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CONCRETETECHNOLOGY

THEORY AND PRACTICE

M.S. SHETTYBE, ME, FICI, FIIBE, FIE, MACCE

Technical Advisor, MC Bauchemie (Ind) Pvt. Ltd.Principal Technical Consultant, Grasim Industries, Ltd.

Consultant to IMCC Delhi Metro CorporationFormerly Senior Prof. and Head of Department of Construction Engineering

College of Military Engineering (CME), PuneMinistry of Defence

S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.

Multicolour Illustrative Edition

(An ISO 9001 : 2000 Company)Ram Nagar, New Delhi - 110 055

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S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.(An ISO 9001 : 2000 Company)Head Office : 7361, RAM NAGAR, NEW DELHI - 110 055Phones : 23672080-81-82; Fax : 91-11-23677446Shop at: schandgroup.comE-mail: schand@vsnl.com

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© 1982, M.S. Shetty

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Publisher.

First Edition 1982Subsequent Editions and Reprints 1986, 88, 89, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 992000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004Reprint with Corrections 2005

First Multicolour Illustrative Revised Edition 2005

ISBN : 81-219-0003-4

PRINTED IN INDIA

By Rajendra Ravindra Printers (Pvt.) Ltd., 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055and published by S. Chand & Company Ltd. 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055

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DedicatedDedicatedDedicatedDedicatedDedicatedToToToToTo

My Beloved FatherMy Beloved FatherMy Beloved FatherMy Beloved FatherMy Beloved Father

V. VENKAPPA SHETTYV. VENKAPPA SHETTYV. VENKAPPA SHETTYV. VENKAPPA SHETTYV. VENKAPPA SHETTY

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AF O R E W O R D

AAAAAs one who has closely watched the author’s interest and involvement inconcrete technology for the past several years, I have great pleasure in writting this foreword.

Concrete is by far the most widely used construction material today. The versatility andmouldability of this material, its high compressive strength, and the discovery of thereinforcing and prestressing techniques which helped to make up for its low tensilestrength have contributed largely to its widespread use. We can rightly say that we arein the age of concrete.

It is easy to make concrete. There is an old saying that broken stone, sand, andcement make good concrete. But the same proportion of broken stone, sand andcement also make bad concrete. This is mainly because the quality of the end productdepends as much, and perhaps more, on the man on the job as on the constituentmaterials. The difference between good concrete and bad concrete lies in qualitycontrol. Extensive research work was, therefore, carried out almost from the beginningof this century not only on the materials but also on the methods used for concretemaking. Still, not many men on the job seem to make use of the known techniques formaking good concrete which is necessary for achieving strong, durable, and economi-cal construction. This textbook by Prof. M.S. Shetty will, therefore, help to generate abetter awareness of the potential of concrete.

The book deals with several aspects of concrete technology and also covers thelatest developments that have taken place in India and abroad. The coverage iscomprehensive and complete. The properties of the constituent materials of concretehave been explained very lucidly in the text. The information on admixtures and onspecial concretes, such as air-entrained concrete, vacuum concrete, light-weightconcrete, and gap-graded concrete, will be very useful to concrete engineers and thoseengaged in precast concrete construction. At many places in the text, the authortouches upon some important, down-to-earth problems and gives specific recommen-dations based on his own knowledge and vast experience. The chapter on mix designgives simple and scientific procedures for the benefit of practising engineers andconcrete technologists.

One of the welcome features of this book is the inclusion of detailed informationon recent developments relating to fibre-reinforced concrete, sulphur-impregnatedconcrete, and different types of polymer concrete. The author has highlighted thepotential of these new materials and has laid emphasis on the need for further research.

The text has been written in simple language and is supplemented by numerousillustrative examples, charts, and tables. The author has succeeded in presenting all therelevant information on concrete technology in a very effective manner. I am sure thebook will be well received by students of concrete technology as well as practisingengineers and research workers.

M. RAMAIAHDirector

Structural EngineeringResearch Centre

Madras

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WACKNOWLEDGMENTS

WWWWW hat made me interested in concrete technology was my association with ShriM.R. Vinayaka of Associated Cement Company, when he was working atKoyna Dam Concrete Research Laboratory. My interest was further en-

hanced while teaching this fascinating subject to the graduate and postgraduatestudents at the College of Military Engineering. I am grateful to them.

