:Cooperative Argumentation:

:How to use classroom discourseto foster critical thinking skills:

:Mark Felton, PhDmfelton2@yahoo.com:

What is critical thinking?

• Knowledge, skills and dispositions• Thinking about arguments: Examining

the reasons for assertions, decisions orjudgments

A simple argument

Claim + Warrant + Evidence

“I am in favor of capital punishmentbecause it reduces crime, as we haveseen in New York over the past twentyyears.”

What is critical thinking?

• Knowledge, skills and dispositions• Thinking about arguments: Examining

the reasons for assertions, decisions orjudgments

• Addressing alternative arguments

An elaborated argument

Claim + Warrant + Evidence+ Alternative claim + Rebuttal / Reservation

“I am in favor of capital punishment because itreduces crime, as we have seen in New York overthe past twenty years. Some of the crime reductionmay be due to an improved economy and more jobs,but most criminals don’t turn to murder because theydon’t have a job. They’re people who have adisregard for anyone but themselves ”

Definition: critical thinking

• Argumentative reasoning thatevaluates the support for a claim withina framework of opposing claims andevidence.

• The structure of argument

Confirmation Bias

• The tendency for individuals to seekout evidence or reasons that supporttheir beliefs, while overlooking, ignoringor undervaluing evidence thatcontradicts their beliefs (Wason, 1960)

Definition: critical thinking

• Argumentative reasoning that is self-correcting and actively avoidsconfirmation bias by evaluating thesupport for a claim within a frameworkof opposing claims and evidence.

• The goals and structure of argument

Where do the skills of argument comefrom?

• Everyday experiences of argument

Simone: Papa, can I have a treat [candy or othersugary food]?

Me: You’ve already had your treat for the day.

Simone: But that was so small.

Me: Well…that was the treat you asked for.

Simone: Yes, but some days I get a big treat. So, I’mthinking that maybe I should have two small treats fortoday.

Me: Or maybe mama and I should stop giving you bigtreats?

Simone: [grumbles and changes the subject]

Sample dialogue

Where do the skills of argument comefrom?

• With the support of discourse, youngchildren can construct the basicstructure of an elaborated argument

• In time, they appropriate of the skills ofargument from social context ofdiscourse

What develops?

• Advances in content knowledge• Advances in discourse skill• Transfer to independent argument

construction

Advances in metacognitive awareness ofthe goals & structure of argumentation

What’s missing?

• Straw-man arguments• Simple rebuttals• Little or no use of reservations or

qualifications• Little or no change in position

Sample dialogue

• Physics problem• Instructions: Look at the

comic and discuss whetherthis could happen in reality.Justify all the claims thatyou make.

• Wrote individual essays• Discussed in small groups• Wrote a final group opinion

Sample dialogue

• Read responses by S3 and S4• Discuss: What good things come out

of this dialogue? What are the positiveoutcomes for science learning or forargumentative reasoning?

• Discuss: What negative outcomes orproblems do you see emerging fromthis dialogue?

What’s still missing?

• Students have learned to produce thestructure of a two-sided argument

• But they still demonstrate confirmationbias

• Why? What’s going on?

Dispute vs. Deliberation

• Similarities: Structure of argument• Both types of discourse involve

contrasting alternatives, using claims,evidence, counterarguments andrebuttals

Dispute vs. Deliberation

• Differences: Goals of argument• Goal of dispute: Win• Goals of deliberation: Choose a course

of action or position, rather than defendone.

Dispute vs. Deliberation

• Responding to alternatives• Dispute: Maintain position—Rebut or

ignore alternative claims & evidence• Deliberation: Maintain position, alter

position, abandonposition—Acknowledge alternativeclaims & evidence

Scaffolding deliberation

• Addressing problems with traditionalclassroom discourse

Problems with traditional classroomdiscourse

• Teacher is at the center and correct answers areemphasized

• When alternatives are permitted, they are notcontrasted

• When alternatives are contrasted, students areallowed to argue at cross purposes

• When debates are used, they are the culminatingactivity, leaving no room for revising positions

• When students are allowed to revise positions, theyaren’t given the opportunity to reflect on the process.

Scaffolding deliberation

• Instruction on the structure of arguments• Practice in argumentation• Deliberative process of argumentation• Deliberative goals of argumentation

Socratic seminarTraditional

• Reading• Problem• Moderated discussion• Reflection

Socratic seminarfor deliberation

• Reading• Problem posed—circle within a circle• Moderated discussion—inner circle• Review of arguments—outer circle• Coalescing arguments—moderated or in

small groups• Decisions or next steps• Reflection on process

Final words

• Valuing empathy and responsiveness• Distancing students from positions• Accepting and valuing an array of

outcomes

Recommended references

Gilbert, M. (1997). Coalescent Argument.Goldman, A.I. (2001). Argumentation and social

epistemology. Journal of Philosophy, 91, 27-49.Johnson, R. (2000). Manifest Rationality: A Pragmatic

Theory of Argument.

Makau, J.M. and Marty, D.L. (2001). CooperativeArgumentation: A Model for Deliberative Community.

:Cooperative Argumentation:

:How to use classroom discourseto foster critical thinking skills:

:Mark Felton, PhD: