EASY READING

For Fred C. Rydholm, author of the book “Michigan Copper, The Untold Story”

COPPER AND TIN FROM AMERICA

CONTENTS:1. INTRODUCTION2. COPPER AND TIN FROM THE WEST3. COPPER INGOTS FROM UPPER MICHIGAN4. TIN FROM BOLIVIA 5. TOTAL AMOUNTS OF IMPORTED METALS 6. PEOPLE AND SHIPS7. DISCUSSION8. GOLD AND SILVER TRADE

Dr. R.M. de Jonge ©, drsrmdejonge@hotmail.com

SUMMARYThe Phaistos Disc dates from 1458 BC, which is in the Middle Bronze Age of southern Europe. To make bronze copper was usually alloyed with 10% tin. These metals were ra-ther scarce in the Old World. It is shown, that both metals were imported from the other side of the Atlantic Ocean: c.400 tons of copper per year from Upper Michigan, USA, and c.40 tons of tin per year from Bolivia. About 40% of the copper was transported via the St. Lawrence River to the east, and 60% via the Mississippy to the south. The trade across the Ocean was accomplished by 1,400 people and 27 seaworthy ships. The round trip of each ship, having a calculated metal cargo of c.13 tons on the return route, lasted 290 days (9.5 months).In total, 288,000 tons of copper were removed from North America (c.2500-1458 BC). After this time periode at least another 103,000 tons of copper were taken away (c.1458-1200 BC). For tin 10% of these quantities were transported from South America. In these days America was a colony of Egypt.

In 1458 BC the import of noble metals from America (Bolivia) was 50 kg of gold and 20 kg of silver per year. Till the year of 1458 BC, the overall import of these metals was about 36 tons of gold and 14 tons of silver. In total, an amount of 49 tons of gold and 19 tons of silver were imported until the year of 1200 BC. (A quarter of the gold came from the mouth of the Amazone River.) In 1458 BC the import from Africa (Ghana) was 20 kg of gold per year. Till the year of 1458 BC the overall import was about 14 tons of gold. In total, an amount of 19.5 tons of gold was imported until the year of 1200 BC.

1 INTRODUCTIONIn the south of Europe the Bronze Age lasted from circa 2500 to 900 BC. The start of it coïncided with the discovery of America via the Atlantic Ocean, c.2500 BC (Refs.22-31, 117), and the end of it was caused by the application of the new metal of iron, which gra-dually replaced the bronze in that time period.

The Phaistos Disc dates from c.1458 BC, which is right in the so-called Middle Bronze Age (Refs.1-10,110). To improve the properties of the metal of copper, bronze was made, usually by alloying the copper with c.10% of tin. (The words ‘tin’ and ‘ten’ are even rela-ted.) Both metals were rather scarce, tin still the most. In view of the great influence of bronze in daily life (Ref.112), it is very well possible that the disc contains some infor-mation about the copper and tin trade around this date.

As just indicated the bronze contained about 90% copper. The word of “copper” is deri-ved from “Cyprus”, the name of the island at a distance of 540 km (340 miles or 292 NM) east of Crete, which possessed important copper mines from of old. The 5 turns of the front side of the disc encode the sailing distance from Crete to Cyprus, 5 moiras= 5°= 300 NM (1 Egyptian moira= 1°= 60 Nautical Miles, Ref.18).- Usually, the copper was transported in the shape of “oxe hide ingots”. These handy plates weighed about 35 pounds (16 kg), and could be carried on the shoulder for loading and unloading the ships (Refs.8,39,40).

On the Phaistos Disc the symbol of the “bronze shield” occurs. On the front side to the tu-ne of 15 “shields” are shown (Fig.6), possibly referring to the Southern Cape Verde Is-lands, at 15°N, which were at the start of the Southern Crossing of the Ocean (Refs.22-25). This is an indication the metals were imported from America.

The front side has 31 passages and each shield has 7 dots, possibly pointing to the Central Azores, 7° above the northern Nile Delta, at 31+7= 38°N. These islands play an impor-tant role when the ships return from America, fully loaded with metals (Refs.19-21). The Azores consist of nine islands, possibly referring to the density of copper, 9 g/cm3 (9 ti-mes heavier than water). The many “bronze shields” on this side probably mean the most important information about this trade is indicated on the front side of the disc.

On the back side are only 2 “shields” (Fig.7), corresponding to the Northern Cape Verde Islands, 2° above the southern islands, at 15+2= 17°N. These confirm the role of this ar-chipelago. These 2 “shields” are about 10% of the total number of 17 “shields” (and 4 o-ther bronze artifacts) on the disc, possibly a confirmation of the 10% tin in the bronze. The 7 dots on the shields may refer to the density of tin, 7 g/cm3 (7 times heavier than wa-ter).

Fig.1 Copper ingot from Crete. Its standard mass was 35 pounds, or 16 kg, as indicated on the Phaistos Disc (c.1500 BC).

2 COPPER AND TIN FROM THE WESTThe equal passages A12 and A18 on the front side are part of the “Combination” of equal groups A10-12 and A16-18, and of the whole “Circle” A10-18 of 36 symbols. These 36 symbols correspond with the circle-angle of 360° at the center of the planet Earth, at the level of the equator. The “Combination” refers to voyages of discovery (Ref.117), and to worldwide religious contacts (Ref.118), and the “Circle” may refer to world trade routes from the area around the Mediterranean Sea.

Both passages A12 and A18 contain the pair of symbols “boat, corpse”, possibly pointing to the transport “per boat” of “oxe hide, copper ingots”, because the sign of the “corpse” resembles a “copper ingot having the shape of an oxe hide”. The 30 or so passages on each side of the disc correspond with the 30 years of a generation, so trade goods indica-ted by a passage always refer to yearly quantities (Ref.112). The other signs of both pas-sages can be ignored.

Passage A12 suggests a transport of 1,200 “copper ingots by boat” per year. Next or 2nd passage A13 has at the end the combination of “shield, King”, important symbols, which confirm the 2nd number (2). Passage A15 has at the end “two ingots” and a “shield, King”, which indicate the number should be written down in 15-11= 4 figures. The com-binations of “shield, King” in A13 and A15 show, the copper ingots are used to make “bronze products” for the “King”. The other signs in this series of passages can be igno-red, again.

The “two ingots” in passage A15 are interesting. These suggest a “tin ingot” and a “cop-per ingot”, respectively. The first symbol is lightly pecked and has a darker colour, so is different, indeed. The two symbols touch each other, which is unusual. It suggests that tin and copper are mixed to obtain bronze, the material of the “shield” which is the next sym-

bol. Maybe the series of passages A12-15 also represent a transport by boat of 1,200 “tin ingots” per year…

GeographyThe image of the front side of the disc in Fig.6 is correct, also in a geographical sense. Last passage A31 is in the south. This means that the series of passages A12-15 point to the west. It suggests, that both metals, copper and tin, were imported from the west. Last passage A15 encodes the Southern Cape Verde Islands, at 15°N, again. It confirms the ro-le of the Southern Crossing of the Ocean to America. The two sides of the disc have toge-ther 31+30= 61 passages, corresponding to the sailing direction of the Southern Crossing, 61°SW (Refs.34,35).

The two ingots in passage A15 touch each other, which is quite unusual. Probably, it also means that the total quantities of imported copper and tin per year are shown by two con-secutive passages with ingots. These passages have to be the adjacent passages A25 and A26 on the edge at the left side. Again, these positions suggest that both metals were im-ported from America, in the far west. In these days America was a colony of Egypt. Note, that the round disc symbolizes the spherical Earth.

Total quantities of imported metalsPassage A25 suggests an overall quantity of 25,000 imported copper ingots from Ameri-ca per year. A25 contains the unique symbol of the “bronze chopper”, strongly confir-ming it. It is one of the few other bronze objects on the disc. Next or 2nd passage A26 has a “waterway, ingot”, confirming the 2nd number (5), and passage A29 has a “cover, wa-terway”, indicating the number has to be written down in 29-24= 5 figures. Most other signs in this series of passages can be ignored.

The sign of the “cover” in A29 represents “time” or “duration”, because the cover is nor-mally used to preserve food. So, the pair of symbols “cover, waterway” indicates, the in-gots are transported via “long sailing routes”. The “shield” in A26 confirms the copper is used to make bronze products. The combination “cover, waterway, ingot” in this passage confirms the “long sailing routes for these ingots”.

