Unit 3. English/Spanish Morphological contrastive analysis 1 1. Basic concepts (I) MORPHEME: Any minimal form (word or part of a word) with its own meaning, function and combinatory potential.

(ii) INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME: Morpheme that conveys grammatical information such as person, number, tense, case or adjectival degree.

(III) DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME: Morpheme that derives a new word from another one. (iv) ALLOMORPH: The different phonetic or lexical realizations of a morpheme. 2. Inflectional Morphology. 2.1. Verbs: a) English: from 1 to eight forms: 1 form: must 4 forms: walk, walks, walked, walking 2 forms: can, could 5 forms: sing, sings, sang, sung, singing 3 forms: put, puts, putting 8 forms: be, am, is, are, was were, been, being 1 inflectional morpheme: Stem + Tense (+Person + Number) b) Spanish: up to 48 simple inflectional forms: 6 inflectional morphemes: stem + Theme (-ar, -er, -ir) + Mood + Tense + Aspect + Person + Number

Finite forms Indicative Present Past (imper) Past (indef) Future Conditional Spanish Doy Dabas Di Daré Daría English Give Gave ----------- ----------- ----------- Subjunctive Present Past (imper) Future Spanish De Diera/Diese Diere English ----------- ---------- --------

Nonfinite forms: Infinitives: (i) Form: a) English: bare verb stem, without suffixes. b) Spanish: suffix -r after the theme vowels -a, -e, -i. (ii) Functions: a) Nominal: (1) She wants me to go out with her. (2) Preferimos quedarnos en casa. b) Form that follows another verb: (3) Debe ir, suele cantar, puede comer (4) Should come, must study, used to go Gerunds: (i) Form: a) English: ending in suffix -ing. b) Spanish: ending in suffix -endo. (ii) Functions: a) Adverbial: (5a) Salió sollozando. (5b) She left sobbing. (6a) Rompiendo la ventana, logró entrar. (6b) Breaking the window, he managed to get in. (7a) Los sábados nos divertíamos jugando al tenis. (7b) On Saturdays we enjoyed ourselves playing tennis. b) In English, also a nominal function: (8) Sobbing isn’t the answer. (9) Before breaking the window, try my key. In Spanish this function corresponds to an infinitive construction: (10) Llorar no es la solución. (11) Antes de romper la ventana, prueba con mi llave. Past participle: (i) Form: a) English: ending in suffix -ed (-en). b) Spanish: ending in suffix -(i/a)do. Some irregular forms: abierto, cubierto, dicho, escrito, frito, hecho, impreso, muerto, puesto, visto.

(ii) Functions: a) Adjectival (usually with a past and passive meaning): (12) Las empobrecidas clases bajas se sentían excluidas de la sociedad. (13) He felt neglected at home. ● Spanish participles with no past/ passive meaning: (i) independent adjectives homphonous with verbal participles: aburrido (`boring’), atrevido (‘bold’), exagerado (‘prone to exaggerating’). (ii) those from verbs denoting body position: sentado, tumbado, arrodillado (14a) Está sentado en el sofá. (14b) He is sitting on the sofa. (15a) Están arrodillados para rezar. (15b) They are kneeling to pray. Present participle: (i) English: a) Form: ending in suffix -ing. (16) A murdered man vs. a murdering man (17) A fallen tree vs. a falling tree b) Adjectival function which corresponds to a relative (adjectival) clause in Spanish: (18a) The sobbing man left. (18b) El hombre que sollozaba se fue. (19a) The women breaking the window are desperate. (19b) Las mujeres que están rompiendo la ventana están desesperadas. (ii) Spanish: -nte form (amante, influyente, creciente, flotante, importante, preocupante). Problems: a) Lacking in most verbs: *trabajante, *lloviente, *cogiente, *comiente, *limpiante. b) NOUNS: estudiante, dirigente, sirviente ADJECTIVES: doliente, sangrante, desesperante PREPOSITIONS: durante, mediante

