3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 1 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Qumranקומראןخربة قمران

Caves at Qumran

QumranFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Qumran (Hebrew: קומראן ; Arabic: خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran) is an archaeological site in theWest Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park.[1] It is located on a dry plateau about amile from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli settlement and kibbutz ofKalya. The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of John Hyrcanus,134-104 BCE or somewhat later, and was occupied most of the time until it was destroyed by theRomans in 68 CE or shortly after. It is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caveswhere the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marlterrace. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s,though several later campaigns at the site have been carried out.

Contents

1 History2 Discovery and excavation

2.1 Early site analysis

2.2 Major excavations

2.3 De Vaux's interpretations

2.4 Further excavations and surveys3 Recent archaeological analysis

3.1 Pottery

3.2 Cisterns

Coordinates: 31°44!27"N 35°27!31"E

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 2 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Shown within Israel

Location Kalya, West Bank

Region Israel

Coordinates 31°44!27"N 35°27!31"E

Type Settlement

History

Founded Between 134-104 BCE or slightlylater

Abandoned 68 CE or shortly after

Periods Hellenistic to Roman Empire

3.3 Numismatic studies

3.3.1 The bronze coinage3.3.2 The silver coinage

3.3.2.1 Lönnqvist analysis of 2007

3.4 Population at Qumran4 Qumran-Essene hypothesis

4.1 Qumran as fortress

4.2 Qumran as villa

4.3 Qumran as commercial center

4.4 Qumran as part of the Jordan valley

4.5 Other issues

5 Archaeological site

6 References

7 Bibliography8 External links

8.1 Scholarly articles on the site of Qumran

8.2 Other links relevant to the site of Qumran

History

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 3 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Location of Qumran

Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947-1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran.Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus. Cisterns, Jewish ritualbaths, and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper storyalleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and a tower.

Many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect, probably the Essenes. But, according to LawrenceSchiffman, the rules of the community, its heavy stress on priesthood and the Zadokite legacy, and other detailsindicate a Sadducean-oriented sect either distinct from or one of the various Essene groupings.[2] Others proposenon-sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with the notion that it was a Hasmonean fort that was latertransformed into a villa for a wealthy family, or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or somethingsimilar.

A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. While most of the graves contain the remains of males,some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of thegraves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buriedat Qumran cemetery.[3] One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that theywere brought to Qumran because burial was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas.[4]

The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through thesettlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presenceof the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters forthose living in the area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefsand practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices.Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, who may havebeen Essenes, or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of the Zadokites against theHasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community,some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud.[5] Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden inthe caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish Revolt, though some of them may have been deposited earlier.

Discovery and excavation

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 4 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Caves of Qumran

Early site analysis

The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century.[6] The initialattention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, thefirst excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in thecemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont-Ganneau in 1873.[7]

Rev. Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran inDecember 1856.[8] Isaacs stated regarding Qumran's tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed atower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensiveoperations."[9] Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern."[10]

The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing thepositioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded the ruins "may have very well been once a smallfortress."[11] Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs.[12]

Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg, or fort.[13] Archaeologist Michael Avi-Yonah agreed withDalman’s identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of a string of fortresses along thesoutheastern Judean border.[14]

Major excavations

Full-scale work at the site began after Roland de Vaux and G. Lankester Harding in 1949 excavated what became known as Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A cursory surface survey that year produced nothing of interest,[15] but continued interest in the scrolls led to a more substantialanalysis of the ruins at Qumran in 1951. This analysis yielded traces of pottery closely related to that found in Cave 1.[16] This discovery led tointensive excavations at the site over a period of six seasons (1951-1956) under the direction of de Vaux.

The Iron Age remains at the site, which were modest but included a lmlk-seal, led de Vaux to identify Qumran as the City of Salt listed in Josh15:62. The site, however, may be identified with Secacah, which is referenced in the same area as the City of Salt in Josh 15:61. Secacah ismentioned in the Copper Scroll, and the water works of Secacah that are described in this source are consistent with those of Qumran.[18] The

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 5 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Chart of various proposedchronologies of Qumran.[17]

excavations revealed that after the Iron Age, Qumran was principally in use from the Hasmonean times until some time after the destruction of thetemple by Titus in 70 CE. De Vaux divided this use into three periods:

Period I, the Hasmonean era, which he further divided in two:Period Ia, the time of John HyrcanusPeriod Ib, the latter Hasmoneans, ending with an earthquake and fire in 31 BCE (this wasfollowed by a hiatus in de Vaux's interpretation of the site)

Period II, the Herodian era, starting in 4 BCE on up to the destruction of the site apparently at thehands of the Romans during the Jewish WarPeriod III, a reoccupation in the ruins

De Vaux's periodization has been challenged by both Jodi Magness[19] and Yizhar Hirschfeld.[20]

The site that de Vaux uncovered divides into two main sections: a main building, a squarish structure of twostories featuring a central courtyard and a defensive tower on its north-western corner; and a secondarybuilding to the west. The excavation revealed a complex water system that had supplied water to severalstepped cisterns, some quite large, located in various parts of the site. Two of these cisterns were within the walls of the main building.

Both the buildings and the water system evince signs of consistent evolution throughout the life of the settlement. with frequent additions,extensions and improvements. The water channel was raised to carry water to newer cisterns farther away and a dam was placed in the uppersection of Wadi Qumran to secure more water, which was brought to the site by an aqueduct. Rooms were added, floors were raised, pottery ovensrelocated and locations were repurposed.

De Vaux found three inkwells at Qumran (Loci 30 (2) and 31) and over the following years more inkwells have come to light with a Qumranorigin. Jan Gunneweg identified a fourth (locus 129). S. Steckoll found a fifth (reportedly near the scriptorium). Magen and Peleg found a sixthinkwell. Without counting the Ein Feshkha inkwell or others with debated provenance, that number is more inkwells than found at any other site ofthe Second Temple Period, a significant indication of writing at Qumran.

De Vaux's interpretations

De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon information in the Dead Sea Scrolls—which continued to be discovered inthe nearby caves throughout his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Usinghis excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder, Philo, and

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 6 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Flavius Josephus, De Vaux's conclusion was that the inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes, a conclusionthat has come to be known as the "Qumran–Essene hypothesis".[21] This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were theEssenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes.

He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench was also discovered in theremains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area where the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vauxalso interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" oflocus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqva’ot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity toseveral stepped and partitioned ritual baths near the Jerusalem Temple Mount.

Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the scriptorium of Qumran... We may also suppose... that certainworks were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go."[22] He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caveswhen they felt their safety was in danger.

Roland de Vaux died in 1971 without having provided a full report on the excavations at Qumran.[23][24] In 1986 the École Biblique appointed theBelgian archaeologist Robert Donceel to the task of publishing the final results of de Vaux's excavations. Preliminary findings were presented at aconference in New York in 1992,[25] but a final report never eventuated. According to Pauline Donceel-Voûte the final report was impossible towrite, because many artifacts had been lost or corrupted (in particular, according to the Donceels, some of the coins excavated by Roland de Vauxfrom Qumran had been lost.[26][27]) To fill the gap, the École had a synthesis of de Vaux's field notes published in 1994.[28] This volume includedseveral hundred photographs, 48 pages of measurement, and summary descriptions of the field diaries.[29] An English translation of the field notessynthesis was published in 2003.[30] However many of de Vaux's archaeological findings from Qumran (which are stored in the RockefellerMuseum) are still not published and are inaccessible to scholars and the public.[31][32]

Further excavations and surveys

Although de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on the settlement, therehave been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later archaeologists have oftenturned elsewhere to continue research, including dump sites from de Vaux's excavations. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, therewere some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll.[33] Steckoll also carried out work in the cemetery,excavating twelve tombs.[34] In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R.W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan.[35]

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 7 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Rooms on the western side of the main buildingat Qumran.

