Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.11–1 Managing Individual Behavior Motivation ...

Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. 11–1

Managing Individual Behavior• Motivation

The intensity of a person’s desire to engage in an activity. Based on a whole paradigm of research and theory

1. Needs-based Approaches2. Process-Based Approaches3. Learning/Reinforcement-Based Approaches

• There are a multitude of theories aimed at understanding individual motivation

• The Law of Individual Differences A psychological term representing the fact that people differ in

their: Personalities Abilities Self-concept Values, and needs.

Premise: What motivates one may not motivate another


• PersonalityThe characteristic and distinctive traits of an individual

Posited to be stable and unchanging Influential in determining behavior Not affected by the environment

Personality traits interact to help or hinder the adjustment of the person to other people and situations. It is important to understand that the interaction of

individual traits with other aspects of the environment affect personal motivation


Some Individual Determinants of Behavior

FIGURE 11–1

Early Motivational Theories Based on Needs

Evolution of theories to include self-regulation and higher-order needs


Personality Types

• Authoritarian PersonalityA personality type characterized by:

Rigidity Intolerance of ambiguity Tendency to stereotype others as being good or bad Conformity to the requirements of authority.

• Machiavellian PersonalityA personality type oriented toward:

Manipulation and control With a low sensitivity to the needs of others Sixteenth-century political advisor Niccolò Machiavelli.


Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors

FIGURE 11–2Source: Adapted from Gregory Northcraft and Margaret Neale, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press, 1994), p. 87.


Measuring Personality• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A tool for measuring personality in the work setting. Many other assessment do exist

– Example NEO-IPIP– Big-Five Personality Traits

MBTI classifications: Extraverted or introverted (E or I) Sensing or intuitive (S or N) Thinking or feeling (T or F) Perceiving or judging (P or J).

The MBTI questionnaire classifies people into 16 different personality types (a 4 X 4 matrix)


Measuring Personality (cont’d)• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (cont’d)

Different personality types (the 4X4 matrix) are classified into one of four cognitive (thinking or problem-solving) styles: Sensation–thinking (ST)

– Thorough, Logical, Practical• CPA’s

Intuition–thinking (NT)– Creative, Independent, Critical

• Professors and Lawyers Sensation–feeling (SF)

– Conscientious and Responsible• Social workers

Intuition–feeling (NF)– People-Oriented, Sociable, and Charismatic

• HR Managers, and Politicians


Abilities and Behavior

• Performance = Ability x MotivationWe’ve introduced half the equation (Motivation)

Now we need to look at ability

• Types of abilitiesMental, cognitive, or thinking abilities

(g) Overall I.Q– Life is easier when you have this

Specific / Technical Abilities Mechanical ability Psychomotor abilities Visual skills Specific learned abilities

(training, experience, or education)


Self-Concept and Behavior

• Self-ConceptThe perceptions people have of themselves and their

relationships to people and other aspects of life. Let me try another word Core Self Evaluation

– What we are conceptualizing is an overall view of one-self– Our overall belief in our ability to accomplish goals– Based, in part, on your perception of your “social context”

• Self-EfficacyA perception that influences the belief that one can

accomplish what one sets out to do. Two types

– Generalized Self-Efficacy– State Self-Efficacy

This perception is more directly related to specific tasks


Perception and Behavior• Perceptions

Perception is Reality How our personalities and experiences cause us to

interpret stimuli.– Is the world static and concrete– The same for everyone

• No way…Perceptions are influenced by:

Personality and needs (self-efficacy) Values (strong personal code of ethics) Stress (health and environment) Position in society or an organization

• StereotypingAssociating certain characteristics with certain

socioeconomic classes but not with others.


Attitudes and Behavior

• AttitudeA predisposition to respond to objects, people, or

events in either a positive or negative way. Based on what? How do we form attitudes? What is the relationship with behavior?

Attitudes are important because they can influence how people behave on the job. What came first the behavior/action or attitude? How do we change attitudes?