I gratefully acknowledge the following institutions and societies in the reproductionof certain tables, charts and information in my book:

The American Concrete Institute, the American Society for Testing and Materials, theCement and Concrete Association, the Portland Cement Association, the Institute of CivilEngineers, London, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada, the Concrete Associationof India, the Cement Research Institute of India, the Central Building Research Institute,Roorkee, the Structural Engineering Research Centre, Madras, the Central RoadResearch Institute, Delhi, and the Bureau of Indian Standards.

A book of this nature cannot be written without the tremendous backgroundinformation made available by various research workers, authors of excellent books andarticles which have been referred to and listed at the end of the chapters and at the endof this book. I am thankful to them.

I also wish to express my sincere thanks to the Commandant, College of MilitaryEngineering for extending all facilities and words of encouragement while working onthis book.

My special gratefulness is due to Smt. Brinda Balu and Dr. Balasubramanian forgoing through the manuscript with such diligence as to bring it into the present state.

My special thanks are due to Dr. M. Ramaiah, Director, Structural EngineeringResearch Centre, Madras, who obliged with a foreword to this book.

Lastly I am grateful to M/s S. Chand and Co., Ltd., for taking the responsibility ofpublishing this book.

Place: Pune, 1982 M.S. SHETTY

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IPREFACE TO THE S IXTH ED IT ION

IIIII t gives me immense pleasure that the book first published in 1982, has seen more than 25 reprints. Thepopularity of this book amongst students and practicing engineers has given me the encouragementto revise this book to make it more useful to them. The proposal and encouragement given by officers

of S. Chand & Company to bring this Sixth Edition in multicolour should make the book more useful andattractive

Concrete technology is becoming a major branch of civil engineering. It is becoming the backboneof infrastructural developments of every country. It has made tremendous advancement in the westernand the eastern world. Though India is lagging behind, we are catching up fast with the rest of the world.

It can be recalled that in the preface to the first edition (1982) I had mentioned that the cementproduction in India was 22 million tons. This was about eight decades after we first started manufacturingPortland Cement (1904). It is heart warming to note that in the subsequent two decades after 1982 i.e.in 2004, the production of cement has crossed 120 million tons. Today we are the second largest producerof cement in the world, only behind China.

The quantity of concrete and other cement products made, utilising over 120 million tons of cementto cater for the tremendous infrastructural development that is taking place in the country, is making theconcrete industry one of the biggest in monetary terms. Western and Eastern countries have been makingconcrete of strength M40, M80, M100 and over. In the recent past, we in India have started using concreteof strength M30, M50 and even M75. We have a long way to go to learn and practice the art and scienceof making High Performance Concrete (HPC) yet. The recent revision of IS 456, code of practice for plainand reinforced concrete is guiding concrete technologists to make strong and durable concrete.

I have grown older by twenty three years since I wrote the first edition. During these 23 years andespecially in the last 15 years, I have had opportunities to deliver numerous lectures, training site engineers,conducting trials at large project sites, throughout the country which has made me once again a studentof concrete technology and motivated me to revise this book.

Major revision has been carried out in Fifth and Sixth Edition. Topics, such as blended cements, useof admixtures and their use, field trials to find out their suitability, compatibility and dosage, RMe, pumpingof concrete, latest methods mix design step by step, and extensive unconventional deliberation ondurability, have been included.

Another special feature of this Sixth Edition is the inclusion of SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE, arevolutionary method of concrete construction. This innovative method which is found only in journalsand seminar proceedings is rarely incorporated in text books. Similarly, other latest research informationon Bacteria Concrete Geopolymer Concrete and Basalt fibre concrete are also included.

The book incorporates relevant information on numerous Indian standard specifications and code ofpractices relating to cement and concrete, including the latest revision of IS 456 of 2000 in respect ofsection 2 on materials, workmanship, inspection, testing and acceptance criteria. The book should serveas a vehicle to disseminate the information to all those who are interested in concrete construction.

I am sure that this multicolour revised editionmulticolour revised editionmulticolour revised editionmulticolour revised editionmulticolour revised edition will prove to be very useful to students of engineering,architects, practicing engineers and teachers in all engineering colleges. If this book helps to enthuse thereaders and enable them to make better concrete at our construction sites, I would feel that my efforts arewell rewarded.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Shri Samir Surlaker, an authority on admixtures andconstruction chemicals in India, for helping me to enhance the technical content of this book. I am alsothankful to the officers and staff of M/s S. Chand & Company Ltd. who were extremely amicable and helpfulto bringing out this sixth edition in Multicolour.Multicolour.Multicolour.Multicolour.Multicolour.

Place: Pune Pune Pune Pune Pune

May 2005 M.S. SHETTY

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CPREFACE TO THE FIRST ED IT ION

CCCCCement mortar and concrete are the most widely used construction materials. It isdifficult to point out another material of construction which is as versatile asconcrete. It is the material of choice where strength, permanence, durability,

impermeability, fire resistance and abrasion resistance are required. It is so closelyassociated now with every human activity that it touches every human being in his dayto day living.

Cement concrete is one of the seemingly simple but actually complex materials. Manyof its complex behaviours are yet to be identified to employ this material advantageouslyand economically. The behaviour of concrete with respect to long-term drying shrinkage,creep, fatigue, morphology of gel structure, bond, fracture mechanism and polymermodified concrete, fibrous concrete are some of the areas of active research in order tohave a deeper understanding of the complex behaviour of these materials.

In any country, construction accounts for about 60 per cent of the plan outlay. Outof this, cement and cement product would account for more than 50 per cent. Today inIndia the annual consumption of cement is in the order of 22 million tonnes. It is estimatedthat the cost of mortar and concrete made from 22 million tons of cement would workout to about Rs. 4,000 crores which is about 1/5 of the plan outlay for the year 1982–83.It is in this context that the knowledge of concrete technology assumes importance.

Concrete is a site-made material unlike other materials of construction and as such canvary to a very great extent in its quality, properties and performance owing to the use ofnatural materials except cement. From materials of varying properties, to make concreteof stipulated qualitites, an intimate knowledge of the interaction of various ingredientsthat go into the making of concrete is required to be known, both in the plastic conditionand in the hardened condition. This knowledge is necessary for concrete technologistsas well as for site engineers.

This book is written mainly to give practical bias into concrete-making practices tostudents of engineering and site engineers. Practical bias needs good theoretical base.Approach to practical solution should be made on the basis of sound theoretical concept.Sometimes, theory, however good, may not be applicable on many practical situations.This is to say, that particularly in concrete-making practices both theory and practice gohand in hand more closely than in many other branches of Engineering mainly becauseit is a site made material.

There are many good books written on this subject. But there are only a few booksdealing with conditions, practice and equipment available in this country. Moreover, mostof the books refer to only British and American standards. It has been the endeavour ofthe author to give as much information as possible about the Indian practice, Indianstandard specifications and code of practices for concrete making. If this book helps thereader to make better concrete in the field, my efforts, I feel, are rewarded.

Place: Pune Pune Pune Pune Pune M.S. SHETTY

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Chapter No. Page No.

1. CEMENT 1–26General 1Early History of Modern Cement 2Manufacture of Portland Cement 5Wet Process 6Dry Process 9Chemical Composition 14Hydration of Cement 17Heat of Hydration 18Calcium Silicate Hydrates 19Calcium Hydroxide 20Calcium Aluminate Hydrates 21Structure of Hydrated Cement 22Transition Zone 22Water Requirements for Hydration 25

2. TYPES OF CEMENT AND TESTING OF CEMENT 27-65Types of CementTypes of CementTypes of CementTypes of CementTypes of Cement 28ASTM Classification 28Ordinary Portland Cement 29Rapid Hardening Cement 30Extra Rapid Hardening Cement 30Sulphate Resisting Cement 31Portland Slag Cement 31

Application of GGBS Concrete 33Quick Setting Cement 33Super Sulphated Cement 34Low Heat Cement 34Portland Pozzolana Cement 35

Advantages of PPC 36Grading of PPC 37Application 37

Air-Entraining Cement 37Coloured Cement 38Hydrophobic Cement 39Masonry Cement 39Expansive Cement 40IRS-T40 Special Grade Cement 40Oil-Well Cement 41Rediset Cement 41

C O N T E N T S

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Properties of Rediset 41Applications 42

High Alumina Cement 42Hydration of High Alumina Cement 42High Alumina Cement Concrete 43

Refractory Concrete 44Very High Strength Cement 45

Macro-defect free Cement 45Densely Packed System 45Pressure Densification and Warm Pressing 45High Early Strength Cement 46Pyrament Cement 46Magnesium Phosphate Cement 46

Testing of CementTesting of CementTesting of CementTesting of CementTesting of Cement 47Field Testing 47Fineness Test 48

Sieve Test 49Air Permeability Method 49

Standard Consistency Test 50Setting Time Test 50

Initial Setting Time 52Final Setting Time 53

Strength Test 53Soundness Test 54Heat of Hydration 55Chemical Composition Test 56Test Certificate 56

3. AGGREGATES AND TESTING OF AGGREGATES 66-118General 66Classification 67Source 67

Aggregates from Igneous Rocks 68Aggregates from Sedimentary Rocks 68Aggregates from Metamorphic Rocks 68