Infinitive

Gerund

Present

Participle

Past

Participle Function

English

Nominal

Adverbial/ Nominal

Adjectival

Adjectival

Spanish

Nominal

Adverbial

-------

Adjectival

Form

English

Bare form

-ing

-ing

-en

Spanish

Stem+-ar, -er, -ir

-ndo

-------

-do

Gerund and Participal constructions similar in form in English and Spanish: (i) Absolute constructions: a gerund or participle presents background information for the main clause and is set off from it. Its subject is normally expressed only if it is different from that of the main clause, (20a-20b): (20a) Estando en huelga los obreros, los jefes intentaron sustituirlos. (20b) (With) The workers being on strike, the bosses tried to replace them. (20c) With the workers (being) on strike, the factory was closed. (21a) Solucionado el problema, los obreros continuaron trabajando. (21b) Having solved the problem, the workers went on working. (21c) With the problem solved, the workers went on working. (ii) Perfective constructions (22a) Lo ha bebido. (22b) He has drunk it. (iii) Progressive constructions (23a) Lo está bebiendo. (23b) He is drinking it. (iv) Passive constructions (24a) Fue visto en el partido. (24b) He was seen in the match

2.2. Nouns: Number ans the count/mass distinction: Singular number (ø): unmarked form. Plural number: marked form. Regular plural allomorphs: (i) SPANISH: -es: color/colores (consonant)

-s: taza/tazas (vowel) (ii) ENGLISH: [-Iz]: horse/horses (sibilant)

[-s]: hat/hats (voiceless consonat) [-z]: dog/dogs (vowel or voiced consonant)

Irregular pluralization patterns: 1) ZERO PLURAL: a) Unpredictable in English: sheep vs. heaps, deer vs. steers. b) Predicatble in Spanish: (i) nouns ending in unstressed vowel + s: el/los lunes, el/los análisis, el/los atlas, la/las caries, el/los paraguas. (ii) nouns ending in vowel + t: el/los déficit, el/los superávit 2) IRREGULAR GERMANIC NOUNS IN ENGLISH: man/men, foot/feet, child/children 3) LATIN OR GREEK NOUS IN ENGLISH: antenna/antennae, curriculum/curricula, stimulus/stimuli 4) RECENT BORROWINGS FROM ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN SPANISH: club/clubs, zigzag/zigzags, gánster/gánsters Always plural nouns (or Pluralia Tamtum): scissors/tijeras, tongs/tenazas. Contrasts: pliers - un alicate/dos alicates, trousers - un pantalón/dos pantalones Mass nouns (silver/ plata, wine/ vino, water/agua, heat/calor, freedom/libertad, physics/física): not pluralized because they refer to entities that do not have physical boundaries which, as such, cannot be counted. (i) In English some nouns can be both count and mass: (25a) He is pressing his trousers with that iron. (25b) Está planchando los pantalones con esa plancha. (26a) Iron can be found in many countries.

(26b) Se puede encontrar hierro en muchos países. (ii) To count them, counters have to be used: (27) a glass of water / un vaso de agua (28) two cubic feet of air / dos centímetros cúbicos de aire (29) three bars of soap / tres pastillas de jabón (30) a piece of paper/meat/bread - un trozo de papel/carne/pan (31) a spoonful of sugar - una cucharada de azúcar. (32) a bottle of wine/beer - una botella de vino/cerveza (33) a cup of tea/coffee - una taza de té/café Gender: (i) Salient to biological sex: boy/niño, girl/niña, etc. (ii) Sexless entities: a) in Spanish: masculine (el coche) or feminine (la mesa). b) in English: "it", neither masculine nor feminine. Exceptions: (34) My new car has a powerful engine. She is very beautiful too. (35) Mary’s baby is very quiet; it only eats and sleeps. Gender formation patterns in Spanish: 1) Ortographic hints: (I) Spanish masculine nouns: those ending in

-n: (no -ción, and sión): patrón, jamón -o: brazo, beso -r: pastor, televisor, -s (except for –tis and -sis): autobús, adiós -e: pie, café -l: pedal, caracol

