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PT10603 PERSONALITY

AND INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

BY: MISS PATRICIA JOSEPHKIMONG



PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

� Abnormal psychology

� Studies the causes, treatment &

consequences of psychological

disorders/ mental illnesses such

as depression, anxiety &

psychoses



� Differential psychology

attempts to explain between

individual

� Personality refers to individual

differences in general/ normal

behavior � Psychopathology focuses on

abnormality



ABNORMALITY

� Conventional criteria for

defining abnormality

� Statistical deviance- an approach

that conceptualizes abnormality in

terms of behaviors that are

extreme, rare/ unique as opposed

to typical



� Social norm approach

� A rule/ guideline determined by

cultural factors for what kind of

behavior is considered appropriate

in social contexts

� E.g. some governments condemnthe consumption of alcoholics

drink, whereas others have very

relaxed attitudes towards drug



� Personal distress

� Individual·s level of suffering takes

into consideration and whether they want to get rid of thesuffering

� Disadvantages : abnormality is not

always associated with subjectivesuffering or the experience of discomfort



� Maladaptiveness

� The extent to which behavior

interferes with a person·s capacityto carry out everyday tasks such

as studying/ relating to others

� E.g. anxiety disorders such as

phobias, panic attack & obsessive-

compulsive disorder



� Mental illness approach

� An approach to psychological

disorder that integrates physical &

psychological variables in order to

understand the processes

underlying abnormal behavior

� Clinical psychologists &

psychiatrists focus on specific

symptoms that meet the criteria

for predefined diagnosis



HISTORICAL

� Hippocrates, the Greek philosopher

& physician credited with the

invention of medicine, believed inthe connection between

psychological & physical disorders

� He explained pathologies which

were common disorders in ancientGreek society.



� Psychological illness was

attributed to a physiological

dysfunction.

� Psychological symptoms have

physiological causes is

represented by the somatogenicapproaches to psychopathology



� Plato: disorders are

intrapsychical (all in the mind)

conflicts & embedded in someof the salient psychogenic

theories of abnormal

psychology.� ´All in the mindµ



� Psychopathology did not develop as

major area of psychology until the

beginnings of the twentieth century� Symptoms were regarded as the

expression of supernatural forces

that controlled the individual·s mind

& body

� Treated through obscure rituals ²

Exorcism & shamanism



� Ancient Egyptians: have special

temples for the mentally ill &

performed rituals & included theuse of opium to reduce pain.

� Behavioral abnormalities

treated with violence� Mentally ill individuals were

marginalized



� Nolen- Hoeksema, (2001)- in 1484 -

´possessedµ individuals to be burnedalive.

� Bedlam, established in 1243- 1800,

the first formal attempt at

psychopathological hospitalization

� 1970, Phillippe Pinel (1745-1826)

proposed the moral treatment for

mental disorders & categorizesymptoms.



Modern Approaches� Somatogenic by Wilhelm Griesinger

(1817-1868)

� Brain pathology was the cause of

all mental disorders� Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926)- first

classification of symptoms, labeling

and describing different

psychological disorders

� Case Phineas Gage- how strutural

changes in the brain may impair

normal psychological functioning



� Franz Anton Mesmer )(1734-1815) believed psychological

disorders to be the expression

of psychical rather than

physical factors & caused by

¶magnetic fluids· ² astrological

energy force inside people·s

body.� Developed a hypnotic method -

mesmerism



� Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893)believed that psychological

disorders were caused by a

degeneration of the brain,

nonetheless experimented withmesmerism.

� Found that patients experienced

substantial relief after being able to talk

about their symptoms under hynopsis.� Catharsis



Psychoanalysis &

Psychodynamic theories� Freud·s studies hysterical disorder

� Development of psychoanalysis/

psychodynamics (exploration of the

unconscious)

� Unconscious intrapsychical origin to

mental ilness.

� All behaviors are influenced byunconscious processes

� Used to understand human behavior

(philosophy, literature & sociology)



� Psychopathological symptoms as acompromise between unconscious

and conscious forces that

represents a symbolic expression or

repressed events.

� Treatments may last for 10/20 years

� Based on case studies & is largely

untestable� Based on circular interpretations &

speculative theories not robust &

representative empirical evidence



Behaviorism

� In the first half of the twentiethcentury while psychoanalysis wasgaining momentum in Europe

� Study of empirically observablebehavior

� Uninterested in hypotheticalpsychodynamic conflicts

� Symptoms would be a consequenceof reinforcing/ punishing specificbehaviors



� Witmer (1867-1956) imported to the

US the techniques he learned in

Germany from Wilhelm Wundt� First experimental clinic - study of the

deficiencies in children

� Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) & John

Watson (1878-1958) applied theprinciples of classic conditioning to

the study of phobias



� Thorndike (1874-1949) Skinner

(1904-1909)= rewarding

desirable behaviors was moreeffective than punishing

undesirable ones (operant

conditioning)



Cognitive

� Emerged in 1960s & 1970s-

attempted to understand the

internal mental processes(cognitions)

� People·s subjective

interpretations of events canhave a direct impact on their

behavior & emotion.



� Bandura (1896) conceptualizedthis idea as self efficacy

(individual·s belief about theextent to which they cansuccessfully execute theappropriate behaviors to control

& influence important lifeevents)



� Ellis (1973)= Rational Emotive

Therapy, conceptualizes illness

as the result of irrationalnegative beliefs about oneself &

the world

� Dryden & DiGiuseppe (1990),role of therapist= changes in

the patient·s beliefs



Biological approaches

� Divided into :

� Nerophysiology- dealing with the

processes/ functions of the brain.� Neuroanatomy- dealing with the

structure of the brain

� Neurotransmitter (chemical

messenger that carry information

between neurons & other cells

� Imbalance=psychological disorders



� Eg.serotonin affects emotion &

impulse regulation ; dopamine

levels have been linked to

psychosis & schizophrenia� Endocrine system (production &

release of hormones) in the

blood= affect mood, levels of

energy & reactions to stress



The Biophychosocial

Model� A multidisiplinary approach ro

psychopathology based on the

idea that mental illness resultsfrom combination of biological,

psychological, environmental &

social factors.



� Diathesis- stress model (some

people possess an enduring,

inherited vulnerability which islikely to result in psychological

disorder when they experience

an unbearable life event



Diagnosis

� 2 frameworks:

1) Idiographic

� adopted by psychoanalytic &psychodynamic theories)

� Emphasizes the singularity of mental illness

� Assumes psychological disordersto be manifested differently inevery individual



2) Nomothetic

� preestablished categories &

compare every case with

previously defined, described &

classified psychological

disorders



� 2 taxonomies diagonosing

mental disorders ´

� ICD- International Classificationof Diseases, Injuries & Causes

of death (WHO,1992)

� DSM- Diagnostic & Statistical

Manual Of Mental Disorder

(APA,1994)



� Diagnosis in DSM are based on:

� Some core symptoms that need to

be present

� Prespecified periods of time for

symptoms to be present &

sometimes

� Symptoms that should not be

present



Major Psychological

DisordersSchizophrenia

� Psychotic disorder characterized by

the patient·s lack of insight & loss of contact with reality & episodic

� Unable to distinguish between inner

& external reality

� Severe thinking & perception

impairment



� Syndromes:

� Hallucinations (fake perceptions)

� Delusions (false beliefs)� Disorganied speech

� Diorganized behavior

� Negative symptoms

� Passivity

� Neurocognitive deficits



� Experience more than one of thesyndromes

� Conceptualized by Kraepelin as¶early madness·

� Not involved double personality &aggressive manner

� Types : catatonic, hebephrenic &paranoid«residual &undifferentiated



� Catatonic-Kinetic abnormalities

� Hebephrenic-Disorganized thought disorder & decreased affect

� Paranoid- vivid & horrifying hallucinations(thought disorder & disorganized behavior)

� Residual- Positive symptoms (the presenceof something unusual-delusions,

hallucinations & thought disorder)� Undifferentiated- Symptoms which are notrepresentative of any other type of schizophrenia)