Passage A25 with the unique chopper also suggests an overall quantity of 2,500 imported tin ingots from America per year. This is 10% of the copper ingots. Next or 2nd passage A26 has a “cover, waterway, ingot”, confirming the 2nd number (5), and A27b (of pas-sage A27a/b) has a “shield, King”, confirming the number should be written down in 27+1-24= 4 figures. The other signs in this series of passages can be ignored, again.

The “shield, King” of A27b confirms the tin is used to make bronze products for the King. Note, that this “shield” is almost cut in half. To make this “bronze shield”, one has to use also copper, of course.- Next passage A28 is at the end of a paragraph, confirming the number is written down in 28-24= 4 figures.

As already suggested, the Phaistos Disc will also show the long sailing routes, which we-re used to transport the ingots from America to the Old World. These will be indicated by packages of ingots*, which are transported via important geographical locations along these routes. (Details in this article are shown by *. These may be skipped.)

The sizes of these packages cannot easily be established, but fortunately, we know that the total amounts have to be equal to the above mentioned quantities. Both edges of the disc contain together 13+12= 25 passages, confirming these quantities: 25,000 copper in-gots per year and 2,500 tin ingots per year. These edges represent the America’s, at the edge of the then known World.

Fig.2 Pyramid Temple of the Niches in El Tajin, near the town of Poza Rica, Veracruz, Mexico. It is located 30km from the east coast, at 20°N. It appears to have characteristics of the Culture of the Totonacs during the Classical Period. To date, only about fifty per-cent of the city's buildings has been excavated, revealing all kind of structures within a two-square-mile area. The original site may have been founded at the start of the first mil-lenium BC.

3 COPPER INGOTS FROM UPPER MICHIGANCopper transport from Isle Royale to Nova Scotia in the eastPassage A12 with the “stone hammer” and the combination of symbols “boat, ingot, King” represented the transport by boat of 1,200 (mined) copper ingots per year. Note, that this is only a small fraction of the total number of 25,000 copper ingots (!), previous-ly indicated by passage A25 on the left edge (see above). These 1,200 ingots were trans-ported from the mines at Isle Royal in Lake Superior (USA). The 30 passages of the back side, and the first 12 passages of the front side, until A12, form together 30+12= 42 units, corresponding to the complementary latitude of Isle Royale, at 90-42= 48°N. In antiquity the use of complementary latitudes was very common.

Equal passage A18 describes the transport of a big quantity of 18,000 (mined) copper in-gots per year, also from Isle Royale, Upper Michigan, at 30+18= 48°N. This is the center

of the prehistoric copper mines in North America (Refs.39,40,59-61). A factor 10 less or more would be, in view of the context, unprobable (Ref.112). Passage A19 at the end of the paragraph, and also at the end of the Inner Part of the disc, confirms the 2nd number (8), and A22 possesses the combination of “shield, King”, indicating the number has to be written down in 22-17= 5 figures. (The other signs in this series of passages can be igno-red.) (Refs.53-56).

Note, that an important part of this series of passages lies on the edge, because America was located on the “edge” of the then known world. Passage A18 also symbolizes the 18th Dynasty of Egypt (1580-1458), which was in power when the disc was made (Refs.-13-18). The number of passages on the disc and the 17 “shields” confirm the copper mi-nes on the Keweenaw Peninsula and Isle Royale, at 30+17= 47°N, and 31+17= 48°N, res-pectively.

Part of the copper was shipped to the east. Old site names show traces of the routes. The name of the little town of “Ontonagan” at the shore of Keweenaw Peninsula means “Cop-per Lode”. The large Canadian Province of “Ontario” and the “Ontario” Peninsula be-tween Lake Huron and Lake “Ontario” bear a name meaning “Copper River”. Possibly, the old name of the “Ottawa River” was “Ontawa River”. All these names contain the an-cient word of “onta”, meaning “copper” (Ref.39).

Passage B19 on the edge of the back side has the combination of “boat, ingot”, pointing to the transport by ship of 1,900 copper ingots via the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, at 30+19= 49°N. Next or 2nd passage B20 has a King, confirming the 2nd number (9), and the “boat” in passage B22 indicates the number has to be written down in 22-18= 4 figures. (The other signs in this series of passages can be ignored, again.) The first “boat” is suitable for river transport, and the last “boat” represents a ship appropriate for seafare, to cross the Ocean.

The second symbol of B22, the “scraper”, represents the island of “Anticosti” of this sha-pe in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The litteral meaning of its name is “Copper Coast” (“anti” means copper). Passage B14 on the same side has an “ingot”, showing that some of the copper is transported via Sable Island, offshore Nova Scotia, at 30+14= 44°N (Refs.22-25,30-33,36,37,77).

Copper transport from Isle Royale to Abaco Island in the south*Passage A3 on the front side has two “oxe hide ingots”, showing that copper (and tin) is stored at the ancient complex of Poverty Point in NE Louisiana, at 30+3= 33°N. Note, that A3 is equal to passage A15, which was probably the most important passage discus-sed so far. Both passages contain the symbol of the “groundplan of a King’s grave”, indi-cating the religious nature of the site.

The front side has 31 passages. Passage B2 on the back side has the pair of symbols “boat, stone hammer”, confirming the location of Poverty Point, at 31+2= 33°N. The “stone hammer” refers to the main activity of the site, the processing of all kinds of natu-ral rocks with this primitive tool. The “boat” in B2 illustrates that further ship transport of ingots takes place, from Poverty Point to the south (Refs.57,58,77).

Passage B29 on the edge has the combination of symbols “cover, waterway, ingot”, sho-wing that another number of 29 “copper ingots” are transported via the mouth of the

“long Mississippy River”, at 29°N. Next or 2nd passage B30, at the end of this side, has a “shield, King”, confirming the 2nd number (9). Passage A29 on the front side has a “co-ver, waterway”, confirming that the mouth of the long Mississippy River, at 29°N, was used for this transport.

Passage A25 on the left edge has the combination of “chopper, ingot”, suggesting that an-other 250 copper ingots are transported via the south point of Florida, at 25°N. Next or 2nd passage A26 has a “cover, waterway, ingot”, confirming the 2nd number (5), and passage A27 has a “shield, King”, indicating the number has to be written down in 27-24= 3 figures. The shields in A26 and A27 illustrate the bronze products, which were ma-de for the King.

Both edges of the disc contain together 13+12= 25 passages, stressing the important geo-graphic location of South Florida, at 25°N. Both Inner Parts of the disc contain 18 passa-ges, stressing the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, which was in power when the disc was made, and when this sailing route was so important.

Passage A26 has a “cover, waterway, ingot”, indicating an additional quantity of 26 cop-per ingots transported via the island of Bimini, offshore Florida, at 26°N. Next or 2nd passage A27 has a “shield, King”, confirming the 2nd number (6). The mentioned sym-bols show, that Bimini was the start of the “long sailing route of the ingots”, to make “bronze products for the King”.

Bimini is located at the latitude of the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. This latitude symbo-lizes the United Egyptian Empire. After visiting the old civilization around the Golf of Campeche, Mexico, people often returned via Bimini and Bermuda to the Old World (Refs.22-25,30-35,69,77-89).

Passage B27 on the edge of the back side has the combination of “ingot, boat”, represen-ting Abaco Island, NW Bahama’s, at 27°N. Via this island, another 2,700 copper ingots per year are transported by ship across the Ocean. Next or 2nd passage B28 has a “Royal Son, stone hammer”, and a King, confirming the 2nd number (7), and B30, at the end of the side, has a “shield, King”, indicating the number should be written down in 30-26= 4 figures.

Fig.3 Part of the Maya temple complex of Palenque (at 17.5°N), located 50 km SW of the Usumacinta River, in the state of Chiapas, SE Mexico. Palenque is a medium-sized si-te (c.2.5 km²), smaller than Tikal or Copán, but it is estimated that less than 10% of the total area is explored. Its currently known history starts at c.1000 BC.

Copper transport via the Azores to the Mediterranean*Passage B1 has a “cover, waterway”, indicating that the enormous Atlantic Ocean will be crossed via the island of Bermuda, at 31+1= 32°N. Note, that the litteral meaning of “At-lantic Ocean” is “Copper Sea”. Next passage B2 has a “boat, stone hammer”, confirming Bermuda at the same latitude of 30+2= 32°N. The island of Bermuda was discovered from the East Coast of North America, already c.2400 BC (Refs.22-25,77-89,117).

Passage B9 has a “boat, stone hammer” as well as an “ingot”, showing that all the copper, also from Nova Scotia, is transported via the West Azores, in the middle of the Ocean, at 30+9= 39°N. This includes a quantity of 900 ingots per year (B9). B11 has a “cover, wa-terway”, indicating the number has to be written down in 11-8= 3 figures, and affirming this long sailing route. Passage A9 on the front side has “two oxe hide ingots”, confir-ming that copper and tin is brought to the West Azores, at 30+9= 39°N. The combination “shield, King” at the end of the passage shows, that this is done to make “bronze products for the holy King”.

Passage B7 on the back side has a “cover, waterway”, indicating that further sea transport continued via the Central Azores, at 31+7= 38°N, and the East Azores (Sta. Maria), at 30-+7= 37°N. Passage B2 has a “boat, stone hammer”, which shows that the sailing route runs via the 2 islands of Madeira, at 31+2= 33°N. Passage A3 on the front side has two

ingots. These confirm that the import of both copper and tin takes place via Madeira, at 30+3= 33°N (Refs.22-25,77-89).

Both Inner Parts of the disc contain 18 passages, twice indicating that these voyages oc-curred during the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, which was in power when the disc was made. Together, they contain 18+18= 36 passages, showing that most of the copper and tin was transported via the Strait of Gibraltar, at 36°N. The dolmens in this area are still called “anta”, or “copper houses”, because of the religious nature of this trade (Refs.62-64). This statement completes the story about the copper trade from North America to the Old World. There are no other symbols of “a copper ingot, a bronze chopper, a boat, or a wa-terway” on the disc, and there are no further geographical details about this trade to tell. And all other passages on the disc can be ignored.

The yearly quantity of imported copperIt is obvious, that all mentioned quantities should be added to confirm the total amount of copper, transported across the Ocean, per year. Around Isle Royale in Upper Michigan a total amount of 18,000+1,200= 19,200 ingots left the area.

Note, that passage B17 on the back side shows a “bronze saw” and the “Palace of Phais-tos”, where the disc was found (Ref.110). B17 represents both Keweenaw Peninsula, at 30+17= 47°N, as well as Isle Royale, at 31+17= 48°N. The name of “Isle Royale” may be related to this royal palace. Next passage B18 shows two “royal temples”, which are less important. Both temples could be built during the 18th Dynasty of Egypt (B18), which was in power when the disc was made. B18 confirms the copper mines around Isle Roy-ale, at 30+18= 48°N.

A total of 1,900 ingots (39%) was transported via the Peninsula of Nova Scotia in the northeast, and a total of 29+250+26+2,700= 3,005 ingots (61%) left Abaco Island in the south. Both numbers (percentages) show the distribution of transported copper within North America.

Finally, a package of 900 ingots was transported via the West Azores to the Mediterrane-an, in the far east. In total, 19,200+1,900+3,005+900= 25,005 copper ingots per year were exported abroad. This quantity is equal to the total number of 25,000 copper ingots p.y. imported from America, mentioned previously (passage A25, see above).

Copper ingots with masses varying from 10 to 30 kg have been found by archaeolo-gists. So, the problem is to establish the weight of the “Standard Ingot” according to the Phaistos Disc. As will be shown below, its value appears to be 35 pounds, or 16 kg, which is a very realistic one. So, the total amount of copper was 25,000x35= 880,000 pounds, or 25,000x16= 400,000 kg, which is 400 tons of copper per year. The Phaistos Disc dates from the end of the New Palace Culture on Crete, c.1458 BC. This means, that around this date, c.400 tons of copper were transported across the Ocean per year. All this copper reached the Old World. Depending on the price, only a small fraction of this amount ended up on the island of Crete. (Refs.77,78,88-99)

Fig.4 The megalithic entrance to the Kalasaya mound is here seen from the Sunken Courtyard viewing west. The stairway is a well-worn megalithic construct, with a single block of carved sandstone composing several steps. A statue is in the center of the door-way. Like the mound, the Sunken Courtyard is walled by standing stones. In this case the stones are smaller and sculptured heads are inset in the walls. Several stelae are placed in the center of the 30 m square courtyard (site of 2.3 square miles, 1500 BC–1000 AD, Ti-wanaku at 16.5°S, south side of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia).

4 TIN FROM BOLIVIATin transport from Bolivia in the southThe front side of the disc showed the biggest contribution of copper from the copper mines of Isle Royale (A18, 18,000 copper ingots). So, the biggest contribution of tin from the most important tin mines will be shown at the back side. The 2 “shields” on this side form about 10% of the total number of 17 “shields” (and 4 other bronze arti-facts) on the disc, pointing to the 10% tin in the bronze. It confirms the important infor-mation about tin on the back side of the disc.

Passage B19 on the back side has the pair of symbols “boat, ingot”, encoding the trans-port by boat of 1,900 “tin ingots” per year from the area just east of Lake of Poopó, near the present town of Potosi, Bolivia, at 19°S (Ref.39). Next or 2nd passage B20 has a King, confirming the 2nd number (9), and passage B22 has a “boat”, indicating the number has to be written down in 22-18= 4 figures. (The other signs in this series of passages can be ignored.)

The first “boat” should be suitable for river transport from the tin mines to the shore, and the last “boat” has to represent a ship appropriate for seafare, to sail the return route along the Pacific coast of South America to the north. The second symbol of B22, the “scraper”, resembles a part of the beach during this long voyage to Central America.

1,900 Ingots form a big quantity of tin. The round disc symbolizes the spherical Earth, again. Note, that this series of passages B19-22 lies on the right edge, because seen from Crete or from the Old World (the center of the disc), the Pacific coast of South America is located in the far east. It should be noted, that the symbol of the “copper ingot” on the disc is now used as a unit of mass for tin. In reality, the tin was possibly not transpor-ted as a “tin ingot”, but in a different way. In spite of this, we will continue to speak about “tin ingots” here.

Passage A18 on the front side has a “stone hammer” and a “boat, ingot, King”, sugges-ting the transport by boat of an additional 180 (mined) tin ingots per year from the area around the present town of Oruro, Bolivia, at 18°S. Next or 2nd passage A19 is at the end of the paragraph, as well as the inner part, confirming the 2nd number (8). Passage A20, on the right edge, again, has a “stone hammer” and a “shield, King”, suggesting the number should be written down in 20-17= 3 figures. (The other signs in this series of passages can be ignored, again.) The symbols show the mined tin is used to make bronze products for the King. A18 also symbolizes the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, when these voyages were made.

Even today, the tin mines of Bolivia are the most important ones of the New World. The mining area extends from the ancient town of Tiahuanaco at the southern border of Lake Titicaca, to present day Argentina, a distance of about 700 km (450 miles). The oldest culture of South America developed in this region. The richest mines can be found around the towns of La Paz (near the lake), Oruro, and Potosi, and near the mountain of Chorolque in the south (Refs.39,43,50-52).

This mining area also produced the metal of “antimony” (“anti” means copper). In “anti-quity” it was used as an additive to copper, before the use of tin. The whole region is lo-cated in the center of the “Andes”, or “Copper Mountains”. Both metals were transported to the west, through the “Antofagasta” Province of Chili, which name means “Copper’s Hiding Place” (Ref.39).

Knowledge of the production of metals and trade routes for these important commodo-ties were first acquired by the Assyrians in Babylonia. This was the oldest civilization on Earth. Around the time of discovery of America via the Bering Sea (c.2600 BC), there was a great demand for tin. The shortage of tin resulted in a strong deterioration of the quality of the bronze. “Anaku” was their word for tin, as can be retrieved in the name of the most important ancient town in Bolivia, “Tiahuanacu” (Tiwanaku), where the metal can be found in very rich lodes (Refs.72-74).

Tiwanaku is situated at the south side of Lake Titicaca. In the local Aymara language “Titicaca” meant “Tin-stone” (Refs.75,76). Similar names can be discovered in the surroundings. The little town of “Ticatica” is located in the south, between Potosi en Chorolque. “Tiabaya” is situated between Lake Titicaca and the Pacific coast, and “Punta Tinaja” is a cape slightly to the north. They all remind of the Tin-production in antiquity, which took place in this area.

Passage B9 on the back side has a “boat, stone hammer” and an “ingot”, corresponding to the transport of another 9 tin ingots across the Isthmus of Panama, at 9°N. The pas-sage is at the end of a paragraph. Passage A9 on the front side, also at the end of a pa-

ragraph, has “two ingots” and a “shield, King”, confirming the latitude of this impor-tant land crossing between the Pacific and the Atlantic Ocean (or “Copper Sea”).

Passage A15 has “two ingots” and a “shield, King”, indicating Cape Gracias à Dios, the NE Cape of Honduras, at 15°N. The corresponding latitude line describes the start of the ancient culture along the North Coast of Honduras, Belize, and Guatemala.- Pas-sage A18 has a “stone hammer” and the combination of “boat, ingot, King”, encoding the transport by ship of 18 tin ingots for the King, the head of state, at the south point of the Gulf of Campeche, Mexico, at 18°N. Next or 2nd passage A19 is at the end of a paragraph, as well as the inner part, confirming the 2nd number (8).

This area represents the “Realm of the Dead, at the other sides of the waters (the Oce-an), in the land where the Sun sets (America)”. It is also the center of civilization of the holy Land of Punt. It symbolizes the back side of the planet Earth roughly “18 Moiras” (or 180°) west of Egypt. (Refs.13-18,22-25,38-49,87). It is one of the reasons that the whole metal trade is encoded on the disc. The passage also symbolizes the 18th Dynas-ty of Egypt, which was in power when the disc was made.

Passage B11 on the back side has a “cover, waterway”, encoding the sailing direction of the well-known crossing from Cape Catoche, Yucatan, to the SW Cape of Cuba, 11° ENE. Note, that Cuba belongs to the “Antilles”, or “Copper Islands”. The paragraph-line of B11 points to the series of passages B19-22, which previously indicated the big-gest contribution of tin from the important mines of Bolivia, at 19°S. All this tin had to be shipped to Cuba, and beyond, via this “long sailing route” (the symbols of B11, “cover, waterway”).

Fig.5 Caral was a large settlement in the Supe Valley, near Supe, Barranca province, Peru, about 20 km from the Pacific coast (at 11°S). It was inhabited by some 3,000 pe-ople between 2600 BC and 2000 BC, enclosing an area of more than 60 hectares. The main pyramid covers an area nearly the size of four football fields and is 60 feet (18 m) tall. - Caral spawns 19 other pyramid complexes scattered across the 35 square mile

(80 km²) area of the Supe Valley, allowing for a possible total population of 20,000 pe-ople.

A small tin mine on Isle Royale in the north*Passage A12 on the front side has a “stone hammer” and a “boat, ingot, King”, corres-ponding to the transport by boat of 12 (mined) tin ingots per year from Isle Royal in Lake Superior, 12° above the Strait of Gibraltar, at 36+12= 48°N. Next or 2nd passage A13 has a “shield, King”, confirming the 2nd number (2). Equal passage A18 encodes another 18 tin ingots from Isle Royal, at 30+18= 48°N. Recently, an ancient tin mine was discovered on this island (Ref.61).

Tin transport to Nova Scotia in the east*Passage B19 on the back side has a “boat, ingot”, suggesting the transport of another 19 tin ingots from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, at 30+19= 49°N. Next or 2nd passage B20 has a King, confirming the 2nd number (9). Because of the special paragraph-line of B11, passage B20 is also at the end of a kind of paragraph.

Tin transport to Florida in the south*The tin mines of the “Tinton area” in the Black Hills of South Dakota, at 30+14= 44°N, might be indicated by the “ingot” of passage B14. Passage A14 on the front side has a “stone hammer”, confirming these mines. However, the latitude is not prominently indi-cated on the disc. In prehistoric times, these smaller mines were certainly not much used. The same can be said about the tin mines of the Borborema Province in the jungle of NE Brazil, which were probably discovered in later times. These can now be reached via the “Tinto River”, at 7°S (the “cover, waterway” of B7?)(Ref.39).

Passage B29 on the back side has a “cover, waterway, ingot”, encoding 29 tin ingots per year at the mouth of the long Mississippy River, at 29°N. Next passage B30 at the end of this side has a “shield, King”, confirming the 2nd number (9). The symbols show the tin is used to make bronze products for the King. Passage A29 confirms it.

Tin transport via the West Azores to the Old World*Passage A25 on the front side has a “chopper, ingot”, suggesting 250 tin ingots per year at the south point of Florida, at 25°N. Next or 2nd passage A26 has a “waterway, ingot”, confirming the 2nd number (5), and passage A27 has a “shield, King”, indica-ting the number should be written down in 27-24= 3 figures.- Passage A26 has a “co-ver, waterway, ingot”, suggesting another 26 tin ingots at the island of Bimini, offshore Florida, at 26°N. Next or 2nd passage A27 has a “shield, King”, again, confirming the 2nd number (6).

Passage B27 on the back side has an “ingot, boat”, corresponding to 27 tin ingots at A-baco Island, at 27°N. Next or 2nd passage B28 has a “Royal Son, stone hammer”, and a King, confirming the 2nd number (7). Again, the left edge of the disc indicates the coast of America, in the west. Finally, passage B9 has a “boat, stone hammer” and an “ingot”, encoding the transport by boat of an additional 9 tin ingots per year from the West Azores, at 30+9= 39°N. The passage is at the end of a paragraph. Passage A9 on the front side confirms it.

The front side of the disc has 31 passages, encoding the northern Nile Delta, at 31°N. The back side has 30 passages, encoding the southern Nile Delta, at 30°N. So, part of

the copper and tin was shipped to Egypt, the greatest civilization on Earth (Refs.13-18). Long ago, after the discovery of America, c.2500 BC, this huge continent was al-ready ruled by the Old Kingdom of Egypt. It was the western part of this civilization, called “Atlantis” or “Copper Empire” (Refs.22-25,39,67,70,77).

The yearly amount of imported tinA total amount of 1,900+180+9+18= 2,107 “tin ingots” per year are transported from Bolivia to Cuba. Only 12+18= 30 tin ingots are produced around Isle Royal in Upper Michigan. A package of 19 ingots (40%) is transported from the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River in the northeast, and 29 tin ingots (60%) pass the mouth of the Missis-sippy in the south. Both percentages match the distribution of transported copper within North America (see above).

The total amount of 30+19+29= 78 tin ingots, for sure mined in North America, is only 3.1%. A further quantity of 250+26+27= 303 tin ingots, most of these from Bolivia, pass the area around South Florida. Finally, another 9 tin ingots are shipped via the West Azores. So, in total, an amount of 2,107+78+303+9= 2,497 tin ingots are expor-ted per year from America to the Old World. This quantity is equal to the total number of 2,500 tin ingots imported from America, mentioned previously (passage A25, see above).

Each so-called “tin ingot” has a mass of 35 pounds or 16 kg (Ref.8). So, the total amount was 2,500x35= 88,000 pounds, or 2,500x16= 40,000 kg, which is 40 tons of tin per year. This means that around 1458 BC, which is the date of the disc, c.40 tons of tin (10% of the copper transport) was transported across the Atlantic Ocean per year. It may be no-ted that the mentioned data about ancient tin mines and prehistoric tin trade are very rare. In the literature this kind of information is completely unknown.

Fig.6 Front side A of the Phaistos Disc(Crete, c.1458 BC) (Courtesy L. Godart, Ref.1)

Fig.7 Back side B of the Phaistos Disc(Crete, c.1458 BC) (Courtesy L. Godart, Ref.1)

5 TOTAL AMOUNTS OF IMPORTED METALSCopperAmerica was discovered via the Atlantic c.2500 BC, and the disc dates from 1458 BC. This means, the import could have lasted about 1000 years. This statement was confir-med for the Lake Superior region, where the copper mines were exploited from 2400 to 1200 BC (Refs.59,60,77). Information about the tin mines of Bolivia, however, is lacking.

If the transported quantities were all the time the same, this would have resulted in a total import of about 1000x25,000= 25,000,000 (25 million) copper ingots from Isle Royale, probably best indicated by passage A25 on the front side. However, in reality this will not be true, of course. So, we have to look for an appropriate passage with a lower number.

The total import of copper will be best shown by passage A18, which indicated the biggest quantity for the year of 1458 BC. A18 has a “stone hammer” and a combinati-on of “boat, ingot, King”, indicating a total import of 18,000,000 (18 million) copper ingots. Next or 2nd passage A19 confirms the 2nd number (8), and A25 has the special combination of “bronze chopper, ingot”, strongly confirming the number has to be written down in 25-17= 8 figures.

