Content Analysis Overview for Persona Development
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Transcript of Content Analysis Overview for Persona Development
Content AnalysisTHE PSYCHOLOGY OF AUDIENCE ENGAGEMENT
Dr. Pamela Rutledge | [email protected]. Jerri Lynn Hogg | [email protected]
Qualitative Research
A form of social inquiry that focuses
on the way people interpret and
make sense of their experiences
and the world in which they live. ““
Main Types of Qualitative Research
Case Study
Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in depth a single case example of the phenomena. The case can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.
Grounded Theory
Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a participant-observer.
Phenomenology
Describes the structures of experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines
EthnographyFocuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation of sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on a community.
Historical
Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events.
Main Types of Data Collection & Analysis
Those who are not familiar with
qualitative methodology may be
surprised by the sheer volume
of data and the detailed level of
analysis that results even when
research is confined to a small
number of subjects
(Myers, 2002).
“ “
Three Main Methods Of Data Collection
Analysis begins when the data is first collected and is used to guide decisions related to further data collection.
Interactive interviewingPeople asked to verbally described their experiences of phenomenon
Written descriptions by participants
People asked to write descriptions of their experiences of phenomenon
ObservationDescriptive observations of verbal and non-verbal behavior
In communicating--or generating--the
data, the researcher must make the
process of the study accessible and
write descriptively so tacit knowledge
may best be communicated through the
use of rich, thick descriptions
(Myers, 2002)
“ “
What is Content Analysis?
A formal methodology• To discover, uncover, or answer• Uncover unknown qualities about the data• Looking for patterns in the content
A Little History
Systematic analysis of texts performed several times by religious entities prior to 1900
Major growth periods in the 20th CenturyEarly 20th Century
Studies of newspaper content
Behavior sciences in 1930s and 1940s Begin to study media effects
World War II Propaganda studies
Post war expansion:conversation analysis, personal document analysis, processes of communication, and a generalized measure of meaning
Source: Krippendorf, 2004
More History
1960s: Computer text analysis but challenging beyond quantitative analysis of text
Today:extensive proliferation of traditional, electronic, and social media are leading to strong interest in content analysis and more powerful software
Content Analysis Software Evolution Cards - counting N-vivo – pulled out paragraphs SPSS Text Analytics – computer generated counting
increased the quantity accessible Leximancer – text analytics plus context, same word with
multiple meanings, concepts instead of keywords, interactive and visual
What is Watson?
We have a proliferation of Big Data,”
90% of the world‘s information was created in the last two years
80% of that 90% is unstructured or semi-structured information, like doctor’s notes or product reviews on Amazon
IBM’s Watson is a genius at reading unstructured information
The ability to format and use these knowledge banks will significantly alter how and how well humans make decision.
Application Areas Today
Conversations Conversations
SentimentSentiment
Social MediaSocial Media
ForensicsForensics
Historical ReviewsHistorical Reviews
Political DocumentsPolitical Documents
News AnalysisNews Analysis
PropagandaPropaganda
Television ContentTelevision Content
Bias DeterminationBias Determination
Song LyricsSong Lyrics
National SecurityNational Security
Video Game ContentVideo Game Content
More ...More ...
Content analysis is a formal
methodology to study a collection of
media to discover, uncover, or answer
A Formal Methodology
A formal, objective method with rigor and repeatabilityMany methods and processes are validMethodology example1. Determine research question2. Identify and collect samples3. Perform quantitative analysis4. Perform qualitative analysis5. Draw conclusions6. Summarize, publish, and share results
To Study A Collection of MediaMedia is a method of information communicationCollections include the following (normalize formats to text)
Written media such as newspapers, magazines, websites, Blogs, Tweets, Facebook pages, emails
Audio, such as radio programs, interview transcripts, conversations (can be transcribed into text)
Video, such as television, movies, news footage, YouTube videos (can be transcribed into text)
Images described in text
To Discover, Uncover, Answer...