Attitude can have a major affect on performance I’ve always said it’s more attitude than ability


Attitudes and Behavior (cont’d)• Job Satisfaction

It is an attitude…

• The Job Descriptive Index measures five aspects of job satisfaction:

1. Pay. How much pay is received, and is it perceived as equitable?

2. Job. Are tasks interesting? Are opportunities provided for learning and for accepting responsibility?

3. Promotional opportunities. Are promotions and opportunities to advance available and fair?

4. Supervisor. Does the supervisor demonstrate interest in and concern about employees?

5. Co-workers. Are coworkers friendly, competent, and supportive?


Need-based Approaches To Motivation• Assumption

Needs control our behavior and motivation, and our not regulated or controlled by higher-order thinking

• Motive Something that incites a person to action or that sustains and gives

direction to action. Again, it is a need and must be satisfied

Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory People have a hierarchy of five increasingly higher-level needs:

Physiological Security Social Self-esteem Self-actualization.

Prepotency Process Principle People are motivated first to satisfy the lower-order needs and then,

in sequence, each of the higher-order needs.


FIGURE 11–5

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

One of the major assumptions of this hierarchy is that lower order needs must be met before higher order needs


Need-based Approaches To Motivation

• Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) TheoryAlderfer’s theory of human needs focuses on three

needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.– In this theory all need exist simultaneously

Existence– Needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological and security

needs. Relatedness

– Needs are those that require interpersonal interaction to satisfy (prestige and esteem from others).

Growth – Needs are similar to Maslow’s needs for self-esteem and

self-actualization.


Need-based Approaches To Motivation

• Herzberg’s Hygiene-Motivator Approach A Two Factor Approach

Reduces Maslow’s hierarchy to: Hygienes: (lower-level)

– Physiological– Safety– Social

Motivators: (higher-level)– Ego– Self-actualization

Arrange the job so that it provides intrinsic satisfaction of higher-level needs Since these needs are constantly recurring and

relatively insatiable.


FIGURE 11–6

Summary of Herzberg’s Motivator–Hygiene Findings

Source: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees,” Harvard Business Review, January–February 1968.


Need-based Approaches To Motivation• Needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation

Understanding individual differences…The Need for Achievement

A predisposition to strive for success and the satisfaction of accomplishing a challenging task or goal.– Meeting standards / Doing better / Accomplishing goals

The Need for Power A desire to influence others directly by making

suggestions, giving opinions and evaluations, and trying to talk others into things.– Control / Influence / Persuasion

The Need for Affiliation The motivation to maintain strong, warm relationships

with friends and relatives. – Belonging / Relationships / Agreeable


Process Approaches To Motivation• Adams’s Equity Theory

People have a need for, and therefore value and seek, fairness in employer–employee relationships. Distributive Justice

If a person perceives an inequity A tension or drive will develop in the person’s mind, and

the person will be motivated to reduce or eliminate the tension and the perceived inequity.– Inputs/Outputs (Self) = Inputs/Outputs (Referent other)

Employees can do this by reducing what they put into the job, or by boosting the magnitude of the rewards they take out (or both).– It has less to do with reality, and more to do with

Perception (Self Referent)


FIGURE 11–8

How a Perceived Inequity Can Affect Performance

There are a host of actions one can take when inequity is perceived


Process Approaches To Motivation

• Locke’s Goal Theory of MotivationPeople regulate their behavior in such a way as

achieve their goals.– This is an important distinction from earlier needs-based

approaches

A person’s goals provide the mechanism through which unsatisfied needs are translated into actions. Goals are a function of thought-out (regulated)

motivational needsUnsatisfied needs prompt the person to seek ways

to satisfy those needs The person then formulates goals that prompt action.

– How do we create motivating goals?


Process Approaches To Motivation

• Goal Theory of Motivation FindingsThe goals should be:

Specific Challenging Understandable Participative

– Leading to higher task performance :Other important aspects:

Feedback showing progress towards the goals is provided.

Appropriate task strategies are used when tasks are complex. (supportive environment)

Individuals have adequate abilities. (P = A x M) There is a commitment to accomplishing the goals.


Process Approaches To Motivation• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

People are conscious agents who are continually sizing up situations in terms of their perceived needs And then acting in accordance with these perceptions.

