flashbulb These memories are called Flashbulb memories because the term captures memories because the term captures the surprise, illumination & photographic the surprise, illumination & photographic detail that characterize themdetail that characterize them

• Even flashbulb memories have errorsEven flashbulb memories have errors


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The Conditions of ConfabulationThe Conditions of Confabulation

• ConfabulationConfabulation– Confusion of an event that happened to Confusion of an event that happened to

someone else with one that happened to someone else with one that happened to youyou

– Or a belief that you remember something Or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happenedwhen it never actually happened


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Confabulation is most likely when:Confabulation is most likely when:

• You have thought or heard about the You have thought or heard about the imagined event many timesimagined event many times

• The image of the event contains many detailsThe image of the event contains many details• The event is easy to imagineThe event is easy to imagine• You focus on emotional reactions to the event You focus on emotional reactions to the event

rather than on what actually happenedrather than on what actually happened


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Memory and the Power of Memory and the Power of SuggestionSuggestion

• The eyewitness on trialThe eyewitness on trial

• Children’s testimonyChildren’s testimony


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The Eyewitness on TrialThe Eyewitness on Trial• Eyewitnesses are not always reliableEyewitnesses are not always reliable

• Factors that influence accuracyFactors that influence accuracy– Cross race identificationCross race identification– Question wordingQuestion wording

• Crashed versus hitCrashed versus hit

– Misleading informationMisleading information


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Children’s TestimonyChildren’s Testimony

• Under what conditions are children Under what conditions are children more suggestible?more suggestible?– Being very youngBeing very young– When interviewers’ expectations are clearWhen interviewers’ expectations are clear– When other children’s memories for events When other children’s memories for events

are accessibleare accessible


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Children’s TestimonyChildren’s Testimony

• When asked if a visitor When asked if a visitor committed acts that had not committed acts that had not occurred, few 4-6 year olds occurred, few 4-6 year olds said yessaid yes– 30% of 3-year olds said yes30% of 3-year olds said yes

• When investigators used When investigators used techniques taken from real techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, child-abuse investigations, most children said yesmost children said yes

Social Pressure, False AllegationsSocial Pressure, False Allegations


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In Pursuit of MemoryIn Pursuit of Memory

• Measuring memoryMeasuring memory– Explicit memoryExplicit memory– Implicit memoryImplicit memory

• Models of memoryModels of memory


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Explicit MemoryExplicit Memory

• Conscious, intentional recollection of an Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of informationevent or of an item of information

• Assessed through:Assessed through:– Recall Recall

• The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned materialpreviously learned material

– Recognition Recognition • The ability to identify previously encountered The ability to identify previously encountered

materialmaterial


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Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory

• Unconscious retention in memory, as Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions information on current thoughts or actions


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PrimingPriming

• A person reads or listens to information and is A person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of taskaffects performance on another type of task


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RelearningRelearning

• Compares the time required to relearn Compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial material with the time used in the initial learning of the materiallearning of the material

• Also called the savings methodAlso called the savings method• Shows that prior learning makes later Shows that prior learning makes later

learning easierlearning easier


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Models of MemoryModels of Memory

• Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)– Model of memory in which knowledge is Model of memory in which knowledge is

represented as connections among represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all distributed in a vast network, and all operating in paralleloperating in parallel


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Three-Box Model of MemoryThree-Box Model of Memory


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Sensory MemorySensory Memory• A memory system that momentarily preserves A memory system that momentarily preserves

extremely accurate images of sensory extremely accurate images of sensory informationinformation

• Pattern RecognitionPattern Recognition– The identification of a stimulus on the basis of The identification of a stimulus on the basis of

information already contained in long-term memoryinformation already contained in long-term memory

• Information that is not quickly passed to short-Information that is not quickly passed to short-term memory is gone foreverterm memory is gone forever


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Short-term MemoryShort-term Memory• A limited capacity memory system involved in the A limited capacity memory system involved in the

retention of information for brief periods; it is also retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary usememory for temporary use

• Working memoryWorking memory – A memory system which includes STM and mental A memory system which includes STM and mental

processes that control retrieval of information from LT processes that control retrieval of information from LT memory and interpret that information appropriately for a memory and interpret that information appropriately for a given taskgiven task

• ChunkChunk– Meaningful unit of information which may be composed of Meaningful unit of information which may be composed of

smaller unitssmaller units


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The Value of ChunkingThe Value of Chunking

• You have 5 seconds You have 5 seconds to memorize as to memorize as much as you canmuch as you can