Discover concepts, themes, and relationships in the collectionUncover unknown qualities about the dataAnswer a specific research question
ConceptsThemes
Relationships
Key Points
All methods of content analysis share common components:
Quantitative (counting) and qualitative (meaning) analyses Analysts can use one or both methods Content analysis is best when both quantitative and
qualitative approaches are combined Important study aspects include
Sampling Units Of Measure Coding Validity Reliability
Sampling: Taking a Subset
Sampling plans are needed to reduce researcher bias
Select a type of sampling (e.g., random)Sample size is important to be representativeSplit-half technique: Two samples equal the same result
Source: Krippendorf, 2004
Units of Measure
Sampling Part 2: Samples require a definition of data resolution
Television comedies, 1/2 hour, Wednesday nightsEntire tweet, tweets from a user, collection of topical tweetsOne blog entry, an entire blog, or consolidation of many blogsNewspaper article, articles of a set timeline
Content analysts must determine these units to measure
Impacts relationships of words and codingConcept discovery restricted to within units
CodingProcess of examining text in a specific unit and extracting relevant dataLook for words, phrases, word sense, and categorize units of text (i.e., words, sentences, paragraphs, tweets)Three methods of coding1.Manual, by person(s) coding from codebooks,
instructional guides, intuition
2.Computer-assisted (N*Vivo) beginning with coding then often some automation for remaining documents
3.Computer generated (Leximancer, CATPAC)
Reliability and ValidityFor a formal analysis method to be sound, reliability and validity must be addressedReliability refers to stability and reproducibility
Coding to be repeatable if manual or computer assistedInter-rater reliability for manual coding with multiple coders affects reproducibility and must be ensuredMeasure of accuracy is tied to statistical normsAccuracy is the strongest form of reliability (Weber, 1990)
Validity
Validity refers to general applicability of results and conclusions obtained from inferences in the studyMajor concern for qualitative analysis in general
Researcher chooses coding concepts --makes inferencesResearcher bias, errors, conclusions
Neuendorf listed external validity, face validity, criterion validity, content validity, and construct validity
Are we measuring what we want to measure? Neuendorf, 2002, p. 112“
“
Quantitative Analysis in Qualitative Research
Counting and statistics: Numeric measures
Word frequenciesHow many times does a word appear?
Specify stop-words to ignore (e.g., the, and, others)
Need to consolidate synonyms, stems (e.g., dog = dogs)
Compound words (i.e., word pairs) are important
United States
not good
Categories (simply present or frequencies)
Quantitative Analysis of Qualitative Information
Concept frequenciesHow often do concepts occur?
Existence (occurs) or actual counts
Other StatisticsProximity and co-occurrence frequencies can all be used to determine concept relationships
Qualitative AnalysisCoding is performed to reduce text collection to categories (i.e., concepts)Analyst can seed concepts or discover concepts during analysisOften, the more discovery allowed the more objective the analysis (grounded theory reduces researcher bias)Concepts and their relationships form the foundations for extracting meaningKeyword in context (KWIC)
Which words and how used (Weber, 1990)
Qualitative AnalysisCoding is performed to reduce text collection to categories (i.e., concepts)Analyst can seed concepts or discover concepts during analysisOften, the more discovery allowed the more objective the analysis (grounded theory reduces researcher bias)Concepts and their relationships form the foundations for extracting meaningKeyword in context (KWIC)
Which words and how used (Weber, 1990)
What is a Concept?Synthesis of a text representation
Key words, including consolidating synonyms, stems
Represents something meaningful
Found by examining word, compound word, and surrounding words in a measurable unit
Useful to display on a graphical “map”
Role of the Computer SolutionsA content analysis can be done without a computer. Although...
At a minimum, a computer serves as a document file folder and backup device
And a search tool for and within documents
Software can also assist with manual coding then continue coding automatically (N*Vivo)
Or software can do coding automated by statistical processing (Leximancer) or networks (CATPAC)
Key Points SummaryA content analysis is best when both quantitative and qualitative approaches are combined (Weber, 1990).
Quantitative analysis counts and finds statistics
Qualitative analysis determines meaning
Important operational aspects include sampling, units of measure, coding, validity, and reliability
References
Krippendorf, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Weber, R. P. (1990). Basic content analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Willig, C. (2008). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
Additional Reading
Evaluation of Unsupervised Semantic Mapping of Natural Language with Leximancer Concept Mapping, Andrew Smith. Conversations Between Careers and People With Schizophrenia: A Qualitative Analysis Using Leximancer, Julia Cretchley, Cindy Gallois, Helen Chenery, and Andrew Smith Analysis of Asynchronous Discourse in Web-assisted and Web-based Courses, David Thomas and Cleborne MadduxComputer Aided Phenomenography: The Role of Leximancer Computer Software in Phenomenographic Investigation, Sorrel Penn-EdwardsContent Analysis of a Random Day of Two News Sites: FoxNews.com and MSNBC.com, Michael R. Neal
Qualitative Analysis1.Grounded Theory 2.Phenomenological Analysis3.Discourse Analysis4.Narrative Research5. Intuitive Inquiry
THANK YOUTHE PSYCHOLOGY OF AUDIENCE ENGAGEMENT
Dr. Pamela Rutledge | [email protected]. Jerri Lynn Hogg | [email protected]