Size 69Shape 70Texture 73

Measurement of Surface Texture 74Strength 74

Aggregate Crushing Value 75Aggregate Impact Value 76Aggregate Abrasion Value 76Deval Attrition Test 76Dorry Abrasion Test 76Los Angeles Test 77Modulus of Elasticity 77

Bulk Density 78

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Specific Gravity 78Absorption and Moisture Content 78Bulking of Aggregate 80Measurement of Moisture Content of Aggregates 81

Drying Method 82Displacement Method 82Calcium Carbide Method 82Electrical Meter Method 82Automatic Measurement 82

Cleanliness 83Soundness of Aggregate 85Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 85

Factors Promoting Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 86High Alkali Content in Cement 88Availability of Moisture 89Temperature Condition 89Mechanism of Deterioration of Concrete 89Control of Alkali Aggregate Reaction 89

Thermal Properties 90Grading of Aggregates 91

Sieve Analysis 93Combining Aggregates to obtain Specified Gradings 94

Specific Surface and Surface Index 96Standard Grading Curve 100

Crushed Sand 105Gap Grading 107Testing of AggregatesTesting of AggregatesTesting of AggregatesTesting of AggregatesTesting of Aggregates 107Test for Determination of Flakiness Index 107Test for Determination of Elongation Index 109Test for Determination of Clay and Fine Silt 110Test for Determination of Organic Impurities 111Test for Determination of Specific Gravity 112Test for Bulk Density and Voids 112Mechanical Properties of Aggregates 113

Test for Aggregate Crushing Value 113Test for “Ten per cent Fines” Value 114Test for Aggregate Impact Value 114Test for Aggregate Abrasion Value 115

4. WATER 119-123Qualities of Water 119Use of Sea Water for Mixing Concrete 122

5. ADMIXTURES AND CONSTRUCTION CHEMICALS 124-217General 124Admimxtures 125Construction Chemicals 126Plasticizers (Water Reducers) 126

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Action of Plasticizers 128Dispersion 128Retarding Effect 128

Superplasticizers (High Range Water Reducers) 129Classification of Superplasticizer 130Effect of Superplasticizers on Fresh Concrete 131Compatibility of Superplasticizers and Cement 131

Factors Effecting Workability 136Type of Superplasticizers 136Dosage 136Mix Composition 137Variability in Cement Composition 137Mixing Procedure 137Equipment 138Site Problems in the use of Superplasticizers 138

Slump Loss 140Steps for Reducing Slump Loss 140Other Potential Problems 142

Effect of Superplasticizers on the Properties of Hardened Concrete 143New Generation Superplasticizers 144

Carboxylated Acrylic Ester (CAE) 144Multicarboxylatether (MCE) 147

Retarders 148Retarding Plasticizers 149

Accelerators 149Accelerating Plasticizers 158

Air-entraining Admixtures 158Air-entraining Agents 159Factors Affecting Amount of Air-entrainment 159The Effect of Air-entrainment on the Properties of Concrete 160Resistance to Freezing and Thawing 161Effect on Workability 162Effect on Strength 163Effect on Segregation and Bleeding 166Effect on Permeability 169Effect on Chemical Resistance 169Effect on Sand, Water and Cement Content 169Unit Weight 170Alkali Aggregate Reaction 170Modulus of Elasticity 170Abrasion Resistance 170Optimum Air Content in Concrete 171Measurement of Air Content 171

Gravimetric Method 171Volumetric Method 173Pressure Method 173The Water Type Meter 173

Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures 174

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Pozzolanic Materials 175Natural Pozzolans 175Artificial Pozzolans 175Fly Ash 176Effect of Fly Ash on Fresh Concrete 179Effect of Fly Ash on Hardened Concrete 180Durability of Concrete 180

High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFA) 180Properties of (HVFA) Fresh Concrete 181Bleeding and Setting Time 181Heat of Hydration 182Curing of (HVFA) Concrete 182Mechanical Properties of (HVFA) Concrete 182Durability of (HVFA) Concrete 182Use of High Volume Fly Ash 183

Silica Fume 183Indian Scenario 184Available Forms 184Pozzolanic Action 185Influence on Fresh Concrete 185Influence on Hardened Concrete 186Mixing 186Curing 186

Rice Husk Ash 186Surkhi 187Metakaolin 188Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) 189

Performance of GGBS in Concrete 191Fresh Concrete 191Hardened Concrete 191

Damp-Proofing and Water-Proofing Admixtures 192Gas Forming Agents 193Air-Detraining Agents 194Alkali Aggregate Expansion Inhibitors 194Workability Agents 195Grouting Agents 195Corrosion Inhibiting Agents 196Bonding Admixtures 196Fungicidal, Germicidal and Insecticidal Admixtures 196Colouring Agents 197Miscellaneous Admixtures 197Damp-proofers 197Construction Chemicals 198Membrane Forming Curing Compounds 200Drying Behaviour 201Types of Curing Compounds 201Application Procedure 201

General Characteristics 202

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Water Retention Test 203Polymer Bonding Agents 204

Polymer Modified Mortar for Repair and Maintenance 204Mould Releasing Agents 205Installation Aids 205Floor Hardners and Dust Proofers 206Non-Shrink High Strength Grout 207Surface Retarders 207Bond Aid for Plastering 208Ready to use Plaster 208Guniting Aid 208Construction Chemicals for Waterproofing 209

Integral Waterproofing Compound 210Acrylic Based Polymer Coatings 210Mineral Based Polymer Modified Coatings 211Protective and Decorative Coatings 212Chemical DPC 212Waterproofing Adhesives for Tile, Marble and Granite 213Silicone based Water Repellant Materials 214Injection Grout for Cracks 214Joint Sealants 215

Concrete Repair Systems 215Stages for Repair Works 215

6. FRESH CONCRETE 218-297Workability 219

Factors Affecting Workability 220Water Content 220Mix Proportions 220Size of Aggregate 221Shape of Aggregate 221Surface Texture 221Grading of Aggregate 221Use of Admixture 221

Measurement of Workability 222Slump Test 222K-Slump Tester 224Remarks 227Compacting Factor Test 227Flow Test 228Flow Table Apparatus 229

Accessory Procedure 230Kelly Ball Test 231

Vee Bee Consistometer Test 232Segregation 233Bleeding 234

Method of Test for Bleeding 236

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Setting Time of Concrete 236Process of Manufacture of Concrete 238

Batching 238Volume Batching 238Weigh Batching 240Measurement of Water 241

Mixing 241Hand Mixing 242Machine Mixing 242Mixing Time 245Retempering 246Maintenance of Mixer 247

Transporting 247Mortar Pan 247Wheel Barrow 248Crane Bucket and Ropeway 249Truck Mixer and Dumper 249Belt Conveyors 249Chute 249Skip and Hoist 249Transit Mixer 250

Pumps and Pipeline 251Development of Concrete Pump 251Concrete Pumps 251

Types of valve 252Pipeline and Couplings 252Laying the Pipeline 253Capabilities of Concrete Pump 253Pumpable Concrete 254Design Consideration 255

Choosing Correct Pump 256Common Problems 258Clearing Blockages 259

Placing Concrete 259Form Work 261Stripping Time 261Under Water Concreting 262

Compaction of Concrete 265Hand Compaction 266Compaction by Vibration 267Internal Vibrator 268Formwork Vibrator 268Table Vibrator 269Platform Vibrator 269Surface Vibrator 269Compaction by Pressure and Jolting 269Compaction by Spinning 269Vibratory Roller 269

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General Points on Using Vibrators 270Further Instructions on use of Vibrators 270Height of Concrete Layer 271Depth of Immersion of Vibrator 271Spacing and Number of Insertion Positions 272Speed of Insertion 272Duration of Vibration 273Vibrating Concrete at Junctions 273Vibrating Reinforced Concrete 273Vibrating Near the Form Work 273Vibrating High Walls and Columns 276Over Vibration 276Output of Immersion Vibrations 276Revibration 276Vibration of Light-weight Concrete 277

Curing of Concrete 277Curing methods 279Water curing 279Membrane curing 280Application of Heat 281Steam curing 282High Pressure Steam curing 287Curing by Infra-red Radiation 288Electrical curing 289Miscellaneous Methods of Curing 289When to Start Curing 289

Finishing 291Formwork Finishes 291Surface Treatment 292Exposed Aggregate Finish 293Bush Hammering 293Applied Finish 293Miscellaneous Finish 294Wear Resistant Floor Finish 294Requirement of a Good Finish 295Grinding and Polishing 295Craziness 295

Whisper Concrete Finish 296

7. STRENGTH OF CONCRETE 298-324General 298Water / Cement Ratio 299Gel / Space Ratio 301Gain of Strength with Age 303Accelerated Curing Test 306Maturity Concept of Concrete 306Effect of Maximum Size of Aggregate 311

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Relation between Compressive and Tensile Strength 311Centre Point and Third Point Loading 314Bond Strength 315Aggregate Cement Bond Strength 316High Strength Concrete 318

Seeding 319Revibration 319High Speed Slurry Mixing 319Use of Admixture 319Inhibition of Cracks 319Sulphur Impregnation 319Use of Cementitious Aggregate 319

Ultra High Strength Concrete 319Compaction by Pressure 319Helical Binding 320Polymer Concrete 320Reactive Powder Concrete 320

High-Performance Concrete (HPC) 321Aggregates for HPC 322

8. ELASTICITY, CREEP AND SHRINKAGE 325-348Elastic Properties of Aggregate 325

Relation between Modulus of Elasticity and Strength 328Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity 329Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity 331Poison’s Ratio 332

Creep 332Rheological Representation of Creep 333Macroscopic Rheological Approach 333Microscopic Rheological Approach 334Hydration under Sustained Load 335Measurement of Creep 336Factors Affecting Creep 339

Influence of Aggregate 339Influence of Mix Proportions 339Influence of Age 339

Effect of Creep 339Shrinkage 340

Plastic Shrinkage 341Drying Shrinkage 343Factors Affecting Shrinkage 344Moisture Movement 347Autogeneous Shrinkage 347Carbonation Shrinkage 347

9. DURABILITY OF CONCRETE 349-419General 349Strength and Durability Relationship 350

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Volume Change in Concrete 352Definition of Durability 352Significance of Durability 352Impact of W/C Ratio on Durability 353

Permeability 354Permeability of Cement Paste 354

Permeability of Concrete 356Interaction between Permeability, Volume Change and Cracking 357Factors Contributing to Cracks in Concrete 361

Plastic Shrinkage Cracks 361Settlement Cracks 362Bleeding 362Delayed Curing 362Constructional Effects 363Early Frost Damage 363Unsound Materials 364Shrinkage 364

Drying Shrinkage 365Thermal Shrinkage 365

Thermal Conductivity 367Thermal Diffusivity 368Specific Heat 370Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 370

Mass Concrete 372Thermal Expansion and Shrinkage 373Extensibility 375Joints in Concrete 376

Construction Joints 376Expansion Joints 376Contraction Joints 379Isolation Joints 381

Concrete Subjected to High Temperature 382Fire Resistance 382

Freezing and Thawing 383Deicing Effects of Salts 387

Moisture Movements 387Transition Zone 387Biological Process 388Structural Design Defficiencies 388Chemical Action 389Sulphate Attack 389

Methods of Controlling Sulphate Attack 390Use of Sulphate Resisting Cement 390Quality of Concrete 390Use of Air-entrainment 390Use of Pozzolana 390High Pressure Steam Curing 390Use of High Alumina Cement 390

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Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 394Acid Attack 395Concrete in Sea Water 396Carbonation 398

Rate of Carbonation 398Measurement of Depth of Carbonation 400

Chloride Attack 400Corrosion of Steel (Chloride Induced) 402Corrosion Control 404

Metallurgical Methods 405Corrosion Inhibitors 405Coatings to Reinforcement 406Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating 407Galvanised Reinforcement 408Cathodic Protection 408Coatings to Concrete 408

Design and Detailing 409Nominal Cover to Reinforcement 409

Crack Width 411Deterioration of Concrete by Abrasion, Erosion and Cavitation 411Effects of Some Materials on Durability 412

Action of Mineral Oils 412Action of Organic Acids 412Vegetables and Animal Oils and Fats 412Action of Sugar on Concrete 413Action of Sewage 413

Surface Treatments of Concrete 413Maximum Cement Content 415

Concluding Remarks on Durability 418

10. TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE 420-457Compression Test 421

Moulds 422Compacting 422Compaction by Hand 423Compaction by Vibration 423Capping Specimens 424

Neat cement 424Cement mortar 424Sulphur 424Hard plaster 425

Curing 425Making and Curing Compression Test Specimen in the Field 425Failure of Compression Specimen 425Effect of Height / Diameter Ratio on Strength 427Comparison between Cube and Cylinder Strength 428

Flexural Strength of Concrete 428Determination of Tensile Strength 429

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Procedure 431Placing of Specimen in the Testing Machine 431Indirect Tension Test Methods 433Ring Tension Test 434

Advantage of ring tension test 434Limitations of ring tension test 434

Double Punch Test 434Factors Influencing the Strength Results 435Test Cores 436

Strength of cores 437Non-Destructive Testing Methods 437

Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer 439Limitation 439Rebound number and strength of concrete 440