In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985-1991Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich's conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for themembers of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places".[36]

From mid-November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations aspart of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen.[37] In the winter of 1995-1996 and later seasons Magen Broshiand Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in the caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves.[35] In 1996James Strange and others dug at Qumran using remote sensing equipment.[38] From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carriedout excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority.[39] Randall Price and Oren Gutfield dug on the Qumran plateau,seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan a 2010 season).[40]

Recent archaeological analysisMost of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used inlater excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reportsand the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s,archaeologist Robert Donceel worked on the de Vaux materials in a new effort towards publishingexcavation reports. He found artifacts he believed did not fit the religious settlement model,including "sophisticated glass and stoneware."[41] In 1992 Pauline Donceel-Voute put forward theRoman villa model in an attempt to explain these artifacts.[42] In 2002 archaeologists Minna andKenneth Lönnqvist[43] published their archaeological and spatial studies at Qumran bringinganother view to the settlement interpretations including the astronomical orientations of somestructures at Qumran. A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean-BaptistHumbert[44] outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile, fine columns etc., indicates aphase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran.

Pottery

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 8 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in the context of a sectarian settlement according to theDonceels.[45][46] These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in theGraeco-Roman period. Rachel Bar-Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodianpalaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context, rather than as an isolated site.[47] While the cylindrical "scrolljars" from Qumran were once thought unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada,[48] and reportsthat such jars have been found at Qalandiya.[49] Bar-Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that, "It is possible to trace the typologicaldevelopment of this group of jars," i.e., the cylindrical jars.[48] Jodi Magness, citing Bar-Nathan's M.A. thesis on the Jericho pottery data, refers tocylindrical jars at Jericho, saying "[a]t Jericho, most of these jars .. come from an industrial area dating to the time of Herod".[50] Jan Gunnewegobserved that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho - "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" - is in fact not a "scroll"jar.[51] Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and the jar has not beenrelocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outsideQumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar-Nathan noted the jar's "rarity in the Second Temple period."[52] Of some of theproposed parallel Masada jars, Bar-Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from the area of Qumran andprobably also from the Plain of Jericho."[53]

Cisterns

Many scholars have viewed the several large stepped cisterns at Qumran as ritual baths. This supports the religious settlement model. There aredifficulties in understanding all these cisterns as baths, however. Qumran's water arrived perhaps twice a year from rainwater runoff. Water was oneof Qumran's most valued commodities, and water management is an integral part of the site, as seen with the numerous cisterns and channels. Ifthe large cisterns were ritual baths, the water would sit getting dirtier through ritual bathing throughout the year and was extremely infrequentlyreplenished by the run off. The current state of analysis of the cisterns is still unresolved, but Katharina Galor suggests a mixed usage of thestepped cisterns as both ritual baths and water storage.[54] According to the Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisternswas used for pottery factory facilities.[55]

Numismatic studies

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 9 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Coins from Qumran are one of the most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on thechronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran is based on the preliminary report and lecture by the original excavator, Roland deVaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973.[56] A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux's field diary from theexcavations was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003.[57] The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronzecoinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up-dated and cross-referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lönnqvist and MinnaLönnqvist in 2005.[58] Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins waspublished by Marcia Sharabani in 1980.[59] The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007.[60]

The bronze coinage

De Vaux's excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coinshave been lost, some lots mixed-up, and records less accurate than ideal.

There are a surprisingly high number of coins from the site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods,i.e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically datedto this period.

The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in the role of coins and money in the economic systemat Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150 BCE. to 73 CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumransuggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran.

The bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to the second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in68 CE and only destroyed after 70 CE, perhaps as late as 73 CE.[61][62] The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronzecoins minted in 72/73 CE at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish–Roman War (66-73 CE).

In 73 CE the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likelythat Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon.

The silver coinage

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 10 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

According to the publications prior to 2007, the most recent silver coin in the Qumran hoard(s) is a tetradrachm of Tyre from the year 9/8 BCE.[63]

Lönnqvist analysis of 2007

The publication of the bulk of the silver coins by K. A. K. Lönnqvist, and his regional analysis, resulted, in 2007, in a new interpretations as to theimportance, chronology and significance of the coins.[64][65] According to Lönnqvist, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give anearliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3-66 CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological andnumismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials may suggest that the coin hoards may have been buried in the early 3rd century CE. The finalcoin belongs to Emperor Caracalla and came from the mint of Rome (206-210 CE).

The new suggestion made is that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these arewidely attested to in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver were part of Roman army payments made to troops in a localgarrison.

According to Lönnqvist, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006-2007 showed that thecoins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint,bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that the silver coins could have been collectedfrom single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional ‘tax house’.[66]

The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of RobertDonceel.[67] Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed wereintrusive. The original Amman Museum records of the Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins where kept do not support thehypothesis that the 2nd- and 3rd-century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver.

Furthermore, the new countermark[68] that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53 CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of9/8 BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of the threehoards post-date de Vaux's suggestion of a burial date after 9/8 BCE.

The unusual and intensive die-linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would meanat the earliest in 52/53 CE.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 11 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

According to Lönnqvist, a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in the IsraelNumismatic Bulletin[69] supports his theory of a third-century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran. This Ain Hanaziv coin hoardspanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from reign of Septimius Severus in 210 CE.

Therefore, according to Lönnqvist, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts the first complete recording of theQumran silver hoards made by him in 2007, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence fromother hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux's dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally knownas a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after the assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turndated the coin hoards themselves.

Nevertheless, Lönnqvist's theories have been criticized by Farhi and Price.[63] They point to the fact that the identity of the silver coins fromQumran held at the Amman Museum in Jordan is not certain.

Population at Qumran

One important issue for the understanding of the site of Qumran is a realistic calculation of its population. Using estimates based on the size of thecemetery and average lifespan de Vaux calculated that the inhabitants "would not have numbered many more than 200 members."[70] He noted that"[t]here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings."[71]

This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J.T. Milik some years earlier provided anestimate of between 150 and 200 as the average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, whichnumbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus' figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monasticlife".[72] E.M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants.[73] Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall),estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added a few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people.[74]

From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores andhiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of KhirbetQumran, mainly on the upper floor." Patrich estimated that the population was only 50-70 people.[75] Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisitingthe caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995-1996, later pointed out that Patrich's estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer,reducing the number to 12-20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of which have not survived) andtents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of the paths near Qumran), and staying with 150-200 inhabitants.[76] While waiting for thepublication of Broshi and Eshel's results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 12 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwellingwithout "further substantial evidence and returned to a figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most".[77] Jodi Magness accepted Broshi'sestimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)."[78]

Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lowervalue of fifteen people per dunam [1,000 m2], it emerges that in the Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran.[79]

Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were weto accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well asthousands of cooking pots."[80]

The population question is a complex issue, as can be seen by the above considerations. Much hinges on interpretation of two locations at Qumran—the refectory and the pantry. The search for extramural dwelling quarters has failed to provide substantial evidence. Discounting Laperrousaz'sapparently excessively high estimate, a number of proposals put the population in and around Qumran at between 20 to 200 people.