Previously, passage B18 on the back side symbolized Isle Royale, at 30+18= 48°N. B18 has the combination of “temple, temple, Cat-god”, confirming the total import of 18 million copper ingots. Next or 2nd passage B19 has a “boat, ingot”, confirming the 2nd number (8), and B25 has at the end the new combination of “stone hammer, bron-ze saw”, confirming the number has to be written down in 25-17= 8 figures (c.2500-1458 BC).

TinThe total import of tin will be best shown by passage B19, which indicated the biggest quantity for the year of 1458 BC. B19 has the combination of “boat, ingot”, suggesting a total import of 1,900,000 (1.9 million) tin ingots. Next or 2nd passage B20 has a King, confirming the 2nd number (9), and B25 has the combination of “stone hammer, bronze saw”, again, confirming the number has to be written down in 25-18= 7 figures.

Passage B17 has the other “bronze saw”, and it also shows the “Palace of Phaistos”, as mentioned previously. The passage confirmed the site location of the copper mines of Isle Royale, at 31+17= 48°N. So, B17 has the combination of “palace, bronze saw”, confirming a total import of circa 1.7 million tin ingots. Next or 2nd passage B18 has the combination of “temple, temple, Cat-god”, confirming the 2nd number (7), and B23 has at the end the unique symbol of the “bronze mattock”, confirming the number has to be written down in 23-16= 7 figures. So, the final conclusion is, that the total tin import from America was the average amount of c.1,800,000 (1.8 million) “tin ingots”, which is 10% of the number of copper ingots, indeed.

The mass of a metal ingot was 16 kg. So, a simple calculation shows, that the overall metal import from America to the Old World was 18,000,000x16/1000= c.288,000 tons of copper from Upper Michigan, and c.28,800 tons of tin (10%), most of it from Bolivia. An accurate calculation shows, that only 3.5% of the tin was mined in North America, which is 1000 tons. The rest of 27,800 tons of tin came from Bolivia (c.2500-1458 BC).

On the Phaistos Disc are 17 shields, 2 saws, 1 chopper, and 1 mattock, all made of bronze. These 17+2+1+1= 21 artifacts confirm the overall import (till 1458 BC) of roughly 21 million copper and tin ingots for the bronze production. Each shield has 7 burls and 1 round edge, confirming the 7+1= 8 figures.

Fig.8 Chavín de Huántar, Peru, at 9.5°S, was a large ceremonial center of a culture which flourished a.o. between 2500 and 1200 BC. The capital with several plaza’s and temples, including a pyramid, is located between the headwaters of Marañón River flo-wing east, and the River Santa flowing north and west. Part of the site is at an elevation of more than 3,000 meters. Agriculture and trade appear to have been important.

6 PEOPLE AND SHIPSPeople Passage B23, just mentioned, encodes the holy Tropic of Cancer and the Southern E-gyptian Empire, at 23°N. It is the center of the Sunreligion. At midsummer day, the Sun is there at right angles above. The slow northerly movement of the Sun turns into a southerly movement. So, one believes in the SunGod Ra (Refs.22-25,100-104). Passa-ge A23 on the front side confirms this important latitude. It contains a “falcon” or “ea-gle” with a serpent in its talons, the Cretan symbol of God on the disc.

Note, that the handle of the unique “bronze mattock” in B23 points to the last separa-tion line of the passage. This separation line is different from the others, because it ex-tends beyond the spiral-shaped line at the inside. It points to the so-called “messen-ger” of passage B14, part of the special combination “messenger, ingot”. This passage encodes the number of people involved in the metal trade around the year of 1458 BC.

Passage B14 indicates that 1,400 people were involved in the international metal trade, because a factor 10 less or more would be in both cases unprobable. Next or 2nd pas-sage B15 has a “Queen”, confirming the 2nd number (4), and B17 has a “palace, bron-ze saw”, showing the number has to be written down in 17-13= 4 figures (1458 BC).

ShipsPassage B27 has the combination of “ingot, boat”, which is a kind of special, because all other similar combinations were of the type “boat, ingot” (the reverse). It encodes the number of seaworthy boats involved in the metal trade around the year of 1458 BC. Note, that the “boat” in the passage touches the series of passages B14-17, which just indicated the number of people involved in this trade.

Passage B27 indicates that 27 seaworthy ships were involved in the international metal trade, because a factor 10 less or more would be unprobable. Next or 2nd passage B28 has a “Royal Son, stone hammer”, and a “King”, confirming the 2nd number (7). So, in the organisation of the international metal trade, each boat needed a crew of 1,400/ 27= c.52 people to do the job (1458 BC).

Duration of the round tripThe 30 or so passages on each side correspond with the 30 days of a month, so the “day” is often an appropriate time unit. Next passage B29 has the combination of “co-ver, waterway, ingot”. As explained previously, the duration of an event is indicated with the “cover” on the disc. The “cover” is normally used to keep food fresh, so it in-dicates time.

B29 encodes the “duration of the sailing route of the ingots”, which probably lasted 290 days (9.5 months). Next or 2nd passage B30 has a “shield, King”, confirming the 2nd number (9), and B19, the next passage on the edge, has a “boat, ingot”, confirming the number has to be written down in 30-28+1= 3 figures. The next passage of the In-ner Part can also be chosen, because B1 has a “cover, waterway”, confirming the 3 fi-gures. The “duration of the sailing route” in this passage shows, one refers to the whole round trip (!), because the center of the disc symbolizes Crete (or Egypt) in the Old World.

Passage A29 on the front side has a “cover, waterway”, confirming that the “duration of the sailing route”, lasted 290 days. Next or 2nd passage A30 has a “bronze shield”, confirming the 2nd number (9), and A31, the last passage of the side, has a “shield, King”, confirming the number has to be written down in 31-28= 3 figures.

The 12 months of a year are indicated by the 12 or so passages on the edges of the disc, so the month may be an appropriate time unit, too. Passage A29 with the “cover, waterway” is at the start of a series of 3+7= 10 passages A29-25, indicating the durati-on of the sailing route to the west, c.10 months (slightly more than 290 days). Last im-portant passage A25 has the special combination of “bronze chopper, ingot”.- The se-ries A29-26 (skipping A19) confirms it. Last passage A26 has a “bronze shield, cover, waterway, ingot”, confirming the “duration of the sailing route of the ingots for ma-king bronze products”, so the whole round trip (1458 BC).

Metal cargoIn a year the 27 ships have to transport a total number of 25,000+2,500= 27,500 ingots across the Ocean. If the round trip would have lasted a year, or 365 days, the metal car-go of each ship would have been 27,500/27= 1019 ingots. However, the round trip last shorter, only 290 days. So, on the average, the metal cargo of each ship equals a mini-mum of (290/365)x1019= 809 ingots, having a mass of 809x16= 12,940 kg, or c.13 tons (1458 BC).

Fig.9 Map of the nine islands of the Azores in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. All ships, loaded with trade goods, passed these islands between

2500 and 1200 BC.

7 DISCUSSIONOne of the greatest enigma’s of American archaeology is the huge amount of copper which disappeared from the prehistoric mines of Upper Michigan (Refs.3,39,40,59,61,-77). These extremely rich mines contained (and still contain today) both native copper and high quality copper ore. They were especially in use between 2400 and 1200 BC (Refs.11,12). It has been estimated, that a total quantity of more than 250,000 tons of pure copper has been taken away, of which the destination is fully unknown. However, a few scholars have already suggested, that during the Bronze Age an important part of this copper must have been transported to the Old World (Refs.22,23,39,40,59-61,88-99).

The Phaistos Disc reports an overall quantity of 288,000 tons of copper, exported from Upper Michigan, before the year of 1458 BC. It further reports an export volume of 400 tons of copper per year at this date. For an estimation of the total amount of copper, ex-ported from Upper Michigan across the Atlantic between 2400 and 1200 BC, we have to make a reasonable guess.

Let us assume, that a constant export volume of 400 tons of copper per year remained va-lid after the time of the Phaistos Disc, which is between 1458 and 1200 BC. It would mean, that the additional amount exported from North America was 400x(1458-1200)= c.103,000 tons of copper. It would also mean, that a total amount of 288,000+103,000= 391,000 tons of copper was removed from Upper Michigan. After inspection of the whole mining area around Upper Michigan, a total amount of disappeared copper between 250 to 500 thousand tons was estimated by others in the field (Refs.59,60). So, our conclusion is that its destination can now be understood.

The Phaistos Disc reports an overall quantity of 28,800 tons of tin exported from America before the year of 1458 BC. If a similar assumption is used, an additional amount of 40x(1458-1200)= c.10,300 tons of tin was taken away between 1458 and 1200 BC. So, in that case a total amount of 28,800+10,300= 39,100 tons of tin was removed from the New World. About 96.5% of this quantity would have been removed from important mi-nes in Bolivia, South America, and only 3.5% would have been removed in North Ame-rica.

The word of “mine” is probably descended from King “Minos”, the apparent founder of the Palace of Knossos. He was the legendary ruler of Crete during the “Minoan” civiliza-tion (Refs.65,66,71). This is the Palace Culture discussed by us, which lasted from 2007 to 1458 BC. So, it appears to be confirmed, that Crete played a major role in the interna-tional copper and tin trade. (Refs.109-120)

Similar ancient words can be retrieved from the area in and around Upper Michigan. The “Mineral Range” is situated on Keweenaw Peninsula. On Isle Royale the well-known “Minong Mine” is located, which produced a lot of copper. The island itself was even cal-led “Minong”. The little town of “Minong”, Wisconsin, is situated just south of Lake Su-perior. The big city of nearby “Minneapolis” in the state of “Minnesota” are other exam-ples.

According to Cretan folklore, Rhadamanthys, the apparent founder of the Palace of Phaistos, was the brother of King Minos. In his book “Sailing to Paradise”, author Jim Bailey (Ref.39) writes: “When tradition says that Minos and red-haired Rhadamanthys were both kings of Crete, and kings and judges of the underworld, the underworld refers to their huge American colonies…” Somewhere else he states: “… Pausanius (Ref.68) gi-ves the pedigree of raid-haired Rhadamanthys …; his father was Hephaestus (or He-phaistos), the lame and famous bronzesmith, and his grandfather was Talus, the bronze man in the tradition of Crete.” Both quotations are fully in ageement with the important messages about copper and tin from America on the Phaistos Disc (Refs.77,88-96). Note, that the city of Dallas, Texas, at the latitude of Poverty Point, NE Louisiana, is possibly named after Talos.

8 GOLD AND SILVER TRADEBesides copper and tin, there has also been a prosporous trade in gold and silver (Refs.8-10,13). The “flower” is the symbol for the manifacture of ornaments of these metals (Ref.112). So, the “flowers” at the front side of the disc will provide information about the international gold trade, and the “flower” on the back side deals with the less impor-tant silver trade.- For a long time past these metals were weighed in units of carats, cor-responding with 0.2 gram. The carat is the constant mass of a seed of the St. John’s bread or carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua). Note, that the petals of the “flower” on the disc resem-ble these seeds.

B19 on the back side is the only passage having both the symbol of the “flower” and that of the “ingot”. The “flower” has eight petals of equal size, and the front side has five turns, suggesting the mass of the Standard Ingot: 80,000 carats (a number of 5 figures). However, the “flower” also has a central part. Passage B19 is situated in paragraph 7, which suggests the calculation is correct (because the average remains 8). The “boat” in the passage points to B10 above it, which is almost identical to B13. Its paragraph line

points to paragraph 8, confirming the conclusion. So, the Standard Ingot has a mass of 80,000 carats= 80x0.20= 16 kg.

Gold tradeThe flower in passage A1 appears to deal with the gold trade from the mouth of the Ama-zon River, Brazil, at 1°S. The “burin” in the passage points to A6, while the head of the “messenger” in this passage touches A1. A6 is at the start of a series of 5 passages, cor-responding to 60,000 carats, or 60x0.2= 12 kg gold per year. The series finishes with the King in passage A10, confirming the 10-5= 5 figures.

The flower in passage A4 deals with the gold trade from Ghana and Ivory Coast in the south of West Africa, at 4°N. The “burin” in de passage points to A10. It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, corresponding to 100,000 carats, or 100x0.2= 20 kg gold per year. The series finishes with the King in passage A15, confirming the 15-9= 6 figures.

The “flower” in passage A20 is situated close to previous passage A19, indicating the source in the area near the present town of Potosi, Bolivia, at 19°S (Ref.39). It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, again, corresponding to 190,000 carats, or 190x0.2= 38 kg gold per year. The series finishes with the King in passage A24, confirming the 24-18= 6 figures.

The total import to the area around the Mediterranean Sea amounts to 60+100+190= 350 thousand carats, or 12+20+38= 70 kg gold per year. This is confirmed with the “flower” in A31+A4= A35. It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, encoding 350,000 carats, or 350x0.2= 70 kg gold per year (1458 BC). The series finishes with the King in passage A9, confirming the 9-3= 6 figures.

For sure this trade has lasted for a 1000 years (in reality longer, of course). So, perhaps the overall import was 350 million carats, which is 70 tons of gold. But this calculated quantity is not realistic, of course.- When the true fraction equals that of copper and tin (see above), then in reality the import of gold totalled to about 18/25x350= 252 million carats. This quantity is indicated by the next passage A25(!), which contains the special symbol of the bronze or golden chopper.

So, the overall import of gold to the area around the Mediterranean is indicated by passa-ge A25. It is at the start of a series of 9 passages, corresponding to 250 million carats, or 250x0.2= 50 tons of gold (till 1458 BC). The series finishes with the flower, the stone hammer, and the King in passage A19, confirming the 19-17+31-24= 9 figures. So, (12/70)x50= 8.6 tons came from the mouth of the Amazone River, 14.3 tons from Ghana and Ivory Coast, and 27.1 tons from Bolivia.

Silver tradeThe flower in passage B19 at the back side deals with the silver trade from the Pacific Coast near Bolivia, South America, at 19°S (Ref.39). The “boat” in the passage, which is carrying the silver, touches passage B10 above it. It is at the start of a series of 6 passa-ges, corresponding to 100,000 carats, or 100x0.2= 20 kg silver per year (1458 BC). The series finishes with the Queen in passage B15, confirming the 15-9= 6 figures.

For sure this trade has lasted for a 1000 years. So, perhaps the overall import amounted to 100 million carats, which is 20 tons of silver. But this is not realistic, of course.- When

the true fraction equals that of copper, tin and gold (see above), then in reality the import of silver totalled to about 18/25x100= 72 million carats. The “glove” in passage B10, just mentioned, touches the “cover”. So, this quantity is indicated by passage B7, which con-tains to the tune of two “covers”!

So, the overall import of silver to the area of the Mediterranean is indicated with passage B7. It is at the start of a series of 8 passages, corresponding with 70 million carats, or 70x0.2= 14 tons of silver (till 1458 BC). The series finishes with the “messenger”, the “ingot”, and the King in passage B14, confirming the 14-6= 8 figures.- Note, that the 3 “flowers” at the front side, and the single “flower” at the back side, affirm, that the import of gold was about 3 times as high as the import of silver.

In 1458 BC the total import of noble metals (gold and silver) was 350+100= 450 thou-sand carats, or 70+20= 90 kg per year. It is confirmed by last passage A31+B14= B45, just mentioned. It is at the start of a series of 6 passages, finishing with the “flower” in B19, confirming the 19-13= 6 figures.- Till 1458 BC, the overall import of noble metals (gold and silver) was 250+70= 320 million carats, or 50+14= 64 tons. It is confirmed by the first passage A31+A1= A32, having a “flower”, again. It is at the start of a series of 9 passages, finishing with the Palace of Knossos and the King in A9 (Ref.111), confirming the 9 figures.

The front side of the Phaistos Disc has 3 flowers, which confirm that the overall import of gold until 1458 BC was roughly 300 million carats. The back side has 1 flower, which confirms that the overall import of silver was rougly 100 million carats. Each flower has 8 petals and 1 central part, confirming the 8+1= 9 figures.

DiscussionLet us assume, that a constant import volume of 70 kg of gold per year, and of 20 kg of silver per year, remained valid after the time of the Phaistos Disc, which is between 1458 and 1200 BC. It would mean, that the additional amount of imported noble metals was 70x(1458-1200)/1000= c.18.1 tons of gold, and 20x(1458-1200)/1000= c.5.2 tons of sil-ver. It would mean, that a total amount of 50+18.1= 68.1 tons of gold, and of 14+5.2= 19.2 tons of silver was imported from abroad, until the year of 1200 BC. (Refs.77-108)

Fig.10 The front side A and the back side B of the Phaistos Disc of Crete (c.1458 BC).

