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___________________________________________________________________
CRILE Working Papers No. 58 (2004)___________________________________________________________________
Is there life beyond language testing?
An introduction toalternative language assessment.
Dina Tsagari
Abstract
This paper aims to be an introduction to the so-called movement of alternative
assessment (Alderson and Banerjee, 2001) that has recently made its appearance
within the field of language testing and assessment. The paper attempts to familiarise
readers interested in the area with the fundamental principles, much of the associated
terminology and methods. It also raises a number of issues in the hope that they will
serve as a springboard for further discussion, research and experimentation in the field.
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1. Introduction
Language testing, generally associated with formal assessment procedures such as
tests and examinations carried out at specified times and serving a variety of purposes
(i.e. diagnostic, achievement, progress, etc.), is a vital component of instructionallanguage programmes throughout the world.
While this type of assessment is a mainstay of educational programmes
(Butterfieldet al., 1999), educators and criticsfrom various backgrounds have raised
a number of concerns about its usefulness as the primary measure of student
achievements.
Before attempting to discuss alternative assessment at any length, it is useful
first to look at some of the issues that have contributed to the need for assessment
reform.
2. Concerns about language testing
2.1. Dissatisfaction with types of information gathered
Proponents of process-oriented curricula and instruction argue that traditional testing
techniques, e.g. multiple-choice, fill-in-the-gaps, matching, etc., are often incongruent
with current second/foreign language classroom practices. In particular, they arguethat rich, descriptive information about the products and, more importantly, about the
process of learning and the ongoing measurement of student growth needed for
formative evaluation and for planning instructional strategies cannot be gathered by
conventional testing methods (Barootchi & Keshvarz, 2002). As Genesee and
Hamayan (1994: 229) stress ... tests can be useful for collecting information about
student achievement under certain restricted conditions, but they are not particularly
useful for collecting information about students' attitudes, motivation, interests, and
learning strategies (for similar discussions see also Archbald, 1991; Herman and
Winters, 1994; Madaus, 1988; Resnick and Resnick, 1992; Wiggins, 1989a, 1989b,
1994; Wolfet al., 1991).
2.2 Dissatisfaction with high-stakes/standardised tests
The literature also presents an array of negative criticism with regard to the washback
effects or consequences of high-stakes standardised tests and exams experienced on a
number of levels:
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i) Curricular level
Critics of high-stakes tests attest that these are responsible for narrowing the school
curriculum by directing teachers to focus only on those subjects and skills that are
included in the examinations. As a consequence, such tests are said to dominate and
distort the whole curriculum (Vernon, 1956: 166; see also Kirkland, 1971; Shepard,
1991; inter alia).
ii) Educational level
Critics also point out that high-stakes examinations affect
a. the methodology teachers use in the classroom, i.e. teachers restrict themethods they use and employ various exam preparation practices (also known
as coaching or cramming) at the expense of other learning activities which
do not always contribute directly to passing the exam (Alderson and Wall,
1993; Haladyna et al., 1991; Shepard, 1990; Wall, 1996),
b. the range, scope and types of instructional materials teachers use, i.e. high-stakes exams gradually turn instructional materials into replicas of the actual
examination papers (Bailey, 1999; Cheng, 1997; Gipps, 1994; Hamp-Lyons,
1998; Hilke, and Wadden, 1997; Lam, 1993; Mehrens & Kaminsky, 1989;
Paris et al., 1991),
c. students learning and studying practices, i.e. in high-stake examinationcontexts students tend to adopt surface approaches to learning as opposed to
deep approaches (Crooks, 1988; Entwistle and Entwistle, 1991; Newstead
and Findlay, 1997). As a result, students reasoning power is impeded, rote-
memorisation is encouraged by concentrating on recall of isolated details and
students resist attempts to engage in risky cognitive activities which can prove
both effective and potentially beneficial for their future improvement (Black
and Wiliam, 1998; Dietel, Herman and Knuth, 1991).
iii) Psychological level
Furthermore, high-stakes standardised tests are also said to have undesirable effects
on:
a. students psychology, i.e. it is believed that the role of the students in contextswhere high-stakes tests are introduced is that of passive recipients of
knowledge and their needs and intentions are generally ignored. High-stakes
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tests are also said to have detrimental consequences on students intrinsic
motivation, self-confidence, effort, interest and involvement in the language
learning experience and induce negative feelings in students such as anxiety,
boredom, worry and fear, which, according to the literature, are not conducive
to learning (Broadfoot, 2003; Gipps, 1994; Madaus, 1988; Paris et al., 1991;
Spielberger, 1972; Zeidner, 1996, 1998),
b. teachers psychology, i.e. it is argued that the dictates of high-stakes testsreduce the professional knowledge and status of teachers and exercise a great
deal of pressure on them to improve test scores which eventually makes
teachers experience negative feelings of shame, embarrassment, guilt, anxiety
and anger (Gipps, 1994; Herman and Golan, 1993; Johnstone et al., 1995;
Madaus, 1988; Shepard, 1991; Smith, 1991).
2.3 Dissatisfaction with teacher-made tests
In addition to the above, it is also argued that teacher-made tests, if used as the sole
indicators of ability and/or growth of students in the classroom, may generate faulty
results which cannot monitor student progress in the school curriculum (Barootchi &
Keshvarz, 2002; O'Malley & Valdez Pierce, 1992).
It is also believed that the use of tests in classroom settings tends to over-
emphasise the grading function more than the learning function of the language
learning process. As Black and Wiliam (1998) point out, in such contexts there is a
tendency to use a normative rather than a criterion approach to assessment which is
likely to create competition between pupils rather than personal improvement leading
to de-motivation and making students lose confidence in their own capacity to learn
(see also Black, 1993 and Crooks, 1988). In addition, it is also said that teachers do
not generally review the assessment questions or tasks they use in their classroom
tests and do not discuss them critically with peers. As a consequence there is little
reflection on what is being assessed (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Teachers, according to
Black and Wiliam, also do not trust or use their test results as these do not tell them
what they need to know about their students learning and appear to be unaware of the
assessment work of their colleagues, too (see also Harlen & Deakin-Crick, 2002;
2003).
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2.4 Equity in education
Other than the above, interest groups representing both linguistically and culturally
diverse students and students with special education needs have called for a change in
approaches to assessment that are more multiculturally sensitive and free of
normative, linguistic, and cultural biases found in traditional testing in order to ensure
equity in educational opportunities and achieve educational excellence for all students
(Hamayan, 1995; Huerta-Macias, 1995; Martin-Kniep, 2000; Soodak, 2000; inter
alia).
As a consequence of all the above criticisms, a shift in practice from
psychometrics to educational assessment made its appearance. This new tendency inassessment has come to be known as the alternative assessment movement in recent
state-of-the-art articles (Alderson and Banerjee, 2001; Bachman, 2000; Worthen,
1993).
3. What is alternative assessment?
3.1 Definitions
There is no single definition of alternative assessment in the relevant literature.For
some educators, alternative assessment is a term adopted to contrast with standardised
assessment, e.g. professionally-prepared objective tests consisting mostly of multiple-
choice items especially in the US tradition (Huerta-Macias, 1995). Others look at
alternative assessment in more general terms. For instance, Hamayan (1995) sees that
alternative assessment refers to procedures and techniques which can be used within
the context of instruction and can be easily incorporated into the daily activities of the
school or classroom (ibid:213). To this Smith (1999) adds that [a]lternative
assessment might take place outside the classroom or even the institution at various
points in time, and the subjects being tested may be asked to present their knowledge in
various ways (ibid:703).
Kohonen (1997) makes the point that alternative assessment (the author uses
the term authentic assessment)
. emphasises the communicative meaningfulness of evaluation and the
commitment to measure that which we value in education. It uses such
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forms of assessment that reflect student learning, achievement, motivation
and attitudes on instructionally-relevant classroom activities ... Its results
can be used to improve instruction, based on the knowledge of learner
progress (ibid:13).
In a more recent publication, Alderson and Banerjee (2001) provide the
following definition:
Alternative assessment is usually taken to mean assessment procedures
which are less formal than traditional testing, which are gathered over
a period of time rather than being taken at one point in time, which are
usually formative rather than summative in function, are often low-stakes
in terms of consequences, and are claimed to have beneficial washback
effects (ibid: 228)
3.2 Some further terminology
Other than the diversity of definitions as to what alternative assessment is, there is
also a plethora of terms used to refer to ways of assessing students language products
and processes without the use of tests.
Other than the term alternative assessment (see Alderson and Banerjee,
2001; Balliro, 1993; Brown and Hudson, 1998a, 1998b; Brown, 1998; Clapham,
2000; Genesee & Upshur 1996; Gipps and Stobbart, 2003; Hamayan, 1995; Hancock,
1994; Herman et al., 1992; Huerta-Macias, 1995; Shohamy, 1998; Smith, 1999; inter
alia), a variety of labels has been used to refer to ways of assessing students language
achievements without the use of tests. The most frequent are:
authentic assessment (Cumming and Maxwell, 1999; Darling-Hammond, 1994;
Elliott, 1991; Fradd et al, 1994; Kohonen, 1997, 1999, 2000; Newman et al., 1998;
OMalley and Valdez Pierce, 1996; Terwilliger, 1997, 1998; Wiggins, 1989a, 1989b,
1993; Wolf et al, 1991; Hart, 1994; inter alia),
performance assessment (Aschbacher, 1991; Shavelson et al., 1992; Soodak,
2000; inter alia),
continuous assessment (Bruton, 1991; Glover & Thomas, 1999; Puhl, 1997;
inter alia),
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on-going assessment (Carbery, 1999; Croker, 1999; inter alia)
as well as informal assessment, descriptive assessment, direct assessment,
dynamic assessment, instructional assessment, responsive evaluation,
complementary assessment, formative assessment, portfolio assessment,
situated/contextualised assessment and assessment by exhibition.
Due to lack of space the differences in meaning and use could not be discussed here.
The interested reader could explore these through the references mentioned. However,
the term alternative assessment will be used in this paper since it is more generic than
the other terms and it incorporates characteristics of the other commonly-used labels.
4.Benefits of alternative assessment
Researchers and practitioners in the field believe that alternative assessment can:
a. Evaluate the process and product of learning as well as other important
learning behaviours
It is stressed that because most alternative assessment is ongoing in nature, the picture
that emerges about the learner and his or her language proficiency also reflects the
developmental processes that take place in language learning over time. Thus, through
alternative assessment, it is possible to focus on both the process and the product of
language learning (Belanoff & Dickson, 1991; Genesee & Hamayan, 1994; Hamayan,
1995; Wiggins, 1989a, 1989b).
Other than the above belief, educationists also claim that through alternative
assessment it is possible to collect information about some of the factors that
influence achievement found in the students linguistic, cultural, familial or
educational backgrounds, e.g. their prior educational experiences, their family
education, etc. which can be especially important when planning and evaluating the
effectiveness of instruction (Genesee & Hamayan, 1994; Kohonen, 1997; O Malley
and Valdez Pierce, 1996).
Furthermore, Genesee and Upshur (1996) stress that alternative assessment
methods can also gather information about those factors that affect student
achievement which, according to the authors, should be seen as an integral part of
students assessment, e.g.