Qumran-Essene hypothesisThere were not many serious challenges to de Vaux's interpretation of the site of Qumran as a settlement ofEssenes from the time it was introduced. While the archaeologist E.-M. Laperrousaz,[81] had some quitedivergent views, members of de Vaux's team followed approximately the same narrative, with minordeviations, members including J. T. Milik, and F. M. Cross. De Vaux's initial dig co-director, G. LankesterHarding, wrote an article in 1955[82] where he presented Qumran as, "...a building in which John theBaptist, and probably Christ, studied: Khirbet Qumran." Others outside de Vaux's team proposed otherinterpretations, people such as Henri del Medico,[83] Solomon Zeitlin,[84] and G. R. Driver,[85] but theiranalyses received little lasting attention. More recently, Lawrence H. Schiffman has defended the thesis thatthe Qumran documents indicate a Sadducean sectarian orientation, but while scholars commonly grant thatthe term "Essenes" probably included a diversity of groups, the sectarian Sadducean hypothesis remains aminority opinion.[86]

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 13 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Qumran Caves

Dead Sea Scroll - part of Isaiah Scroll(Isa 57:17 - 59:9), 1QIsab

In 1960 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were not the product of the residents ofQumran, but came from the library of the Jerusalem Temple, despite their being discovered nearQumran.[87] (Rengstorf's basic Jerusalem proposal has become increasingly more popular since thematerials from de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were brought into the public arena in 1992.[88])

James H. Charlesworth in 1980 proposed that Qumran was damaged in the Parthian war c. 40 BCE.[89]

Jean-Baptiste Humbert, who published de Vaux's field notes,[90] proposes a hybrid solution to the debatesurrounding Qumran. He accepts that the site might have been originally established as a villa rustica, butthat the site was abandoned and that it was reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. Humbertargues that the site may also have been used a place where sectarian pilgrims—barred from enteringJerusalem—may have celebrated the pilgrimage.[91]

Minna Lönnqvist and Kenneth Lönnqvist brought an approach to the Qumran studies based on contextualarchaeology with its spatial studies and interpretation of symbolic language of the archaeological data,positing that text scholars, who had only focused their studies on the scrolls, had removed the Dead SeaScrolls from their archaeological context.

The Lönnqvists proposed that the orientations of the settlement and graves show they both belonged to anintentional scheme based on a solar calendar. From this, they argued that the settlement and cemetery areconnected to the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated with an Essene-type group, which finds the closestparallels in the contemporary Jewish Therapeutic group known to have lived in Egypt.[92]

Robert Cargill argues that the theory suggesting Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fortress is not incompatible with the theory proposingthat a group of Jewish sectarians reoccupied the site. Cargill suggests that Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fort (see below, "Qumran asfortress"), abandoned, and later reoccupied by Jewish settlers, who expanded the site in a communal, non-military fashion, and who wereresponsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls. [93][94]

Some who challenged de Vaux's findings took issue with the practice of using the Dead Sea Scrolls to interpret the archaeological remains atQumran. They argued that these remains should be interpreted independently, without any influence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Variousreinterpretations have led to various conclusions about the site. These include:

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 14 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Qumran as fortress

The overlooked early suggestion that Qumran was a fortress was given new life by the analysis of Pessach Bar-Adon. Using de Vaux's Period 1afindings, his own excavations at Ain el-Ghuweir 15 km south of Qumran, and Mazar's level 2 at 'En-Gedi, Bar-Adon argued, "these fortresses[belonged] to John Hyrcanus, who needed a strong, comprehensive defence system commanding vital water sources, agricultural fields, flocks,Jordan River crossings, the plains of Jericho and the caravan routes in the Judean desert. He turned the Qumran-Ain Feshka oasis, like the one atEn-Gedi, into crown property and incorporated his tenants into his strategic plans."[95]

Norman Golb took up the notion that the Qumran settlement was established as a fortress and argued—against the prevailing views of the time—that not only was Qumran not established as a sectarian residence, but that there were no sectarians at the site at all. Like Rengstorf he proposedthat the Scrolls had been produced in Jerusalem, but unlike Rengstorf, Golb argues that the scrolls came from different libraries throughoutJerusalem and were hidden in the caves by Jews fleeing the Romans during a political uprising.[96]

Qumran as villa

Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Voûte focused their research on the small finds amongst de Vaux's unpublished materials from Qumran,including, but not limited to, glassware (55 newly catalogued items), stoneware (53 new items), metal wares, and coins. Contrary to the belief thatthe inhabitants of the site were poor monastics, Donceel and Donceel-Voûte suggest that the residents were actually wealthy traders, withconnections to the upper class and wealthy in nearby Jerusalem. They ultimately suggest that Qumran was a villa rustica, or wealthy manor housethat may have been a winter or year-round second home to some wealthy family from Jerusalem.[97][98] (At the same conference as the Donceel'spresentation, J. Magness reported that from what she saw of the pottery in the Rockefeller Museum that "there was very, very little in the way offine wares." Eric Meyers, next, said "I concur; my visits also corroborate that. I see an affirmative nod from Professor Donceel-Voute."[99] RachelBar-Nathan also notes, "[a]t Jericho, there is also a striking lack of luxury ware, with only a few painted shards in the whole repertoire."[100])

Qumran as commercial center

While the villa model has gained little support, the evidence that it tried to deal with has led to further attempts at explanation.

Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown argued for the first time that the settlement was a fortified road station and a port town on the shores of the DeadSea, meaning that the site was actually a prominent commercial site (or "entrepot") on a major north-south trade route.[101]

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 15 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Yizhar Hirschfeld accepted that Qumran was originally a Hasmonean fortress. Citing his work at ‘Ein Feshkha as a comparison, he suggested thatthe site at Qumran ultimately became an agriculturally-based, fortified trading station during the Herodian era.[102][103]

Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg have focused their 10-year excavation at Qumran upon the vast water system at Qumran. They accept that the sitewas originally a "forward field fort", but argue that the site was repurposed as a pottery production plant, and that the water system was actuallyused to bring the clay-laced water into the site for the purpose of pottery production.[104] Y. Magen and Y. Peleg proposed that Qumran was apottery export site and said clay in pool 71 was used. (Samples of that clay have now been analysed, and they do not match tested Qumran pottery."This information goes straight against" the Magen Peleg proposal, according to scientists J. Gunneweg and M. Balla.[105] J. Michniewiczresponding to previous analyses of Balla and Gunneweg, wrote, "Balla and Gunneweg's conclusions are corroborated neither by information aboutwhich elements were taken for statistical interpretation and which determined the division particularly strongly.... nor by the reference data orstatistical computation".[106])

Qumran as part of the Jordan valley

Rachel Bar-Nathan rejects the claim that dishware found at Qumran shows any sectarian characteristic, and proposes that such pottery has alsobeen found in varying quantities at Masada, Jericho and other sites in the region.[107]

David Stacey argues that the settlement at Qumran is associated with the estate at Jericho. Due to the scarcity of year-round water at Qumran, hesuggests that the site served as a seasonal tannery and pottery production facility.[108]

Other issues

Recent scientific evidence published by Ira Rabin, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg demonstrates that the ink fromThe Thanksgiving Scroll uses water taken from the Dead Sea and vicinity thereby demonstrating a link between the Dead Sea region and at leastsome of the scrolls.[109]

Paleographer Ada Yardeni[110] analysed and listed dozens of manuscripts from most of the caves (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11) that she assigns to asingle scribe who she refers to as a "Qumran scribe". Yardeni cautions against claims of scribal hands being as many as 500 and claims that themanuscripts are a cross-section of then-current literature from many distant libraries, deposited in a short time.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 16 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Across the plateau to the settlement.

Classic view of Cave 4.

Gila Kahila Bar-Gal[111] determined that some of the skin used for the Dead Sea scrolls came from the Nubian ibex, whose range did not includeJerusalem, but includes the Hermon and Golan heights, the Negev highlands and the western shore of the Dead Sea.

Archaeological site

1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees containsthe modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. Thesettlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. Tothe extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasionswhen it rains, though, it becomes a ravaging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau whereQumran is. From the mid-left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channelhelped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of thepicture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of theQumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by men.Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century bylocal bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course ofWadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 17 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

A first view of Qumran.