• Motivation = E x I x VE represents expectancy (probability of success)

The belief that increased effort will lead to higher performance– If I study more I will do better on the exam

I is instrumentality (correlation) If I do better on the exam it will show in my grade The belief that 1st order outcomes 2nd order outcomes

V is valence (value of a particular reward) The perceived value one places on the rewards


Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To Motivation• Learning

A relatively permanent change in a person that occurs as a result of experience. Is learning always voluntary / volitional? Are we always aware that we are learning?

– We don’t have to choose to learn to learn something…

Motivation based on learning tends to be instinctive rather than a product of a deliberate thought process. In other words, what we learn is not really are choice Along with instinct, we attribute values and attitudes

towards experiences which affect our learning.– What do you think?


Learning / Reinforcement Approaches• B. F. Skinner and Operant Behavior

Operant behavior Behavior that appears to operate on or have an

influence on the subject’s environment.– A learning type that focuses on the actual behavior learned

affecting the environment

– In other words, you change your behavior in order to change your outcomes

Contingent reward A reward that is contingent or dependent on

performance of a particular behavior.– Most operant learning occurs because of some reward

– Upon continuous deliverance of that reward, subjects will continue to exhibit the behavior

– Stimulus Response


Learning/Reinforcement Approaches• Behavior Modification

The technique of changing or modifying behavior through the use of contingent rewards or punishments. Based on Skinner’s principles

– Behavior is altered as a function of possible rewards or punishment.

• What about beliefs, attributes, perceptions?

Behavior modification has two basic principles: Behavior that leads to a reward tends to be repeated

– Whereas behavior that leads to punishment tends not to be repeated.

Since behavior is the main outcome we wish to alter, sometimes it is enough.– Dissonance?


Use Pay for Performance• Pay for Performance

Compensation methods based on merit/performance rather than across-the-board nonoutput-based pay.

More instrumental and valent then salaries Providing a clear path Through strong instrumentality and valence

• Variable Pay Plan A compensation plan that reduces or increases a portion of an

employee’s pay, depending on whether the company meets its financial goals.

Combined with salary, a percentage of your pay is specifically under your control

• Gainsharing Plan An incentive plan that engages employees in a common effort to

achieve a company’s productivity objectives and in which they share in the gains. An initiative that ties everyone in one department or division together By tying their individual pay to the success of the larger group


Improving Merit Pay

• Merit RaiseA salary increase—usually permanent—based on

individual performance. Most of the time seen as expected. Which means?

• Applying merit raises more intelligentlyClarify performance standards.

So that employees can see instrumentality

Institute a performance appraisal system That is in-line with the standards, so there is no disconnect

Award merit pay based on merit Too often, it is seen as a formality, COL increase

Tie award allocations to limited specific timeframes. In line with expectancy If the time horizon is too long, interest is

lost


Use Behavior Management• Positive Reinforcement

Rewarding desired behavior; or the actual rewards Such as praise or bonuses Given each time the desired behavior occurs.

• ExtinctionWithholding positive reinforcement so that the

undesired behavior disappears over time. This is not punishment You are simply removing the positive outcome for exhibiting

the behavior

• Negative ReinforcementReinforcing the desirable behavior by removing

something undesirable from the situation. A tricky concept… Can be seen as a type of reward


Use Behavior Management (cont’d)• Punishment

Applying penalties for the undesired behavior to reduce the possibility that it will recur. Punishment involves the introduction of a undesired consequence in

an effort to deter behavior

You will need to be able to distinguish between: Interventions that introduce a reward/punishment Interventions that remove a reward/punishment

• Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement

Produces rapid learning of behavior.– However, what is the downside?

Variable reinforcement Produces sustained behavior.

– What are the advantages here?


Enrich the Jobs

• Job EnrichmentThe inclusion of opportunities for achievement and

other motivators in a job by making the job itself more challenging.

• Job Enrichment TechniquesForm natural work groups.Combine tasks.Establish client relationshipsVertically load the job.Open feedback channels.


Enrich the Jobs

• Job DesignThe number and nature of specific tasks or activities

in a job.

• Job EnlargementAn increase in the number of similar tasks assigned

to a job.

• Job RotationThe systematic movement of a worker from job to job

to improve job satisfaction and reduce boredom.

Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.11–1 Managing Individual Behavior Motivation ...

Documents

Transcript of Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.11–1 Managing Individual Behavior Motivation ...