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learning strategies (e.g. whether the student takes risks, improvises, focuses onmeaning/form, self-corrects, uses first language strategies)
affective and personality styles (e.g. whether the student is enthusiastic, self-reliant, resourceful, passive)
students work habits (e.g. whether the student is punctual, followsinstructions well, meets goals, prepares for class homework, seeks assistance
when needed)
students social behaviour (e.g. whether the student works cooperatively,socialises with peers, participates in class discussion)
reactions to the course (e.g. student participates actively in class activities,requires extra guidance, shows initiative)
b. Evaluate and monitor instruction
Alternative assessment is also believed to provide a strong link between instruction and
assessment by forming part of a feedback loop that allows classroom teachers to
monitor and modify instruction continually in response to results of student assessment.
This process is illustrated in Figure 1 (adapted from Genesee and Hamayan, 1994:215).
Figure 1. Classroom-based assessment
Instructional PlansRevise Proceed
Instruction
Assessment
Objective
not
achieved
Objective
achieved
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c. Produce meaningful results to a variety of stakeholders
It is also believed that information obtained from alternative methods of assessment can
be much more useful and informative compared to test scores and easy to interpret and
understand (Alderson and Banerjee, 2001; Clapham, 2000).
Hamayan (1995) makes the point that this represents a tremendous benefit not
only for teachers but other clients of assessment, e.g. students, parents and
administrators. In particular she sees that alternative assessment methods allow
students to see their own accomplishments in terms that they can understand and,
consequently, it allows them to assume responsibility for their learning (ibid: 215)
while parents are offered a clear insight into what their children are doing in school.
Teachers are also provided with data on their students and their classroom for
educational decision-making. (ibid: 215). Alternative assessment also gives them
the opportunity to chronicle the success of the curriculum and can present them with a
framework for organising students work. Even administrators can benefit from
alternative assessment. According to Hamayan, administrators, who are typically
least convinced of the advantages of alternative assessment, can benefit from the clear
information about student and teacher attainment over time (1995: 215).
d. Relate to cognitive psychology and related fields
Furthermore, alternative assessment is also said to be in line with views expressed in
cognitive psychology, which suggest that learning is not linear, but proceeds in many
directions at once and at an uneven pace. Under this perspective, as Dietel et al.
(1991:4) argue, students should be given the opportunity to use the strategies they
acquired at the right time and in the right way so as to apply them for the realization
of particular tasks. They also stress that alternative assessment techniques allow
learners plenty of time to generate rather than choose a response: after recently-
acquired knowledge is brought to the forefront of their minds, the higher-order
thinking skills of synthesis and analysis are required for the learners when
participating in alternative assessment activities, which they can later reconsider by
critically working together with the teacher or other learners in sharing perceptions.
e. Represent a collaborative approach to assessment
Alternative assessment also represents a collaborative approach to assessment that
enables teachers and students to interact in the teaching/learning process (Barootchi &
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Keshvarz, 2002). Thus, in the context of alternative assessment, collaborative work is
reinforced among students and/or between students and teachers within a relaxed
classroom atmosphere.
f. Support students psychologically
In addition to the above, alternative assessment is said to enhance learners self-esteem
and feelings of efficacy as a growing person. Furthermore, it is believed that alternative
assessment can foster intrinsic learning motivation and learner involvement (Broadfoot,
1986, 2003; Gardner, 1993; Gottlieb, 1995; Kohonen, 1997; Leach et al., 1998;
Mortimer, 1998; Wiggins, 1993; Wolfet al., 1991; inter alia).
g. Promote autonomous and self-directed learning
It has also been argued that participating in alternative assessment can assist learners
in becoming skilled judges of their own strengths and weaknesses and in setting
realistic goals for themselves which can develop their capacity to become self-
directed and autonomous learners (by acquiring the necessary metacognitive
knowledge and strategies, language learning strategies and cognitive styles) and thus
develop lifelong learning skills (Brindley, 2001; Council of Europe, 2001; Kohonen
1999, 2000; Leites & Butureira, 2000; Lemos, 1999; Luoma and Tarnanen, 2003;
inter alia).
h. Provide new roles for teachers
With regard to the role of teachers within the alternative assessment paradigm, Genesee
(2001) points out that [t]hese new evaluation approaches recognise classroom teachers
as reflective, self-motivated professionals (ibid:150) while Kohonen (1997) points that
alternative assessment allows teachers more space for developing criteria (ibid:14) and
strengthens the importance of the teachers professional judgement and commitment
to enhancing student learning (ibid:13).