• Now, draw an empty Now, draw an empty chess board and chess board and reproduce the reproduce the arrangement of arrangement of piecespieces


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Long-Term Memory Long-Term Memory

• The memory system involved in the The memory system involved in the long-term storage of informationlong-term storage of information

• One way information is organized is in One way information is organized is in semantic categories (i.e., animals)semantic categories (i.e., animals)


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Conceptual GridConceptual Grid


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Types of Long-Term MemoriesTypes of Long-Term Memories


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Contents of Long-Term MemoryContents of Long-Term Memory

• Procedural memoriesProcedural memories– Memories for performance of actions or skillsMemories for performance of actions or skills– ““Knowing how”Knowing how”

• Declarative memoriesDeclarative memories– Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events;

includes semantic and episodic memory includes semantic and episodic memory – ““Knowing that”Knowing that”

• Examples include semantic and episodic memoriesExamples include semantic and episodic memories


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Contents of Long-Term MemoryContents of Long-Term Memory

• Semantic memoriesSemantic memories– General knowledge, including facts, General knowledge, including facts,

rules, concepts, and propositionsrules, concepts, and propositions

• Episodic memoriesEpisodic memories – Personally experienced events and the Personally experienced events and the

contexts in which they occurredcontexts in which they occurred


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Serial-Position EffectSerial-Position Effect

• The tendency for The tendency for recall of first and last recall of first and last items on a list to items on a list to surpass recall of surpass recall of items in the middle items in the middle of the listof the list


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The Biology of MemoryThe Biology of Memory• Forming a memory involves chemical and Forming a memory involves chemical and

structural changes at the level of neuronsstructural changes at the level of neurons– In short-term memory, changes within neurons In short-term memory, changes within neurons

temporarily alter the neuron’s ability to release temporarily alter the neuron’s ability to release transmitterstransmitters

– In long-term memory, long-term potentiation or a long-In long-term memory, long-term potentiation or a long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness occursresponsiveness occurs

• Most researchers believe this is the process Most researchers believe this is the process underlying learning and memory yet exact underlying learning and memory yet exact biochemical and molecular changes still debatedbiochemical and molecular changes still debated


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ConsolidationConsolidation

• Neural and synaptic changes take a Neural and synaptic changes take a while to develop fullywhile to develop fully

• The process by which a long-term The process by which a long-term memory becomes durable and stable is memory becomes durable and stable is called consolidationcalled consolidation


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Brain Areas Involved in MemoryBrain Areas Involved in Memory


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Locating MemoriesLocating Memories

• New brain imaging and testing shows us that:New brain imaging and testing shows us that:– During short-term memory tasks, areas of the frontal During short-term memory tasks, areas of the frontal

lobes show activitylobes show activity– During long- term memory tasks, the hippocampus During long- term memory tasks, the hippocampus

shows activity.shows activity.– Encoding of pictures and words, prefrontal cortex Encoding of pictures and words, prefrontal cortex

and areas adjacent to the hippocampusand areas adjacent to the hippocampus– Procedural memories, specific changes to Procedural memories, specific changes to

cerebellumcerebellum– Formation of long-term memories, cerebral cortexFormation of long-term memories, cerebral cortex


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Hormones and MemoryHormones and Memory• Hormones released by the adrenal glands Hormones released by the adrenal glands

during stress and emotional arousal enhance during stress and emotional arousal enhance memorymemory

• Moderate levels are optimal: memory can Moderate levels are optimal: memory can suffer if animals are given very high doses of suffer if animals are given very high doses of adrenal hormonesadrenal hormones

• These may affect memory by stimulating an These may affect memory by stimulating an increase in the level of glucose in the increase in the level of glucose in the bloodstreambloodstream


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How We RememberHow We Remember

• Effective EncodingEffective Encoding

• RehearsalRehearsal

• MnemonicsMnemonics


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RehearsalRehearsal

• Maintenance RehearsalMaintenance Rehearsal– Rote repetition of material in order to Rote repetition of material in order to

maintain its availability in memorymaintain its availability in memory

• Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal– Association of new information with already Association of new information with already

stored knowledge and analysis of the new stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorableinformation to make it memorable


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Deep ProcessingDeep Processing

• In the encoding of information, the In the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulusof a stimulus


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Comparing Encoding Comparing Encoding StrategiesStrategies


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MnemonicsMnemonics

• Strategies and tricks for improving Strategies and tricks for improving memory, such as the use of a verse or memory, such as the use of a verse or a formulaa formula– Examples include:Examples include:

• MDASMDAS• ROYGBIVROYGBIV• Thirty days hath September…Thirty days hath September…


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Why We ForgetWhy We Forget

• DecayDecay

• ReplacementReplacement

• InterferenceInterference

• Cue-dependent forgettingCue-dependent forgetting

• Psychogenic amnesiaPsychogenic amnesia


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Decay TheoryDecay Theory

• The theory that information in memory The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memorythan to long-term memory


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Forgetting CurveForgetting Curve

• Herman Ebbinghaus Herman Ebbinghaus tested his own tested his own memory for memory for nonsense syllablesnonsense syllables

• Forgetting was rapid Forgetting was rapid at first and then at first and then tapered offtapered off


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Linton’s Forgetting CurveLinton’s Forgetting Curve

• In contrast to In contrast to Ebbinghaus, Ebbinghaus, Linton’s memory for Linton’s memory for personal events was personal events was retained over a retained over a period of several period of several years and then years and then decreased rapidlydecreased rapidly


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ReplacementReplacement

• The theory that new information entering The theory that new information entering memory can wipe out old informationmemory can wipe out old information

• In one study, researchers showed subjects In one study, researchers showed subjects slides of a traffic accidentslides of a traffic accident– The experimental group was misled into thinking The experimental group was misled into thinking

there was a stop sign instead of a yield signthere was a stop sign instead of a yield sign– Even after being debriefed on the purpose of the Even after being debriefed on the purpose of the

study, subjects insisted that they really saw the study, subjects insisted that they really saw the stop sign (Loftus et al., 1978)stop sign (Loftus et al., 1978)

– The new information which came from the The new information which came from the researchers replaced what the subjects sawresearchers replaced what the subjects saw


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InterferenceInterference

• Similar items interfere with one Similar items interfere with one anotheranother– Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference

• Forgetting that occurs when recently Forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material ability to remember similar material stored previouslystored previously

– Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference• Forgetting that occurs when Forgetting that occurs when

previously stored material interferes previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned materialmore recently learned material


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Cue-dependent ForgettingCue-dependent Forgetting• The inability to retrieve information stored in The inability to retrieve information stored in

memory because of insufficient cues for recallmemory because of insufficient cues for recall• Physical state can be a memory cuePhysical state can be a memory cue

– State-Dependent MemoryState-Dependent Memory• The tendency to remember something when The tendency to remember something when

the rememberer is in the same physical or the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or mental state as during the original learning or experienceexperience


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AmnesiaAmnesia• The partial or complete loss of memory for The partial or complete loss of memory for

important personal informationimportant personal information• Psychogenic Amnesia Psychogenic Amnesia

– The causes of forgetting are psychological such as The causes of forgetting are psychological such as the need to escape feelings of embarrassment, the need to escape feelings of embarrassment, guilt, shame, disappointment, emotional shockguilt, shame, disappointment, emotional shock

• Traumatic AmnesiaTraumatic Amnesia– The forgetting of specific traumatic events, The forgetting of specific traumatic events,

sometimes for many yearssometimes for many years


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The Repression ControversyThe Repression Controversy

• RepressionRepression– In psychoanalytic theory, the selective In psychoanalytic theory, the selective

involuntary pushing of threatening or involuntary pushing of threatening or upsetting information into the unconsciousupsetting information into the unconscious

• Individuals are more likely to struggle Individuals are more likely to struggle with forgetting traumatic eventswith forgetting traumatic events

• Hard to distinguish repression from Hard to distinguish repression from other forms of forgettingother forms of forgetting


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When should we question When should we question recovered memories?recovered memories?

• If person says he or she has memories If person says he or she has memories of first year or two of lifeof first year or two of life

• If over time the memories become more If over time the memories become more and more implausibleand more implausible

• If therapist used suggestive techniques If therapist used suggestive techniques such as hypnosis, dream analysis, age such as hypnosis, dream analysis, age regression, guided imagery or leading regression, guided imagery or leading questionsquestions


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Childhood AmnesiaChildhood Amnesia

• The inability to remember events and The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of lifefirst two or three years of life

• Cognitive explanationsCognitive explanations– Lack of sense of selfLack of sense of self– Impoverished encodingImpoverished encoding– A focus on the routineA focus on the routine– Different ways of thinking about the worldDifferent ways of thinking about the world

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Memory Chapter 10.

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Transcript of Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Memory Chapter 10.