Penetration Techniques 441Pullout test 444Dynamic or Vibration Method 444

Resonant Frequency Method 445Usefulness of resonant frequency method 445

Pulse Velocity Method 446Techniques of measuring pulse velocity through concrete 447Factors affecting the measurement of pulse velocity 447Smoothness of contact surace under test 447Influence of path length on pulse velocity 448Temperature of concrete 448Moisture condition of concrete 448Presence of reinforcement 448Accuracy of measurement 449

Applications 449Establishing uniformity of Concrete 449Establishing acceptance criteria 449Determination of pulse modulus of clasticity 450Estimation of strength of concrete 450Determination of setting characteristics of concrete 450Studies on durability of concrete 450Measurement of deteriration of concrete due to fire exposure 451

Relationship between Pulse Velocity and Static Young’s Modulus of Elasticity 452Combined Methods 452Radioactivity Methods 452Nuclear Methods 453Magnetic Methods 454Electrical Methods 454Tests on Composition of Hardened Concrete 454Determination of Cement Content 454Determination of Original w/c Ratio 455Physical Method 455Accelerated Curing Test 456

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11. CONCRETE MIX DESIGN 458-503General 458Concept of Mix Design 459

Variables in Proportioning 459Various Methods of Proportioning 460Statistical Quality Control of Concrete 460Common Terminologies 461Calculation of Standard Deviation and Coefficient of Variation 463Relation between Average Design Strength and Specified Minimum Strength 463

American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design 466Data to be Collected 466Example: ACI Committee 211.1–91 Method 471

Road Note Number 4 Method 473DOE Method of Concrete Mix Design 474

Example — DOE Method 477Concrete Mix Design Procedure for Concrete with Fly-Ash 482Example of Mix Design with Fly-Ash with DOE Method 482

Mix Design for Pumpable Concrete 484Example: Basic Design Calculations for a Pumpable Concrete Mix 488

Indian Standard Recommended Method of Concrete Mix Design 489Illustrative Example of Concrete Mix Design 495Rapid Method 498

Steps of Mix Design based on rapid method 499Sampling and Acceptance Criteria 500

Frequency of Sampling 500Test Specimen 501Test Results 501

Acceptance Criteria 502Compressive Strength 502Flexural Strength 502

Inspection and Testing of Structures 502Core Test 502Load Test for Flexural Member 502Non-destructive Test 503

12. SPECIAL CONCRETE AND CONCRETING METHODS 504-607Special concrete 504

Light-weight concrete 506Pumice 506Diatomite 507Scoria 507Volcanic Cinders 507Saw Dust 507Rice Husk 507Brick Bats 508Cinder, Clinker and Breeze 508Foamed Slag 508Bloated Clay 509Sintered Fly Ash 509

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Exfoliated Vermiculite 509Expanded Perlite 509

Light-weight Aggregate Concrete 510Structural Light-weight Concrete 513

Workability 513Design of Light-weight Aggregate Concrete Mix 514

Mixing Procedure 514Aerated Concrete 514

Proporties 516No-fines Concrete 517

Mix Proportion 517Drying Shrinkage 518Thermal Conductivity 519Application 519

High Density Concrete 520Types of Radiation Hazards 521Shielding Ability of Concrete 521Concrete for Radiation Shielding 522

Sulphur-Infiltrated Concrete 525Application 526

Fibre Reinforced Concrete 526Fibres used 527Factors Effecting Properties 528Relative Fibre Matrix Stiffness 528Volume of Fibres 528Aspect Ratio of Fibres 529Orientation of Fibres 529Workability 530Size of coarse Aggregate 530Mixing 530Application 531Glass Fibre Reinforced Cement 531Current Development in (FRC) 532High Fibre Volume Micro-Fibre System 532Slurry Infiltrated Fibre Concrete 532Compact Reinforced Composites 532Polymer Concrete 532Type of Polymer Concrete 533Polymer Impregnated Concrete 533Polymer Cement Concrete 534Polymer concrete 534Partially Impregnated Concrete 535Properties of Polymer Impregnated Concrete 536

Stress-Strain Relationship 536Compressive Strength 536Tensil Strength 537

Creep 539Shrinkage due to Polymerisation 539Durability 539Water Absorption 540Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 540

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Resistance to Abrasion 540Wear and Skid Resistance 540Fracture of Polymer Impregnated Concrete 540Application of Polymer Impregnated Concrete 541

Cold Weather Concreting 542Effects of Cold Weather on Concrete 542Low Temperature but above 0°C 453Low Temperature but below 0°C after Concreting 543Temperature Below 0°C at the Time of Concreting 544Hardened Concrete Subjected to Freezing and Thawing 544Concreting Methods at Sub-zero Temperature 544