3.3 Alternative Methods of Assessment
The following list summarises some of the most commonly used types ormethods of
alternative assessment (based on Brown, 1998; Cohen, 1994; Genesee & Hamayan,
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1994; Genesee and Upshur 1996; Hamayan, 1995; Ioannou-Georgiou and Pavlou,
2003; Newman and Smolen, 1993; OMalley and Valdez Pierce 1996; Short, 1993):
Conferences
Debates Demonstrations Diaries/Journals Dramatizations Exhibitions Games
Observations
Peer-assessment Portfolios Projects Self-assessment Story retelling Think-alouds
It is important to note here, following Hamayans suggestion (1995:218) that the
above methods of assessment need to be distinguished from tools or ways whicheducators can use to recordalternative assessment information. The author cites the
following as the most frequent ways of recording alternative assessment:
Anecdotal records Checklists Learner profiles
Progress cards Questionnaires Rating Scales
(for a different classification of methods of alternative assessment, see also Herman et
al., 1992; Navarrete et al., 1990 and Short, 1993).
5. Concerns raised about certain qualities of alternative assessment
Although alternative assessment provides new possibilities for language evaluation,
concerns about how certain of its qualities (ie conceptual, technical, practical, etc)
may be realised and/or appropriately investigated have been voiced by educational
measurement and language testing specialists. For instance, it is argued that alternative
assessment documentation provides rich data about learning but it is much more cost-
effective and time-consuming for the teacher to administer and analyse thoughtfully in
order to give accurate feedback to the learner - especially in classes with large numbers
of learners (Alderson and Banjeree, 2001; Brindley, 2001; Clapham, 2000; Kohonen,
1997).
Another concern is related to the special skills needed by teachers in order to
successfully implement alternative methods of assessment (Breen et al., 1997; Clark
and Gipps, 2000). As Cizek (2000:2) comments in the context of general education in
the USA: Perhaps the peskiest pocket of resistance in the assessment revolution is
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the inadequate preparation of teachers and administrators in the fundamentals of
educational assessment. To this Kohonen (1997) adds that learners also need a great
deal of personal supervision and clear guidelines as it is quite likely that certain
learners may resist the new practices, being accustomed to more traditional language
assessment practices.
Brown and Hudson (1998a, 1998b) also point out that alternative assessment
needs to satisfy the same standards or psychometric qualities as do conventional tests,
that isvalidity, reliability andpracticality and should be critically evaluated for their
fitness for purpose (what Bachman and Palmer (1996) called usefulness).Brown
and Hudson also emphasise that decisions for use of any alternative assessment
procedures should also be informed by considerations of consequences (washback)
and the significance, need for, and value of, feedback based on the assessment results
(see also Alderson and Banerjee; 2001; Clapham, 2000; Gipps and Stobbart, 2003 ;
Worthen, 1993).
Hamp-Lyons (1996) and Hamp-Lyons and Condon (2000), on the basis of
their studies of portfolio assessment mainly conducted in the US, also argue the case
for the adoption of a number of practices to ensure an ethical basis for the evaluation
of alternative assessments, focusing their discussion on the following criteria:
1. transfer andgeneralizability
2. cognitive complexity3. content quality4. content coverage
5. meaningfulness6. cost and effect
The question of whether alternative assessment can be used for large-scale evaluation is
also discussed in the literature devoted to alternative assessment. Worthen (1993:447-
453) proposes that alternative assessment can reach its full potential in education for
large-scale assessment applications if:
1. conceptual clarity is achieved to ensure consistency in the applications ofalternative assessment.