LITERATURE1. Godart, L., The Phaistos Disc, The Enigma of an Aegean Script, Editions Itanos, 1995 (ISBN 960-7549-02-3).2. Miller, J., Ancient American, The Phaistos Disk, March/April 1994, p.37.3. Grimes, J.P., “They did write it down: Pre-Columbian Written Records of America”, Ancient American, Vol.2, Nr.12, pgs.35,36. 4. Best, J.G.P., and Woudhuizen, F., Lost Languages from the Mediterranean, Leiden, the Netherlands (1989).5. Bayley, H., The Lost Language of Symbolism, Citadel Press, 1990, reprint (ISBN 0-8065-1100-1).6. Kofoú, A., Kreta, met alle musea en archeologische opgravingen, Ekdotike Athenon, Athene, 1994 (ISBN 960-213-060-1). (Dutch)7. Willetts, R.F., The Civilization of Ancient Crete, Phoenix Press, New York (1976) (ISBN 1-84212-746-2).8. Mohen, J.-P., and Eluère, C., The Bronze Age in Europe. Gods, Hero’s and Treasures, Thames and Hud-son, 2000 (ISBN 0-500-30101-8).9. People of the Stone Age: Hunter-gatherers and Early Farmers, Weldon Owen Pty Limited, McMahons Point, Australia (1995).10. Old World Civilizations, The Rise of Cities and States, The Illustrated History of Humankind, Weldon Owen Pty Limited, McMahons Point, Australia (1995).11. Drews, R., The End of the Bronze Age, Changes of Warfare and the Catastrophe, c.1200 BC, Princeton Paperbacks, 1993 (ISBN 0-691-02591-6).12. Peiser, B.J., Palmer, T., Bailey, M.E., Natural Catastrophes during Bronze Age Civilizations, BAR International Series 728, Oxford, 1998 (ISBN 0-86054-916-X).13. Siliotti, A., Egypt, Temples, People and Gods, Bergamo, Italy, 1997.14. Hart, G., A Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddes ses , Routledge, London, 1986 (ISBN 0-7102-0167 -2).15. Wallis Budge, E.A., Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrec ti on , 2 Vol., Dover Pub., N.Y., 1973 (ISBN 0-486-22780-4).16. Breasted, J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol.2: The Eighteenth Dynasty, London, 1988.17. Kemp, B.J., Ancient Egypt, Anatomy of a Civilization, London, Routledge, 1991.18. Tompkins, P., Secrets of the Great Pyramid, Harper & Row, London, 1971 (ISBN 0-06-090631-6). (Dr. Stecchini)19. Casson, L., Ships and Seafaring in Ancient Times, British Museum Press, 1994 (ISBN 0-525-47545-1).20. Wachsmann, S., Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age, Levant, College Station, Texas, 1998.21. Heyerdahl, T., The Ra Expeditions, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1971.22. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S, How the Sungod Reached America, A Guide to Megalithic Sites, MCS Inc., 2002 (ISBN 0-917054-19-9). Available: MCS Inc., Box 3392, Kirkland, Wa 98083-33-92, also on CD.23. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S, Website: www.howthesungod.com.24. De Jonge, R.M., “Peters Creek Mound (c.715 BC, Clairton, Pennsylvania)”, Ref.78, to be published.25. De Jonge, R.M., and IJzereef, G.F., De Stenen Spreken, Kosmos Z&K, Utrecht/ Antwerpen, 1996 (ISBN 90-215-2846-0). (Dutch)

26. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “The Discovery of the Atlantic Islands, 4600-3200 BC”, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.3, No.11, pgs.69-109 (2002). 27. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., "The Passage Grave of Karleby, Encoding the Islands Disco-vered in the Ocean, c.2950 BC", Migration & Diffusion, Vol.5, No.18, pgs.64-74 (2004).28. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “The Rings of Stenness, Brodgar & Bookan, Celebrating the Dis-covery of South Greenland, c.3200 BC”, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.6, No.24, pgs.20-40 (2005).29. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “Greenland, Bridge between the Old and New World, c.2500 BC”, Ancient American, Vol.11, No.67, pgs.12-20 (2006).30. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “A Nautical Center for Crossing the Ocean, America’s Stone-henge, New Hampshire, c.2200 BC”, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.4, No.15, pgs.60-100 (2003).31. Lambert, J.D., America's Stonehenge, an Interpretive Guide, Sunrise Publications, Kingston, N.H., 1996 (ISBN 0-9652630-0-2).32. De Jonge, R.M., “Great Circle Mound: An Indiana Temple to the Egyptian Sun-God?”, Ancient American, Vol.9, No.60, pgs.31-32 (2004).

33. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “The Stone Rows of Tormsdale: A Voyage to Central America, the Realm of the Dead” (Caithness, NE Scotland, c.1600 BC), Ancient American, Vol.11, No.70, pgs.28-34 (2006).34. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “The Disc of Nebra, Germany, c.1600 BC”, Migration & Diffu-sion, Vol.5, No.17, pgs.32-39 (2004).35. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., Ancient American, "Germany's Bronze Age Disc Reveals Transatlantic Seafaring, c.1600 BC", Vol.9, No.55, pgs.18-20 (2004).36. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “The Three Rivers Petroglyph, A Guidepost for River Travel in America, c.1500 BC”, Migration & Diffusion, Vol.3, No.12, pgs.74-100 (2002). 37. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., The Embden Dragon Petroglyph, A Copper-Trading Route of the Bronze Age (Kennebec River, Embden, Maine, c.1500 BC), Midwestern Epigraphic Journal, Vol.18/9, pgs. 56-82, 2004-5 (ISSN 1932-5703).38. Thompson, G., American Discovery, Misty Isles Press, Seattle, 1994.39. Bailey, J., Sailing to Paradise, Simon & Schuster, 1994.40. Fell, B., America BC, Pocket Books, Simon & Schuster, 1994.41. Jairazbhoy, R.A., Ancient Egyptians and Chinese in America, Rowman & Littlefield, Totowa, N.J., 1974 (ISBN 0-87471-571-1).42. Zapp, I., and Erikson, G., Atlantis in America. Naviga tors of the Ancient World , Adventures Unlimited Press, 1998 (ISBN 0-932813-52-6).43. New World and Pacific Civilizations. The Illustrated History of Humankind, Weldon Owen Pty Li-mited, McMahons Point, Australia (1995).44. Peterson, F.A., Ancient Mexico, 1959.45. Stuart, G.E., "New Light on the Olmec", National Geographic, Nov. 1993. 46. Bernal, I., The Olmec World, University of California Press, London,1969 (ISBN 0-520-02891-0).47. Gruener, J., The Olmec Riddle, An Inquiry into the Origin of Precolumbian Civilization, Vengreen Pu-blications, 1987, Rancho Santa Fe, Cal. (ISBN 0-9421-85-56-0).48. Stengel, M.K., "The Diffusionists have Landed", Atlantic Monthly, Jan. 2000.49. Tedlock, D., transl., Popol Vuh. The Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1985 (ISBN 0-671-61771-0).50. Wilkins, H.T., Mysteries of Ancient South America, (1947), Adventures Unlimited Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-932813-26-7).

51. Burgess, J., “Tiawanaku, Ancient World Center of Sun Worship”, Midw. Epigr. Newsl., Vol.24, No 3, 2007.52. "Oldest City of America's confirmed, Peruvian complex contemporary with Egypt's pyramids." The Seattle Times, A4, April 27, 2001.53. Ferryn, P., "5000 Years Before Our Era: The Red Men of the North Atlantic", NEARA Journal, Vol. XXXI, No.2 (1997).54. Perry, W.J., The Children of the Sun, Adventures Unlimited Press, Illinois, 2004, originally pu-blished in 1923 (ISBN 1-931882-27-4).55. Kennedy, R.G., Hidden Cities: The Discovery and Loss of Ancient North American Civilization, Pen-guin Bks, NY, 1994 (ISBN 0-14-02.5527-3).56. Mallery, A.H., and Harrison, M.R., The Rediscovery of Lost America, The Story of the Pre - Columbian Iron Age in America, Dutton, NY, 1979 (ISBN 0-525-47545-1).57. Gibson, J.L., The Ancient Mounds of Poverty Point, Place of the Rings, University Press of Florida, 2001 (ISBN 0-8130-2551-6).58. Gibson, J.L., Poverty Point, A Terminal Archaic Culture of the Lower Mississippy Valley, Univ. of Southwestern Louisiana (1996). Website: www.crt.state.la.us/crt/ocd/arch/poverpoi/mapopo.htm 59. Drier, R.W., and Du Temple, O.J., Prehistoric Copper Mining in the Lake Superior Region, 2005, Publ. Priv., Libr. of Congress 61-19236. 60. Rydholm, C.F., Michigan Copper, The Untold Story, Winter Cabin Books, Marquette, 2006 (ISBN 0-9744679-2-8).61. Website: http://www.philipcoppens.com/copper.html.62. Albergaria, J., and Carvalho Dias, A., Antas de Elvas, Archaeological Circuits , IP-PAR, 2000 (ISBN 972-8087-74-8). 63. Palma dos Santos, A., Monumentos Megaliticos do Alto Alentejo, Guias Arqueologicos de Portugal, Fenda Ed., 1994 (ISBN 972-9184-16-X). (Portuguese)64. Balfour, M., Megalithic Mysteries - An Illustrated Guide to Europe's Ancient Sites, Collins & Brown, 1992 (ISBN 1-85-585-3558).

65. Homer, The Iliad and the Odyssey, transl. Murray, Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann, London (1919).66. Strabo, Complete Works, Loeb Classical Library, Heinemann, London (1923-32).67. Plato, The Dialogues, transl. W. Taylor, Univ. of London Press (1902).68. Pausanius, Description of Greece, Loeb Classical Library, 1966, VII, iv, 8.69. De Jonge, R.M., and Wakefield, J.S., “A Return Route Across the Ocean, Encoded at Tormsdale Rows (Caithness, NE Scotland, c.1600 BC), Ancient American, Vol.12, No.74, pgs.8-12 (2007)70. Joseph, F., Survivors of Atlantis, Their Impact on World Culture, Bear & Co., Vermont 2004 (ISBN 1-59143-0-040-2) 71. Davaras, C., The palace of Knossos, Archaeological Guide, Athens, Hannibal Ed. (1995).72. Ward, D.S., Website: www.halexandria.org/dward735.htm (2003).73. Website: osdir.com/ml/culture.templar.rosemont/2004-10/msg00008.html.74. Website: www.sacred-texts.com/atl/ataw/ataw308.htm.75. Sitchin, Z., The Lost Realms, Avon Books, New York , 1990.

76. Website: www.bibliotecapleyades.net/sitchin/sitchinbooks04_05.htm.77. Wakefield, J.S., and De Jonge, R.M., Rocks & Rows, Sailing Routes across the Atlantic and the Copper Trade, MCS Inc, 2010 (ISBN 0-917054-20-2). Available: MCS Inc, Box 3392, Kirkland, Wa USA 98033. Website: www.rocksandrows.com78. De Jonge, R.M., Website: www.slideshare.net/rmdejonge79. De Jonge, R.M., Discovery of the Islands in the Ocean (Cairn T, Loughcrew, Co. Meath, Ireland, c.3200 BC), Ref.78.80. De Jonge, R.M., “The Discovery of Australia and the Flood (The Rainbow Serpent Shelter, Mt. Bor-radaile, Arnhem Land)”, Ref.78, to be published.81. De Jonge, R.M., “The Early Discovery of New Zealand (King Huni of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, c.2685-2661 BC)”, Ref.78, to be published.82. De Jonge, R.M., “The Discovery of Three Continents (Santo Stefano, North Sardinia, Italy, c.2300 BC)”, Ancient American, Vol.12, No.76, pgs.28-29 (2007), Ref.78.83. De Jonge, R.M., “Gold Ring (c.1450 BC, Grand Canyon, Arizona)”, Ref.78, to be published.84. De Jonge, R.M., “Egyptian Discovery of America (c.2470 BC, Indian Rock House, Fairfield Bay, Ar-kansas)”, Ref.-78, to be published.85. De Jonge, R.M., “Discovery of America and the Flood (c.2300 BC, Ita Letra, Villarrica, Paraguay)”, Ref.78 to be published.86, De Jonge, R.M., “A Sword for America (Kirkburn, East Yorkshire, England, c.250 BC)”, Ref.78, to be published.87. De Jonge, R.M., “Anglo-Saxon Cemetery Artifacts (Sittingbourne, Kent, SE England, c.650 AD)”, Ref.78, to be published.88. De Jonge, R.M., “Houghton’s Petroglyph (Copper Country, Michigan, 2500-1200 BC)”, Ref.78, to be published.89. De Jonge, R.M., “The Mystic Symbol, mark of the Michigan Mound Builders”, Ref.78, to be pu-blished.90. De Jonge, R.M., “The Battersea Shield (River Thames, London, c.190 BC)”, Ref.78, to be publish-ed.91. De Jonge, R.M., “Copper Trade with the Old World (Poverty Point, NE Louisiana)”, Ref.78, to be pu-blished.92. De Jonge, R.M., “Petroglyph of a Sailing Boat (Copper Harbor, Upper Michigan, c.1640 BC)”, Ref.78, to be published.93. De Jonge, R.M., “The Bronze Doors of Rekhmire (Thebes, Upper Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty, c.1460 BC)”, Ref.78, to be published. 94. De Jonge, R.M., Minoan Pendant (Cleveland, Ohio, c.1690 BC), Ref.78, to be published.95. B. Scheel, Egyptian Metalworking and Tools, Shire Publications, Aylesbury, UK.96. De Jonge, R.M., “The Myths of Monks Mound (Cahokia, Illinois, 650-1400 AD)”, Ref.78, to be pu-blished.97. De Jonge, R.M., “Four Ancient Stories (Poverty Point, NE Louisiana, c.700 BC)”, Ref.78, to be pu-blished.98. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Midwestern Epigraphic Journal, Vol.20, 111-115 (2006), and Vol.21, 74-80 (2007), to be published.99. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, Website: www.slideshare.net/drsrmdejonge100. Wilkinson, R.H., Tempels van het Oude Egypte, Bosch & Keuning, Baarn (2001) (ISBN 90-246-0608-x). (Dutch)

101. Johnson, P., The Civilization of Ancient Egypt, Seven Dials, Cassell & Co, London (2005) (ISBN 1-84188-068-X).102. Faulkner, R.O., The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, British Museum Press, London (2010) (ISBN 978-07141-1992-2).103. Wilkinson, R.H., Reading Egyptian Art, A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture, Thames & Hudson, London (2011) (ISBN 978-0-500-27751-5). 104. Betro, M.C., Hiërogliefen, De beeldtaal van het oude Egypte, Tirion, Baarn (1999) (ISBN 90-5121-847-8). (Dutch)105. De Jonge, R.M., “The Comet Catastrophe of c.2345 BC”, (thirteen articles).Webpage: http://www.barry.warmkessel.com/dejonge.html106. De Jonge, R.M., “The Swan Stone (Burrows Cave, near Olney, Illinois)”, Ref.78, to be published.107. De Jonge, R.M., “The Ikom Monoliths and the Flood (1200 BC-200 AD, Cross River State, Nigeria)”, Ref.78, to be published. 108. De Jonge, R.M., “Great Serpent Mound (c.2300 BC, Adams County, Ohio)”, Ref.78, to be published.109. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, (2008), Ch.1, INTRODUCTION, Website: www.slideshare.net/drsrmdejonge110. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.2, ORIGIN AND DATE OF THE PHAISTOS DISC, see Ref.109.111. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.3, POPU-LATION AND TERRITORY OF CRETE, see Ref.109.112. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.4, DATA ABOUT DAILY LIFE ON CRETE, c.1458 BC, see Ref.109.113. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.5, DECI-PHERMENT OF THE PHAISTOS DISC, see Ref.109.114. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.6, HIS-TORY OF CRETE, see Ref.109.115. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.7, LATE HISTORY OF EGYPT, see Ref.109.116. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.8, EARLY HISTORY OF EGYPT , see Ref.109.117. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.9, DIS-COVERY OF THE WORLD , see Ref.109.118. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.10, CEN-TRAL AMERICA, AND THE SAILING ROUTES TO REACH IT, see Ref.109.119. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.11, COP-PER AND TIN FROM AMERICA, see Ref.109.120. De Jonge, R.M., The Phaistos Disc Decoded, New Testimony of a Lost Civilization, Ch.12, THE RING OF MAVRO SPELIO AND OTHER ARTIFACTS, see Ref.109.

(Februari 2012)