The area between the two buildings.

3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the leftis mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north-western corner of the main building.Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of thecomplexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that broughtrainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.

4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at thetop left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cisternbefore bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age,making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the centralleft: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is wherephoto #2 was taken.

5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottomof a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks theentry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 18 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Looking west over the water systemtoward the cliffs.

The so-called "scriptorium". (L30)

descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins ofthe western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.

6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of thewestern wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elementshe interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed,measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height.[112] Thesebenches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referredto this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been writtenhere, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude thatsome form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including apractice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.[113]

7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the mainbuilding but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wallseparated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 19 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

A stepped cistern. (L56/58)

Long room to the south of the mainbuilding. (L77)

eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pooltook fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity.This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising letwater be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site.The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, isa channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.

8. Looking south-east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of thesettlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave deVaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vauxconsidered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry,contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been usedfor communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact the size and layoutstrongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoiningevaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 20 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

The room with the 1000 ceramic items.(L86/89)

The broken cistern. (L48/49)

9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern endof this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic itemswere found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used formeals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had beenwalled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsedover the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. Duringthe last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northernwall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Anotherinteresting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar." Note the remains oftwo pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load-bearing.

10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of themain building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the landdropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of theQumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used ina late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also ofinterest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served aspartitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritualbaths) found near Jerusalem,[114] but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor,who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic spacedivider does not make any sense.")[115] The partitions may have served to aid in channeling waterinto the pool.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 21 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

The Locus 71 pool.

11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. Thisis the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined.[116] During Period III, (i.e.,after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction andcontinue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or aclay collection vat.

References

1. "Qumran National Park". Israel Nature and Parks Authority. Retrieved 30 May 2014.2. Schiffman, 1983, 1989, and, summarizing his current views, "What are the Dead Sea Scrolls: An Introduction" [1] (http://lawrenceschiffman.com/research/dead-

sea-scrolls/), accessed 24 February 20143. de Vaux 1973, p. 45f, states that there were 1100 tombs in the main cemetery. However, Kapera 2000, p. 46, argues for only 669 tombs. But an on-site survey

came closer to de Vaux's number, Eshel, Hanan, Magen Broshi, Richard Freund, and Brian Schultz. "New Data on the Cemetery East of Khirbet Qumran." DSD9/2 (2002) 135-165.

4. Stacey, Some Notes on the Archaeological Context of Qumran in the Light of Recent Publications(http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Stacey_Qumran_Light_of_Recent_Publications.shtml#Note_11).

5. Joseph M. Baumgarten, "The 'Halakha' in Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah (MMT)." JAOS 116/3 (1996) 512-516 cautioned against premature suggestions of fewSadducee agreements as if pointing to identity. Schofield, Alison, and James C. VanderKam. "Were the Hasmoneans Zadokites?" JBL 124/1 (2005) 73-87 showthat matters of "Zadokite" identity are not simple. Also, "Sadducees" in Second Temple Period are not fully identical with Talmudic use of the term. In somescrolls "sons of Zadok" are members of the sect, but not a name for the whole sect.

6. J. E. Taylor, "Khirbet Qumran in the Nineteenth Century and the Name of the Site." pp. 144–164. Cansdale 2000, especially p. 633 regarding F. de Saulcy.7. B. Schultz, "The Qumran Cemetery: 150 Years of Research." pp. 194-196.8. Isaacs, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A. The Dead Sea: or, Notes and Observations Made During a Journey to Palestine in 1856-7, London: Hatchard and Son,

Piccadilly,1857.9. See p. 66 in Isaacs, A., The Dead Sea: or, Notes and Observations Made During a Journey to Palestine in 1856-7, (London: Hatchard and Son, 1857).

10. See p. 416 in Finn, J., Byeways in Palestine (London: James Nisbet, 1868).11. See p. 161 in Masterman, E. W. G. "‘Ain el-Feshkhah, el-Hajar, el-Asbah, and Khurbet Kumrân," PEFQS 27 (1902): 160-167; 297-299.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 22 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

11. See p. 161 in Masterman, E. W. G. "‘Ain el-Feshkhah, el-Hajar, el-Asbah, and Khurbet Kumrân," PEFQS 27 (1902): 160-167; 297-299.12. See p. 162 in Masterman, E. W. G. "‘Ain el-Feshkhah, el-Hajar, el-Asbah, and Khurbet Kumrân," PEFQS 27 (1902): 160-167; 297-299.13. Dalman, G. Palästinajahrbuch des Deutschen evangelischen Instituts für Altertumswissenschaft des heiligen Landes zu Jerusalem. (Berlin: Ernst Siegfried

Mittler, 1914), 9-11.14. See p. 164 in Avi-Yonah, M. "Map of Roman Palestine," Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine 5 (1936): 139-196.15. Trever 1965, p. 147.16. Trever. ibid.17. From Cargill, Robert R., Qumran through (Real) Time: A Virtual Reconstruction of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Bible in Technology 1, (Piscataway, New

Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2009), Plate 10.1.Used with permission - author upload.

18. H. Eshel, "A Note on Joshua 15:61–62 and the Identification of the City of Salt." pp. 37–40.19. Magness 2000, p. 713f. Magness rejected Period Ia and the hiatus between Periods Ib and II.20. Hirschfeld, "Context", p. 52f. Hirschfeld proposed a new periodization based on the analysis of Humbert Revue Biblique 1994. 209f.21. De Vaux was actually a relative late-comer to the Essene identification, years after Eliezer Sukenik proposed the notion in 1948. It seems that it was also derived

independently by Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery at the same time, according to Trever 1965, p. 25.22. de Vaux 1973, p. 104.23. Maxine L. Grossman. Rediscovering the Dead Sea Scrolls. page № 91 (https://books.google.ru/books?

id=tJTSvfsgSK4C&pg=PA91&dq=de+Vaux+died+in+1971+without+having+published+all+of+the+material+from+his+excavations&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=M70sVLe1B42vPKuSgegP&ved=0CCEQuwUwAA#v=onepage&q=de%20Vaux%20died%20in%201971%20without%20having%20published%20all%20of%20the%20material%20from%20his%20excavations&f=false)

24. Jodi Magness. The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Chapter 1. An introduction to the Archaeology of Qumran. page № 2(https://books.google.ru/books?id=NnpvX1Ke-LkC&pg=PA2&dq=de+Vaux+died+in+1971+without+having+published+all+of+the+material+from+his+excavations&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=cKMsVN-_E4iqPNqZgbAK&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=de%20Vaux%20died%20in%201971%20without%20having%20published%20all%20of%20the%20material%20from%20his%20excavations&f=false)

25. Wise et al., 1994, p. 1.26. Jodi Magness. The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Chapter 1. An introduction to the Archaeology of Qumran. page № 4

(https://books.google.ru/books?id=NnpvX1Ke-LkC&pg=PA4&dq=for+example+the+Donceels+reported+that+some+of+the+coins+from+de+Vaux+excavations+have+been+lost.&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=NvMtVNjnJKmGywP72IHIDw&ved=0CCIQuwUwAA#v=onepage&q=for%20example%20the%20Donceels%20reported%20that%20some%20of%20the%20coins%20from%20de%20Vaux%20excavations%20have%20been%20lost.&f=false)

27. Leonid Belyaev. Христианские древности Введение в сравнительное Изученные: учебное пособие для вузов (https://books.google.ru/books?id=cnVDygAACAAJ&dq=%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B5%D0%B2+%D0%A5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=wFf_UqTWEOKs4ATH-oHwDQ&redir_esc=y). 1998. p. 60. ISBN 5-86753-002-7

28. Humbert & Chambon, 1994.29. Leonid Belyaev and Nicholas Merpert. От библейских древностей к христианским: очерк археологии эпохи формирования иудаизма и христианства

(https://books.google.ru/books?