� Treated by antipsychotic/

neuroleptic drugs

� Cognitive therapy +

antipsychotic drugs can help to

reduce hallucination &

delusions



Affective Disorders

� Exaggerated intensity of moodexperiences throughout long periodsof time

� Unrelated/ disproportionatereactions to external life real- lifeevents

� Depression- persistent low mood (eg

speech reduction, lack of joy, oftensuicidal, feeling of guilt, pessimistic)� Learned helplessness & hopelessness



� Mania- opposite extreme of affect thandepression� Exacerbated elevated mood & an inappropriate

sense of well-being\

� Eg. Optimism, over confidence

� Abnormal talk & speech (eg. inconsistency &incoherent)

� Psychotic symptoms (delusions of grandeur)

� Manic behavior- overactivity & increased sexual& aggressive impulses

� Treated with lithium & antipsychotics& hospitalization



Anxiety disorders &

obsessional states� Experience of high levels of

anxiety

� Anxiety can be experienced

psychologically (eg. unpleasant

& dreadful feelings) &

somatically (muscular tension &increased heart attack)



� Common anxiety disorders is

phobias (experience of

irrational/ disproportionate fear of an object/ phobic stimulus

that leads individual to avoid

contact with that object� Treatment: systematic

desensitization (progressive

exposure to the phobic object)



� Obsessive-compulsive disorder-

a disorder characterized by

intense & repetitive obsessionsthat generate anxiety

� Tends to start in early

adulthood� Rituals to relieve the individual

from anxiety



Causes of phobias

Psychodynamic-conflict between

unconscious sexual/ aggressiveimpulses & social/culture norms

Behaviors- induced in humans as in

animals through association &

conditioning

Cognitive- sensitive/ have more

vulnerable schemas to interpret

events



Biological- a ubiquitous human emotion

Neuropsychological- overactivity of the

noradrenaline neurotransmitters isassociated with anxiety attacks

whilst serotonin has been associated

with the adaptational function of

preparing the individual for danger &stress

Diathesis-stress model- psychological

& biological



Eating disorders

� Exacerbated worry about food, body

shape, weight & related physical

symptoms� Related to cultural, economic & social

factors- experience of anxiety

� Anorexia (1. a serious & permanent

concern about one·s body shape,weight & thinness, 2. an active pursuit

& maintenance of low body weight, 3

the absence of menstrual periods in

female- disturbance of hormonal status)



� Associated with anxiety ² fail to

stop from eating.

� Anorexia individuals ² quiet,

unassertive, anxious, and

sexually inexperienced.

� Also tend to be ambitious andachievement-oriented, but have

low self estee.



� Bulimia nervosa- person to

indulge in alcohol & drugs

consumption

� Treatment: psychotherapy &

psychopharmacological drugs

� Treatment- group/ family intreatment



Personality Disorders

� A persistent pattern of thinking,

feeling & behaving that deviates

from cultural expectations &impairs a person·s educational,

occupational & interpersonal

functioning� Begins at early age, are stable

over time & are pervasive &

inflexible



DSM

� Cluster A: antisocial, borderline,

narcissistic & histrionic- odd & eccentric

behaviors as well as disregard for others

� Cluster B: schizotypal, schizoid & paranoid-

dramatic, erratic & emotional behavior

� Cluster C- avoidant, obsessive-compulsive,

dependent & passive-aggressive-anxious&fearful behaviors



Combination of the Big 5

with personality disorder +ve correlation: Neuroticism (N)

-ve correlation: Agreeableness (A)

& Conscientiousness ©

Variable in direction & strength:

Extraversion (E) & Openness (O)

Eg. Histrionic personalitydisorder- higher in E, avoidant

personality disorder- lower in E



Conclusions

� Modern conceptualizations of

normality are based on

statistical frequency, personaldistress, social norms &

maladaptiveness

� Diagnostic approach: clinicalpsychology & psychiatry



� Causes of psychological

disorders: genetics dispositions

(schizophrenia), situationaldemands

Thank You



�THANK YOU

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