Hot Weather Concreting 552Precautions Taken 554

Aggregates 554Water 555Production and Delivery 556

Prepacked Concrete 556Vacuum Concrete 558

Rate of Extraction of Water 558Vacuum Dewatered Concrete 560

Gunite or Shotcrete 562Dry-Mix Process 562Wet-Mix Process 563Advantages of Wet and Dry Process 563General Use of Shoterete 563Concluding Remarks on Shotcrete 565Recent Studies 566

Ferrocement 566Casting Techniques 568

Hand Plastering 568Semi-Mechanised Process 568Centrifuging 569Guniting 570

Application 570Roller Compacted Concrete 570Self compacting Concrete (SCC) 572Material for SCC 573Example of SCC Mixes 574Requirements for self-compacting concrete 575Workability Requirement for the fresh SCC 576Production and Placing 577Mix Design 577Test Methods 578

Slump flow Test 579J-ring test 580V-Funnel Test 581L-Box test method 582U-Box Test 583Full Box Test 584Orimet test 587

Complexities involved in making SCC 588New Generation Plasticizers 589Indian Scenario of SCC 590

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Experience of Delhi Metro Project 590Experience of Mock-up Trials at Tarapur AtomicPower Project 591

Use of SCC Kaiga 592Trials at SERC Chennai 594Study at Hong Kong 595

How economical is Self Compacting Concrete 597Bacterial Concrete 598Experimental Investigations 598Zeopolymer Concrete 599Basalt fibre concrete and concre reinforced with basalt fibre reinforcements 602

General Reference Books 608-611List of Indian Standard Specifications and Codeof Pratices, Related to Cement and Concrete 612-616Subject Index 617-624

Cement !!!!! XXVII

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CONCRETEIN THE UNENDING SERVICE

OF NATION BUILDINGLET US LEARN THIS SUBJECT TO BE APART OF THE NATION BUILDING TEAM

SARDAR SAROVAR DAM : Sardar Sarovar Project is an Inter-State Multi-Purpose project of Nationalimportance. It is one of the largest projects under implementation anywhere in the world.

XXVIII !!!!! Concrete Technology

(xxviii)

THE IDUKKI HYDROELECTRICPROJECT, KERALA : Thereservoir covers nearly 60square kilometres and has acatchment of 649 squarekm. Water from the reservoiris taken down to theunderground power house atMoolamattom through anunderground tunnel, yieldingan average gross head of2182 feet (665 metres). Theproject has an installedcapacity of 780 MW with firmpower potential of 230 MWat 100 per cent load factor.

THE BHAKRA DAM is amajestic monument acrossriver Sutlej. The constructionof this project was started inthe year 1948 and wascompleted in 1963 . It is 740ft. high above the deepestfoundation as straightconcrete dam being morethan three times the height ofQutab Minar. Bhakra Dam isthe highest Concrete Gravitydam in Asia and SecondHighest in the world.

SAI GANGA approach canalfor water supply to ChennaiMetro.

Cement !!!!! XXIX

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DELHI METRO Railway Stationunder construction.

Unconventional building with pleasingarchitecture.

Diamond shaped ‘MANI KANCHAN’ – Gem& Jewellery Park at Kolkata.

THE BAHÁ'Í HOUSE OF WORSHIPknown as the Lotus Temple, built

near New Delhi.

XXX !!!!! Concrete Technology

(xxx)

TARAPUR ATOMIC POWER PROJECT : ReactorBuilding no. 3 & 4.

Fully automatic construction of concretepavement.

A view of large oval shaped domeunder construction over ConnaughtPlace Metro Railway Station. It is goingto be a new landmark over Delhi Metro.It will be a modern version of Palikagarden – A pride feature of Delhi MetroProject.

Sky Bus Metro, Goa

Cement !!!!! XXXI

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SOME LANDMARK HIGHRISEBUILDINGS IN THE WORLD

Figures on the top is the strength of concrete in MPa

SOME HIGHRISE BUILDINGS AROUND THE WORLD

XXXII !!!!! Concrete Technology

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CHANNEL TUNNEL RAIL LINK (UK).Tunnel diameter : 6.84 m and 8.15 m. Numberof segments 9+key. Segment thickness : 350mm. Concrete grade : 60 MPa. Dramix steelfibre reinforcement is used for castingsegments without conventional steel.

PETRONAS TWIN TOWERS in Kuala LumpurMalaysia : One of the tallest (451m.)buildings in the world.

. . . . and many many more toexpand and reshape the worldwe live in, — all in concrete.