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 23 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

(https://books.google.ru/books?id=pBIJSQAACAAJ&dq=%D0%9E%D1%82+%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%BA+%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC.&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=ljiXUoHMH8Xp4gTuzYCIDA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA). 2007. p. 170.ISBN 978-5-94242-036-9

30. Humbert & Chambon, translated Pfann, 2003.31. Jodi Magness. The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Chapter 1. An introduction to the Archaeology of Qumran. page № 3

(https://books.google.ru/books?id=NnpvX1Ke-LkC&pg=PA3&dq=Although+this+volume+contains+some+previously+unpublished+information,+there+is+still+much+that+is+unpublished+and+inaccessible.&hl=ru&sa=X&ei=iewsVPTOCYK-ygOVtILYBQ&ved=0CCIQuwUwAA#v=onepage&q=Although%20this%20volume%20contains%20some%20previously%20unpublished%20information%2C%20there%20is%20still%20much%20that%20is%20unpublished%20and%20inaccessible.&f=false)

32. Rafail Nudelman. Свитки Мертвого моря (https://www.google.ru/search?tbm=bks&hl=ru&q=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%B4%D0%B5+%D0%92%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%B2+%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%2C+%D0%BD%D0%BE+%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%2C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%B8%D0%BC+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%85%2C+%D0%B4%D0%BE+%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80+%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8F+%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8+%D0%B8+%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC). Journal Knowledge-Power. 2005 year. issue № 9. p. 66.

33. Murphy 2002, pp. 293-294. Murphy is citing Laperoussez, Qoumran, L'establissement essenien des bord de la Mer Morte: Histoire et archeologie (Paris: A.&J.Picard, 1976) 14 & 135.

34. Steckoll, Solomon, "Preliminary Excavation Report in the Qumran Cemetery" Revue de Qumran 6 (1968) 323-344.35. Hirschfeld 2004, p. 21.36. Patrich 1995, p. 93.37. Murphy 2002, p. 294. Murphy is citing A. Drori et al., "Operation Scroll" in Twentieth Archaeological Conference in Israel: Abstracts (Jerusalem: Israel

Exploration Society, 1994) 12-17 [Hebrew].38. Strange, James F. "The 1996 Excavations at Qumran and the Context of the New Hebrew Ostracon." In The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological

Interpretations and Debates. Proceedings of the Conference Held at Brown University, November 17–19, 2002, ed. Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert andJürgen Zangenberg, 41-54. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57. Leiden: Brill, 2005.

39. Magen 2006, p. 55.40. "Qumran Plateau Israel Archaeological Digs - World of the Bible Ministries". Worldofthebible.com. 2002-09-05. Retrieved 2011-11-28.41. I. Magen, The stone vessel industry in the Second Temple period, 2002. Donceel & Donceel-Voute, 1994, p. 12.42. Donceel & Donceel-Voute, 1994.43. M. Lönnqvist & K. Lönnqvist, 2000.44. See Humbert "Reconsideration", 2003.45. Donceel & Donceel-Voute 1994, coins: p. 6; glass and stoneware, p. 12.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 24 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

45. Donceel & Donceel-Voute 1994, coins: p. 6; glass and stoneware, p. 12.46. But relatively few "luxury" items, such as glass and stone ware have so far been published (and some of them may be from Period III).47. Bar-Nathan 2006.48. Bar-Nathan 2006, p. 275.49. Personal communication from Y. Magen, Bar-Nathan 2006, p. 275.50. Magness 2002, p. 81.51. p105-6, with photo, "Figure 5. The wrongly dubbed Jericho 'Scroll' jar with handle." in Jan Gunneweg and Marta Balla, "The Provenance of Qumran Pottery by

Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis, 99-108 in Bio- and Material Culture at Qumran, ed. J. Gunneweg et al. (Stuttgart : Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, 2006).52. Masada VII (Israel Exploration Society, 2006), p. 43.53. Masada VII, p. 43.54. Galor 2003, esp. 317.55. Magen 2006.56. In French, in R. de Vaux (1961), L’Archéologie et les Manuscrits de la Mer Morte. The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy 1959. Oxford, pp. 3-37. In

English translation, in R. de Vaux (1973) Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Schweich Lectures 1959, Revised edition in an English translation. Oxford,especially pp. 33-41, but also elsewhere.

57. De Vaux 1994 = R. de Vaux (1994) Ed. J.-B. Humbert and A. Chambon, Fouilles de Khirbet Qumrân et de Aïn Feshkha. Album de photographies. Répertoire dufonds photographique. Synthèse des notes de chantier du Père Roland de Vaux OP. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1. Fribourg.De Vaux 1996 = R. de Vaux, F. Rohrhirsch and B. Hofmeir (1996) Die Ausgrabungen von Qumran und En Feschcha. Die Grabungstagebücher. NovumTestamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1A. Göttingen. Humbert, Chambon and Pfann 2003 = J.-B. Humbert, A. Chambon and S. Pfann (2003)The Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ein Feshkha. Synthesis of Roland de Vaux‘s Field Notes. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, SeriesArchaeologica 1B. Fribourg.

58. K. Lönnqvist and M. Lönnqvist (2006) ‘The Numismatic Chronology of Qumran: Fact and Fiction’, The Numismatic Chronicle 166, London: The RoyalNumismatic Society, pp. 121-165.

59. Sharabani 1980 = M. Sharabani, ‘Monnaies de Qumrân au Musée Rockefeller de Jérusalem’, Revue Biblique 87, pp. 274-84.60. K. Lönnqvist (2007). The report of the Amman lots of the Qumran silver coin hoards. New Chronological Aspects of the Silver Coin Hoard Evidence from

Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea. Amman 2007, pp. 1-72.61. Lönnqvist and M. Lönnqvist (2006) ‘The Numismatic Chronology of Qumran: Fact and Fiction’, The Numismatic Chronicle 166, London: The Royal

Numismatic Society, pp. 21-165.62. Leonard, Robert D., 'Numismatic Evidence for the Dating of Qumran', The Qumran Chronicle 7:3/4 (1997), p. 231.63. Farhi, Yoav; Price, Randall (2010). "The Numismatic Finds from the Qumran Plateau Excavations 2004-2006, and 2008 Seasons" (PDF). Dead Sea Discoveries

17 (2): 210–225. doi:10.1163/156851710X503567. ISSN 0929-0761.64. Lönnqvist, K. 2007. The Report of the Amman Lots of the Qumran Silver Coin Hoards. New Chronological Aspects of the Silver Coin Hoard Evidence from

Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea. Amman: National Press.65. K. A. K. Lönnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. VDM Verlag Dr.

Müller. Saarbrücken 200966. K. A. K. Lönnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. VDM Verlag Dr.