(ii) Spanish feminine nouns: those ending in -a: carta, sábana -d: verdad, amistad -ción, -sión: separación, diversion -sis, -tis: tesis, gastritis. 2) Semantic hints: (i) Spanish masculine nouns: names of rivers (el Amazonas, el Támesis), of ships (el Titanic, el Nautilus), of trees (el abeto, el naranjo), of days of the week (el lunes, el domingo) 3) Morphological paterns in the male/female distinction:

(i) Different roots: el padre/la madre, el hombre/la mujer, monk/nun, husband/wife (ii) Common roots with idiosyncratic derivational suffixes: el actor/la actriz, el héroe/la heroína, actor/actress, hero/heroine (iii) Same word with gender assigned according to the referent’s sex: el/la pianista, el/la homicida, a male/female teacher, a male/female neighbour (iv) Same root with masculine or feminine endings: el abuelo/la abuela, el hijo/la hija, el señor/la señora, el profesor/la profesora (v) Transvestite el: el agua, el álgebra, el aula, el acta, el hacha, el hambre, el arma, el alma. But: la agria agua, la a, la hache. Case: (i) Only in English: unmarked case (Peter) vs. marked/possessive or genitive case (Peter's book). (ii) In Spanish the NP that indicates the thing possessed is followed by a PP headd by de: el libro de Pedro. 2.3. Adjectives: (i) uninflected in English for gender and number, but inflected for comparison: (36) The boy is tall. (37) The boy is taller than the girl. The boys are tall. (38) Peter is the tallest boy in his team. The girl is tall. The girls are tall (ii) Inflected for number and gender in Spanish: distintinction between adjectives with four or two different forms: a) Adjectives with four forms: masculine ends in -o, (39), or those referring to nationality, ethnicity, religious affiliation, etc, ending in a consonant, (40). Also some others ending in -ón, -or, -ote and -án, (41): (39) El techo es alto. (40) Él es andaluz. Los techos son altos. Ella es andaluza. La verja es alta. Ellos son andaluces. Las verjas son altas. Elas son andaluzas. .

(41) Él es muy trabajador. Ellos son muy trabajadores Ella es muy trabajadora. Ellas son muy trabajadoras. b) Adjectives with two forms: those not included in the previous group: (42) El coche es azul. La bici es azul. Los cocheas son azules. Las bicis son azules. Comparative constructions: 1) Equality: as/so...as in English: (43) He speaks as well as he writes. (44) I have as much work as you. In Spanish, tan... como for adjectives and adverbs and tanto/-a/-os/-as... como for nouns: (45) Habla tan bien como escribe. (46) Tengo tanto trabajo como tú. 2) Inequality: más/menos... que vs. more/less-fewer...than: (47a) She reads more than she used to read. (48a) Good health is more important than money. (49a) He drinks less water than me. (48b) Lee más que antes. (49b) La salud es más importante que el dinero. (50b) Él bebe menos que yo. De is used instead of que before numbers or words that imply quantity in affirmative statements: (51a) Necesito más de diez dólares. (51b) I need more than ten dollars. (52a) Pasamos allí menos de dos horas. (52b) We spent less than two hours there. In negative statements, de or que can be used, but their meaning is completely different: no more than and only, but, respectively: (53a) No necesito más de diez dólares. (53b) I don’t need more than ten dollars. (54a) No necesito más que diez dólares. (54b) I don’t need but ten dollars.