2. a mechanism for evaluation and self-criticism of alternative assessment practicesis established.
3. the users of alternative assessment, whether they are teachers or administrators,become well versed in issues of assessment and measurement.
4. standardisation of assessment judgements is introduced.
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5. the ability to assess complex thinking skills can be established.6. educations key stakeholders (e.g. legislators, school boards, teachers, students,
associations of professional educators, etc) are persuaded of its importance and
usefulness.
7. the fiscal and logistic feasibility of alternative assessment for large-assessmentis shown.
(see also Brindley, 1998; Gipps and Stobbart, 2003 ; Stansfield, 1994).
Worthen also suggests that in the interim, it would seem prudent to develop and test
alternative assessment approaches in low-stakes settings where they can serve needs
for better classroom assessment (ibid : 451).
Van Daalen (1999:21) concurs that there is a need for on-going research on
psychometric features of alternative assessment as part of the development of
alternative assessment procedures. Hamp-Lyons (1997) also sees the need for further
studies: We must conduct studies of the impact of alternative assessment, on the
same basis that we apply to traditional forms of assessment. We cannot assume that
because alternative assessments start from humanistic concerns they produce
outcome that do only good and no harm (ibid:300)
6. Responses to concerns raised
Advocates of alternative assessment object to the above views on philosophical
grounds. For instance, Huerta-Macias (1995) argues that alternative assessment is
valid and reliable by virtue of its close integration with learning and teaching:
trustworthiness of a measure consists of its credibility and auditability.
Alternative assessments are in and of themselves valid, due to the direct
nature of the assessment. Consistency is ensured by the auditability of
the procedure (leaving evidence of decision making processes), by using
multiple tasks, by training judges to use clear criteria, and by
triangulating any decision making process with varied sources of data
(for example, students, families and teachers). Alternative assessment
consists of valid and reliable procedures that avoid many of the
problems inherent in traditional testing including norming, linguistic,
and cultural biases (ibid: 10)
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Hamayan (1995), a strong supporter of alternative assessment, also argues that
alternative assessment approaches provide a wealth of information which could serve
as a context for more valid interpretations of standardised test results. She also
stresseds that information from alternative assessment procedures can constitute the
sole basis for educational and instructional decision-making.
Lynch (2001) further argues that alternative assessment represents a different
paradigm (an assessment culture) and therefore cannot be evaluated from within the
traditional positivist framework of educational measurement (a testing culture).
Other researchers have also suggested that the application of psychometric criteria for
technical adequacy may result in comparisons that reflect unfairly on alternative
methods of assessment (Gipps, 1994; Linn et al., 1991; Moss, 1992). In this regard, it
has been argued that new rules of evidence are needed for alternative assessment. In
an attempt to address this issue, Linn et al. (1991) have proposed that a different set of
validation criteria needs to be applied to alternative assessment, for instance:
the extent of transfer and generalizabilty of the assessment tasks beyond theassessment situation
the cognitive complexity of students responses to the assessment tasks the content quality of the tasks the adequacy of sampling the meaningfulness of the assessment to students and the cost efficiency of the assessment system
(see also Garcia & Pearson, 1991; Gipps, 1994; Van Daalen, 1999)
7. Conclusion
The alternative assessment paradigm, as discussed in the present paper, is seen to
embody a different concept of assessment, i.e. assessment as an essential part of the
learning process. However, further theoretical and empirical work needs to be done to
examine alternative assessment practices in depth. For example, we need to
reconceptualise alternative assessment and its relationship to standardised testing, to
understand how the aspects of alternative assessment are actually accomplished in
classroom interaction and to develop appropriate theory and research methods in the
study of this highly complex and dynamic teaching-learning-assessing interface
before any definite conclusions about its positive effects on teaching and learning are
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drawn. Therefore, the present paper makes an urgent appeal to future researchers with
an interest in the area to conduct empirical research in this exciting field within
foreign/second language settings.
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