Müller. Saarbrücken 2009, pp. 222-227.67. Revue Biblique 99 (1992) 559-60 n.10.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 25 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

67. Revue Biblique 99 (1992) 559-60 n.10.68. K. A. K. Lönnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. [VDM Verlag

Dr. Müller]. Saarbrücken 2009,Coin No. 304.69. K. A. K. Lönnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. [VDM Verlag

Dr. Müller]. Saarbrücken 2009, 155.70. de Vaux 1973, p. 86.71. de Vaux 1973, p. 56.72. Milik 1959, p. 97.73. Laperrousez, Qoumran, L'establissement essenien des bord de la Mer Morte: Histoire et archeologie (Paris: A.&J. Picard, 1976) 99-107.74. M. Broshi 1992, p. 104.75. Patrich 1994, pp. 93-94.76. Broshi 1999, pp. 330-334.77. Patrich 2000, p. 726. Patrich's article actually appeared after the publication of Broshi and Eshel's paper, but was already in press when it appeared.78. Magness 2002, p. 70.79. Hirchfeld 2004, p. 65.80. Magen 2006, p. 99.81. Qoumrân l’établissement essénien des bords de la mer Morte : histoire et archéologie du site / E.-M. Laperrousaz. Paris : A.&J. Picard, 1976.82. "Where Christ Himself may Have Studied: An Essene Monastery at Khirbet Qumran", Illustrated London News 227 September 3, 1955 pp. 379-81. De Vaux

never wrote of Qumran as a "monastery" even though some claim he did.83. The riddle of the Scrolls. London, Burke [1958, trans, from French 1957].84. For an annotated bibliography of the most of the critiques, see Sidney B. Hoenig, Solomon Zeitlin: Scholar Laureate, New York, 1971.85. Driver, Godfrey Rolles, The Judaean scrolls; the problem and the solution. (Oxford: B.Blackwell, 1965); and see de Vaux's review in French in Revue biblique,

73 no 2 Ap 1966, p 212-235 and in English in New Testament Studies, 13 no 1 O 1966, pp. 89-104.86. See footnote 1, above, for references. A key point made by Schiffman is that in addition to the Sadducean orientation of the Qumran halakhot, or rulings, the

texts indicate strong identification with the pro-Sadducean persecutions of the Pharisees by the Macccabean King Alexander Jannaeus, and similar pro-Sadducean political views regarding later Maccabean rulers. Reviewing the evidence, including differences between the anciently reported traits of the Essenesand the beliefs and practices stipulated in the scrolls themselves, Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, in the "Introduction" to their translation,The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation (San Francisco: Hodder & Stoughton, 1996), p. 29, comment: "The evidence suggests, then, that the scroll groupresembled the Sadducees in some ways and the Essenes in others. Yet there are major obstacles to identifying the group straightforwardly as one or the other."

87. Rengstorf based his theory on the fact that the scrolls were written in several different scripts and come from different periods and that the copies of the Isaiahscrolls from Cave 1 are substantially different. See: Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumrân and the Problem of the Library of the Dead Sea Caves, Translatedby J. R. Wilkie, Leiden: Brill, 1963. German edition, 1960.

88. The first materials were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, by Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel Voute. See Wise et al., 1994, 1-32.89. "The origin and subsequent history of the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Four transitional phases among the Qumran Essenes", Revue de Qumran 10 no 2 May

1980, pp. 213-233.90. Humbert, Jean-Baptiste and Alain Chambon, The Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ain Feshkha: Synthesis of Roland de Vaux's Field Notes, Translated by

Stephen J. Pfann, Vol. 1B, Fribourg and Göttingen: University Press and Vandenhoeck & Ruprect, 2003.91. Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "L’espace sacré à Qumrân. Propositions pour l’archéologie (Planches I-III)", Revue Biblique 101 (1994): 161-214.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 26 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

91. Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "L’espace sacré à Qumrân. Propositions pour l’archéologie (Planches I-III)", Revue Biblique 101 (1994): 161-214.92. Lönnqvist M.& Lönnqvist K.(2002) "Archaeology of the Hidden Qumran, The New Paradigm" Helsinki: Helsinki University Press.93. Cargill, Robert R., Qumran through (Real) Time: A Virtual Reconstruction of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Bible in Technology 1, Piscataway, New Jersey:

Gorgias Press, 2009.94. Cargill, Robert R., "The Qumran Digital Model: An Argument for Archaeological Reconstruction in Virtual Reality and Response to Jodi Magness", Near

Eastern Archaeology 72/1 (2009): 28-47.95. Bar-Adon 1981. English summary, p. 86.96. Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?: The Search for the Secret of Qumran, New York: Scribner, 1995.97. Donceel, Robert and Pauline H. E. Donceel-Voûte, "The Archaeology of Khirbet Qumran." Pages 1-38 in Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and

the Khirbet Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects. Edited by Michael O. Wise, Norman Golb, John J. Collins, and Dennis G. Pardee, Vol. 722 ofAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994.

98. Donceel-Voûte, Pauline H. E., "Les ruines de Qumran reinterprétées", Archeologia 298 (1994): 24-35.99. Wise, et al Methods of Investigation, 50.

100. Bar-Nathan 2002, p. 272.101. Crown, Alan David and Lena Cansdale, "Qumran: Was it an Essene Settlement?", Biblical Archaeology Review 20 no. 5 (1994): 24-35, 73-4, 76-78.102. Hirschfeld, Yizhar, "Early Roman Manor Houses in Judea and the Site of Khirbet Qumran", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57/3 (1998): 161-89.103. Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2004.104. Magen, Yizhak and Yuval Peleg, The Qumran Excavations 1993-2004: Preliminary Report, Judea & Samaria Publications 6, Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities

Authority, 2007, p. 29. pdf (http://www.antiquities.org.il/images/shop/jsp/JSP6_Qumran_color.pdf)105. In Holistic Qumran: Trans-Disciplinary Research of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden, 2010) 39-61, quote on p. 49.106. In Qumran and Jericho Pottery: A Petrographic and Chemical Provenance Study, Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland, p.26.107. Bar-Nathan, Rachel, "Qumran and the Hasmonean and Herodian Winter Palaces of Jericho: The Implication of the Pottery Finds on the Interpretation of the

Settlement at Qumran." Pages 263-77 in Qumran: The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates. Proceedings of a Conferenceheld at Brown University, November 17–19, 2002. Edited by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jürgen K. Zangenberg, Leiden: Brill, 2006.

108. Stacey, David, "Some Archaeological Observations on the Aqueducts of Qumran", Dead Sea Discoveries 14/2 (2007): 222-43.109. Rabin 2009, 97-106.110. Yardeni, Ada, "A Note on a Qumran Scribe." In New Seals and Inscriptions: Hebrew, Idumean, and Cuneiform, ed. Meir Lubetski, 287-298. Hebrew Bible

Monographs 8. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2007.111. Bar-Gal, Gila Kahila, "Principles of the Recovery of Ancient DNA--What it Tells Us of Plant and Animal Domestication and the Origin of the Scroll

Parchment", in Bio- and material cultures at Qumran: papers from a COST Action G8 working group meeting held in Jerusalem, Israel on 22–23 May 2005 /edited by Jan Gunneweg, Charles Greenblatt, and Annemie Adriaens. (Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, 2006) 41-50.

112. de Vaux 1973, p. 29.113. Lemaire 2003 catalogues a number of ostraca. Magen 2006 (p. 72) refers to ten more.114. Reich, Ronny, "Miqwa'ot at Khirbet Qumran and the Jerusalem Connection." Pages 728-31 in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Fifty Years After Their Discovery. Edited

by Lawrence H. Schiffman, Emanuel Tov, James C. VanderKam, and Galen Marquis, Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2000.115. Galor 2003, p. 304b.116. See Galor 2003 for capacities.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 27 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