3) Intensity and proportionality comparatives: (i) Intensity comparatives: in English it is formed by repeating the comparative, and in Spanish it is marked with the adverbial cada vez: (55a) He is getting richer and richer. (55b) Cada vez se hace más rico. (ii) Proportionality comparatives: two structurally identical halves which in English contain the + comparative and in Spanish the combinations cuanto más/menos ... tanto más/menos: (56a) The older I get, the less I work. (56b) Cuanto más viejo me hago, menos trabajo. 4. Superlatives: the highest/lowest degree of a quality in the comparison of objects of the same kind. (i) In Spanish: article/possessive + (noun) + adjective in inequality form: (57a) Elena es su hija más linda. (ii) In English: article/possessive + adjective (-est) or most/least adjective + (noun): (57b) Helen is her prettiest girl. (iii) Absolute superlative: a very high degree or the possible highest degree of a quality or manner of an action without having a frame of reference for a comparison. In Spanish, the suffix ísimo/-a/-os/-as is added and in English, the adjective at issue is premodified by an adverbial: (58a) Un chico amabilísimo. (58b) An extremely kind fellow. (59a) Unas novelas larguísimas. (59b) Some terribly long novels. 2.4. Pronouns. 1) Distinction in Spanish: disjunctive pronouns (subject and prepositional object pronouns), (60-61), and conjunctive pronouns (direct object, indirect object and reflexive pronouns), (62-63): (60) Ellos no vendrán con nosotros. (61) Nosotros lo hicimos sin ti. (62) Lo celebraremos en verano. (63) Dinos la verdad. (64) Ella se ducha antes de acostarse.

2) In English, there are three classes: subject pronouns,(60), object pronouns, (61-62), and reflexive pronouns, (63): (60) She will come tomorrow. (61) They gave it to me. (62) Mary thanked me for my present. (63) Peter shaves himself four times a week. Personal pronouns: 1) PERSON: (i) Exceptional cases: ●Usted/ustedes are second person but require a third person verbal form: (64) Usted irá con este grupo. (cf. él irá) (65) Ustedes vendrán conmigo. (cf. ellos vendrán) ●You: personal and impersonal reference: (66) You/one have/has to study to pass the course. 2) GENDER: (i) Dummy it: (67a) It’s obvious it will rain. (67b) Está claro que va a llover. 5 (ii) Referential it (general concept, situation): (68a) He snores a lot. Does it bother you? (68b) Ronca mucho. ¿Te molesta (ello)? (69a) Yes, I’ll complain about it. (69b) Sí, me quejaré (de ello) (70a) He was snoring; I heard it. (70b) Estaba roncando, Lo oí. (iii) Referential it (inanimate entitiy): (71a) I need my pencil. Where is it? Have you seen it? Are you writing with it? (71b) Necesito mi lápiz. ¿Dónde está? ¿Lo has visto? ¿Escribes con él? (iv) Spanish pronominal forms unmarked for gender: nos,os, usted, yo, and tú. 3) CASE: (i) Different values of the Spanish indirect object:

a) Recipient or beneficiary of the verbal action: (72) Pedro ya le ha dado la noticia. b) Possessor of the entity denoted by the direct object. (‘possessive dative’): (73) Me han manchado la chaqueta. c) Someone affected by the action (‘dativo ético’ or ‘dative of interest’): (74) A mi marido me lo mataron en la guerra. d) Directional dative: (75) Se me acercó muy lentamente. 3. Derivational Morphology. 3.1. Affixation. Changes of lexical category: (I) ADJECTIVE → NOUN: alt-ura, alt-eza, alt-itud, posibil-idad, good-ness, similar-ity, wid-th, likeli-hood (II) VERB → NOUN: observa-ción, empuj-ón, escrit-or, canta-nte, muda-nza observa-tion, bore-dom, paint-er, paint-ing, disifect-ant (III) NOUN → ADJECTIVE: nacion-al, lluvi-oso, republic-ano, art-ístico, esperanz-ado, nation-al, ruin-ous, care-ful, fool-ish, republic-an (IV) VERB → ADJECTIVE: resbala-dizo, divert-ido, llor-ón, trabaja-dor, conveni-ente, expect-ant, amus-ing, tire-d, deriva-tive (V) NOUN OR ADJECTIVE → VERB: civil-izar, traicion-ar, humed-ecer, a-clar-ar civil-ize, hard-en, simpl-ify (VI) ADJECTIVE → ADVERB: rápida-mente, rapid-ly Some affixes shared by both languages

PREFIXES ENGLISH SPANISH sub- subacuatic subacuático ante- antecedent antecedente

dis-/des- discover descubrir post- postpone postponer

SUFFIXES ENGLISH SPANISH

-ility/-ilidad possibility posibilidad -ence/-encia violence violencia -ism/-ismo idealism idealismo -ize/-izar organize organizar