BibliographyBar-Adon, Pessah, "The Hasmonean Fortresses and the Status of Khirbet Qumran", Eretz Israel 15 (1981): 349-52.Bar-Nathan, Rachel, "Qumran and the Hasmonaean and Herodian Winter Palaces of Jericho", in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: ArchaeologicalInterpretations and Debates, (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Vol. 57), ed. by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jurgen Zangenberg,(Leiden: Brill, 2006), 263-277.Boccaccini, Gabriele, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998).Broshi, Magen, "The Archaeology of Qumran- A Reconsideration", in The Dead Sea Scrolls, Forty Years of Research, D. Diamant & U. Rappaport (Eds), (Brill-Magnes Press, 1992), 113-115.Broshi, Magen, and Eshel, Hanan, "Residential Caves at Qumran." Dead Sea Discoveries 6 (1999), 328-348.Broshi, Magen, and Eshel, Hanan, "Was There Agriculture at Qumran?" in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates,(Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Vol. 57), ed. by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jurgen Zangenberg, (Leiden: Brill, 2006).Cansdale, Lena, & Crown, Alan, "Qumran, Was It an Essene Settlement?", Biblical Archaeology Review" 20/5 (1995) 24-35, 73-78.Cansdale, Lena, The Metamorphosis of the Name "Qumran", in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Fifty Years After Their Discovery, 1947-1997, Schiffman, Lawrence, Tov,Emanuel, & VanderKam, James, (eds.), (Jerusalem: IES, 2000), pp. 631–636.Cargill, Robert R., Qumran through (Real) Time: A Virtual Reconstruction of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Bible in Technology 1, (Piscataway, NewJersey: Gorgias Press, 2009).Cargill, Robert R., "The Qumran Digital Model: An Argument for Archaeological Reconstruction in Virtual Reality and Response to Jodi Magness", NearEastern Archaeology 72/1 (2009): 28-47.Cook, Edward M., "Qumran: A Ritual Purification Center", Biblical Archaeology Review 22/6 (1996): 39, 48-51, 73-75.Crowfoot, Grace Mary, "The Linen Textiles." Pages 18–40 in Discoveries in the Judean Desert I: Qumran Cave I. Edited by Dominique Barthélemy and JosephTadeusz Milik (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956).Crown, A.D. and Cansdale, L., "Qumran-Was It an Essene Settlement?" Biblical Archaeology Review 20 (1994), 24-35 & 73-4 & 76-78.de Vaux, Roland, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973). English translation from the French.Dávid, Nóra, Armin Lange, Kristin De Troyer and Shani Tzoref (eds). The Hebrew Bible in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,2011) (Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments, 239),Davies, Philip R., Qumran, Cities of the Biblical World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982).Dombrowski, B.W.W., "Golb's Hypothesis: Analysis and Conclusions." In Mogilany 1995: Papers on the Dead Sea Scrolls Offered in Memory of AleksyKlawek ed. Zdzislaw Jan Kapera; QM 15; Kraków: Enigma, 1998) 35-54.Donceel, R. and Donceel-Voûte, Pauline H.E., "The Archaeology of Khirbet Qumran." In Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the KhirbetQumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects ed. Michael O. Wise, Norman Golb, John J. Collins, and Dennis G. Pardee; Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences 722 (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994) 1-38.Donceel-Voûte, Pauline H. E. "Les ruines de Qumran réinterprétées." Archeologia 298 (1994) 24-35.Donceel-Voûte, Pauline H.E. "'Coenaculum': La salle à l’étage du locus 30 à Khirbet Qumrân sur la Mer Morte." In Banquets d’Orient (ed. R. Gyselen, with M.Bernus-Taylor et al.; ResO 4; Leuven: Peeters, 1992) 61-84.Eshel, Hanan, Qumran: A Field Guide. (Jerusalem: Carta, 2009).

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 28 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Fields, Weston W. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Full History. volume 1 (Leiden: Brill, 2009).Frey, Jörg, Carsten Claußen u. Nadine Kessler (Hrsg.), Qumran und die Archäologie. Texte und Kontexte (Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2011) (WissenschaftlicheUntersuchungen zum Neuen Testament (WUNT I), 278).Galor, Katharina, "Plastered Pools: A New Perspective", in Khirbet Qumran et Ain Feshkha, Vol. II., ed. Humbert, Jean-Baptiste & Gunneweg, Jan,(Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Goettingen, 2003) 291-320.Galor, Katharina, Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, and Zangenberg, Jurgen, The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates, (Studies onthe Texts of the Desert of Judah, Vol. 57), (Leiden: Brill, 2006).Gibson, Shimon, and Joan E. Taylor, "Roads and Passes Round Qumran." Palestine Exploration Quarterly 140/3 (2008) 225-227.Golb, Norman, "Khirbet Qumran and the Manuscript Finds of the Judaean Wilderness." In Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the KhirbetQumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects (ed. Michael O. Wise, Norman Golb, John J. Collins, and Dennis G. Pardee; ANYAS 722; New York: NewYork Academy of Sciences, 1994) 51-72.Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?: The Search for the Secret of Qumran. (New York: Scribner, 1995).Goranson, Stephen. "Review: Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jürgen Zangenberg, eds., The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: ArchaeologicalInterpretations and Debates. Proceedings of a Conference Held at Brown University, November 17-19, 2002."(http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/Brown_Qumran_Archaeology_Conference_vol._review.pdf) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 347(2007) 114-116.Gunneweg, J. and Balla, M., "How Neutron Activation Analysis Can Assist Research into the Provenance of the Pottery at Qumran." In Historical Perspectives:From the Hasmoneans to Bar Kokhba in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study ofthe Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature, 27–31 January 1999, eds. D.Goodblatt, A.Pinnick, and D.R. Schwartz, 179-185. STDJ 37. (Leiden: Brill, 2001).Hempel, Ch., "Qumran: Archaeology." Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2 vols. (ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman and James C. VanderKam; (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000) II.746-751.Hirschfeld, Yizhar, "The Architextural Context of Qumran", in The Dead Sea Scrolls, fifty years after their discovery 1947-1997 (L.H.Schiffman, E. Tov and J.VanderKam eds.), (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and the Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, 2000) 673-683.Hirschfeld, Yizhar, "Qumran in the Second Temple Period: A Reassessment", in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates,(Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Vol. 57), ed. by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jurgen Zangenberg, (Leiden: Brill, 2006).Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2004).Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "L'espace sacré à Qumrân." Revue Biblique (1994) 101-102 and 161-214.Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "Les différentes interprétations du site de Qumran." Monde de la Bible, 107 (1997), 20-25.Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "Some Remarks on the Archaeology of Qumran", in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates,(Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Vol. 57), ed. by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jurgen Zangenberg, (Leiden: Brill, 2006).Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "Reconsideration of the Archaeological Interpretation", in Khirbet Qumran et Ain Feshkha, Vol. II. ed. Humbert, Jean-Baptiste &Gunneweg, Jan, (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Goettingen, 2003) 419-425.Humbert, Jean-Baptiste & Chambon, Alain, Fouilles de Khirbet Qumran et de Ain Feshka, Vol. I. Editions Universitaires Fribourg Suisse (Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht Goettingen, 1994).Humbert, Jean-Baptiste & Chambon, Alain, The Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ain Feshkha, Vol. 1B. trans by Stephen J. Pfann, Editions UniversitairesFribourg Suisse (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Goettingen, 2003).

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 29 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Humbert, Jean-Baptiste & Gunneweg, Jan, Khirbet Qumran et Ain Feshkha: études d'anthropologie, de physique et de chimie = studies of anthropology, physicsand chemistry, Vol. II. Editions Universitaires Fribourg Suisse (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Goettingen, 2003).Hutchesson, Ian, "63 BCE: A Revised Dating for the Depositation of the Dead Sea Scrolls", Qumran Chronicle 8/3 (1999): 177-194.Kapera, Z. J., "How Many Tombs in Qumran?", The Qumran Chronicle 9.1 (August 2000), 35-49.Lemaire, Andre, "Inscriptions du Khirbeh, des Grottes et de 'Ain Feshkha", in Khirbet Qumran et Ain Feshkha, Vol. II., ed. Humbert, Jean-Baptiste &Gunneweg, Jan, (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Goettingen, 2003) 341-388.Lönnqvist, M., and Lönnqvist, K., Archaeology of the Hidden Qumran, The New Paradigm, Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 2002.Lönnqvist, K. and Lönnqvist, M. (2006) ‘The Numismatic Chronology of Qumran: Fact and Fiction’, The Numismatic Chronicle 166, London: The RoyalNumismatic Society, pp. 121–165.Lönnqvist. K. (2007). The report of the Amman lots of the Qumran silver coin hoards. New Chronological Aspects of the Silver Coin Hoard Evidence fromKhirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea. Amman 2007, pp. 1–72.Lönnqvist, K. A. K. (2008) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. VDM VerlagDr. Müller. Saarbrücken 2009.Magen, Yitzhak, and Peleg, Yuval, "Back to Qumran: Ten Years of Excavations and Research, 1993-2004", in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: ArchaeologicalInterpretations and Debates, (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah, Vol. 57), ed. by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jurgen Zangenberg,(Leiden: Brill, 2006).Magen, Yitzhak & Peleg, Yuval, "The Qumran Excavations 1993-2004: Preliminary Report", JSP 6 (Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007) Download(http://www.antiquities.org.il/images/shop/jsp/JSP6_Qumran_color.pdf)Magness, Jodi, "Qumran Archaeology: Past Perspectives and Future Prospects." In The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Reassessment, vol.1, ed. Peter W. Flint and James C.VanderKam; (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998) 47-77 and pp. 708–719.Magness, Jodi, A Reassessment of the Excavations of Qumran, in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Fifty Years After Their Discovery, 1947-1997, Schiffman, Lawrence,Tov, Emanuel, & VanderKam, James, (eds.), (Jerusalem: IES, 2000), pp. 708–719.Magness, Jodi, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002).Meyers, Eric. "Khirbet Qumran and its Environs," In The Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Timothy H Lim and John Joseph Collins (Oxford :Oxford University Press, 2010).Milik, J. T., Ten Years in the Wilderness of Judaea, (Translated by J. Strugnell; London: SCM, 1959).Murphy, Catherine M., Wealth in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Qumran Community, (Leiden: Brill 2002).Netzer, Ehud. "Did any perfume industry exist at ʻEin Feshkha?," Israel Exploration Journal 55 no 1 2005, p 97-100.Patrich, Joseph, "Khirbet Qumran in the Light of New Archaeological Explorations in the Qumran Caves", in Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrollsand the Khirbet Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects (ed. Michael O. Wise, Norman Golb, John J. Collins, and Dennis G. Pardee; Annals of theNew York Academy of Sciences 722 (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994) 73-95.Patrich, Joseph, "Did Extra-Mural Dwelling Quarters Exist at Qumran?" in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Fifty Years After Their Discovery. Edited by Lawrence H.Schiffman, Emanuel Tov, James C. VanderKam, and Galen Marquis (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2000) 720-727.Puech, Émile, "The Necropolises of Khirbet Qumrân and ‘Ain el-Ghuweir and the Essene Belief in the Afterlife", Bulletin of the American Schools of OrientalResearch 312 (1998) 21-36.Rabin, Ira, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg. "On the Origin of the Ink of the Thanksgiving Scroll (1QHodayota)." Dead SeaDiscoveries 16/1 (2009) 97-106.

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 30 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Qumran.

Wikivoyage has a travelguide for Qumran.

Reed, William L., "The Qumran Caves Expedition of March, 1952", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 135 (1954) 8-13.Regev, Eyal, "Access Analysis of Khirbet Qumran: Reading Spatial Organization and Social Boundaries", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research355 (2009) 85-99.Reich, Ronny, "Miqwa'ot at Khirbet Qumran and the Jerusalem Connection." Pages 728-31 in The Dead Sea Scrolls: Fifty Years After Their Discovery. Editedby Lawrence H. Schiffman, Emanuel Tov, James C. VanderKam, and Galen Marquis (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2000).Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumrân and the Problem of the Library of the Dead Sea Caves, Translated by J. R. Wilkie (Leiden: Brill, 1963).Ricklin, Shimon, "When Did the Essenes Arrive at Qumran? – An Architectural Response." Pages 263-66 in Studies in the Settlement of Judea: A Collection ofPapers in Historical Geography. Edited by Ze’ev H. Erlich (Beni Brak: Moriah, 1995).Schiffman, Lawrence H., Sectarian Law in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Courts, Testimony and the Penal Code, Brown Judaic Studies 33 (Chico, CA: Scholars Press,1983).Schiffman, Lawrence H., The Eschatological Community of the Dead Sea Scrolls, (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989).Schiffman, Lawrence H., Tov, Emanuel, & VanderKam, James, eds. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Fifty Years After Their Discovery, 1947-1997, (Jerusalem: IES, 2000).Schiffman, Lawrence H., From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism, (NYC: Ktav Pub. House, 1991).Schultz, Brian, "The Qumran Cemetery: 150 Years of Research." Dead Sea Discoveries 13 (2006): 194-228.Steckoll, S.H., "An Inkwell from Qumran", Mada 13 (1969), 260-261 (in Hebrew).Taylor, Joan E., "The Cemeteries of Khirbet Qumran and Women's Presence at the Site", Dead Sea Discoveries 6 (1999): 625-323.Taylor, Joan E., "Khirbet Qumran in the Nineteenth Century and the Name of the Site." Palestine Exploration Quarterly 134 (2002) 144–164.Trever, John C., The Untold Story of Qumran, (Westwood: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1965).Wise, Michael O., Golb, Norman, Collins, John J., and Pardee, Dennis G., Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Qumran Site:Present Realities and Future Prospects, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 722 (New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994)Yellin, J., Broshi, M. and Eshel, H., "Pottery of Qumran and Ein Ghuweir: The First Chemical Exploration of Provenience", Bulletin of the American Schools ofOriental Research 321 (2001) 65-78La Biblioteca di Qumran primo volume, Torah-Genesi, edizione italiana a cura di Giovanni Ibba, EDB, 2013.

External links

Scholarly articles on the site of Qumran

The Fortress at Qumran: A History of Interpretation(http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/qumfort.shtml) Robert Cargill (2009).Three Notes on Qumran (http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/stacey.shtml) David Stacey (2009).The Enigma of Qumran (http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Ben-Ami--The_Enigma_of_Qumran.htm) Yaron Ben-Ami (2004). An analysis of the work of Magen and Peleg.Some Notes on the Archaeological Context of Qumran in the light of recent publications

3/18/16, 7:44 AMQumran - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 31 of 31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumran

(http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Stacey_Qumran_Light_of_Recent_Publications.shtml) David Stacey (2001).Spatial Approach to the Ruins of Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea) (http://www.isprs.org/congresses/istanbul2004/comm5/papers/616.pdf)Lönnqvist, K. & M., (2004), Institute for Cultural Research, Dept of Archaeology, University of Helsinki, Finland.

Other links relevant to the site of Qumran

Newly Discovered Photographs from 1950's Qumran (http://www.pef.org.uk/qumran/)The UCLA Qumran Visualization Project (http://www.virtualqumran.com) A Virtual Reconstruction of the Settlement at Qumran.3Disrael.com Virtual tours of the Qumran site (360 degree views): from the esplanade (http://www.3disrael.com/dead_sea/qumran.cfm) andwithin the main building (http://www.3disrael.com/dead_sea/qumran2.cfm).Isaac, B., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 688011 (Qumran)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.The Biblical Pseudo-Archeologists Pillaging the West Bank - discussed Qumran specifically(http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/the-biblical-pseudo-archeologists-pillaging-the-west-bank/273488/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qumran&oldid=707273430"

Categories: Ancient Jewish history during the Roman Empire Archaeological sites in the West Bank Caves Dead Sea scrollsFormer populated places in Southwest Asia History of Israel National parks of Israel QumranTourist attractions in Israeli-occupied territories

This page was last modified on 27 February 2016, at 21:54.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree tothe Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.