Diminutives and augmentatives: (i) English (fewer and less productive than in Spanish): a) -ie, -y (affective meaning): horsie, daddy, Bobbie, Micky b) -ette (usually positive connotations): towelette, kitchenette c) -et: circlet, cabinet d) -let: piglet, booklet, leaflet, flowerlet e) -ling (small size and despective meaning, with the exception of darling): duckling, weakling, foundling, kindling The last three groups of diminutive derivational suffixes have a secondary meaning of specialization: piglet, booklet, circlet, cabinet. (ii) Spanish (many more than in English, so their meaning is typically conveyed through adjectival premodification) a) -ito: caballito, gatito, mesita b) -illo: perrillo, librillo, florecilla c) -ico: perrico, librico, florecica d) -ón/-ona: casona, mujerona e) -ote: perrote f) -azo: perrazo, tortazo ● Secondary meanings of diminutives: a) Affection: Me gusta la sopa calentita. b) Subjectivity: Estamos los dos solitos. ¡Qué bien, ya estamos en casita! c) Pejorative: ¡Vaya nochecita!, ¡Vaya tiempecito! d) Euphemistic: La niña es más bien feílla. Una limosnita, por favor. ● Secondary meanings of augmentatives: a) Pejorative: Es una mujerzuela/mujerona b) Small size: islote, camarote c) Violent action: escobazo, puñetazo, botellazo d) Intensifier: ¡Ese hombre es un buenazo! ¡Vaya cochazo que tiene!

3.2. Compounding: Spanish compounding patterns: 1. NOUN + NOUN → NOUN: lengua madre, fecha límite, factor precio 2. NOUN + ADJECTIVE → NOUN: hierbabuena, cubalibre 3. NOUN (usually ending in –i) + ADJECTIVE → ADJECTIVE: boquiabierto, barbiespeso, pelirrojo 4. ADJECTIVE + ADJECTIVE → ADJECTIVE: sordomudo, verdinegro 5. ADJECTIVE + NOUN → NOUN: extremaunción, mediodía, buen partido 6. VERB + PLURAL NOUN → NOUN: cuentagotas, tocadiscos, lavaplatos, paraguas 7. NOUN + ADVERB → ADVERB: patas arriba, cuesta arriba, río abajo 8. ADVERB + VERB → VERB: menospreciar, malvivir 9. NOUN + VERB → VERB: rabiatar, pelechar 10. VERB + VERB → NOUN: duermevela English compounding patterns: 1. ADJECTIVE + NOUN → NOUN: fathead, paleface, loudmouth 2. ADJECTIVE + NOUN (ending in –ed) → ADJECTIVE: redfaced, long-lived, thickheaded 3. NOUN + ADJECTIVE → ADJECTIVE: taxfree, dustproof, carsick, diamond-hard 4. VERB + NOUN → NOUN: pickpocket, drawbridge 5. NOUN + VERB (in –ing) → NOUN/ADJECTIVE: airconditioning, story-telling, meat-eating 6. VERB (in –ing) + NOUN → NOUN: Washing machine, swimming pool, chewing gun 7. NOUN + NOUN (in –er) → NOUN: gate-crasher, babysitter, songwriter 8. NOUN + NOUN → NOUN: headache, coffeepot, applesauce, birth control

9. VERB + PARTICLE → NOUN: make-up, set-up, hangover, turn-out 10. PARTICLE + VERB → NOUN/VERB: outbreak, upset, income, outcome 11. PARTICLE + NOUN → ADVERB/NOUN/ADJECTIVE: uphill, indoor, outlaw, downtown 3.3. Other word-formation patterns: Acronyms: OTAN, NATO, sida, aids, IBM, RAM Clipping: disco, photo, flu, pram disco, foto, moto, bici Blending: smist (smoke + mist), bruch (breakfast + lunch), telex (teleprinter + exchange) mecatrónica (mecánica + electrónica), motel (motor + hotel)