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Consumer DemandConsumer Demand Various quantities of a commodity Various quantities of a commodity
that an individual is willing and that an individual is willing and able to buy as the price of the able to buy as the price of the commodity varies holding all commodity varies holding all other factors constant.other factors constant.
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Consumer DemandConsumer Demand Demand begins with individual Demand begins with individual
consumerconsumer Inverse relationship between Inverse relationship between
quantity and pricequantity and price• Two dimensional, Price and QuantityTwo dimensional, Price and Quantity
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Downward sloping Downward sloping demanddemand
Begin with individual’s utility Begin with individual’s utility function and a budget constraintfunction and a budget constraint
Substitution effectSubstitution effect• consumers buy what’s cheaperconsumers buy what’s cheaper
Income effectIncome effect• ““income” increases if prices fallincome” increases if prices fall
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Retail Poultry Deflated Price and Consumption
$0.90
$1.00
$1.10
$1.20
$1.30
$1.40
$1.50
$1.60
$1.70
$1.80
35 45 55 65 75
75
77
76
72
70
71
73
74
85
84
8382
81
80
79
78
89
88
87
86
97
96
94
95
9392
91
90
98
Per Capita Consumption in Pounds
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Pork Deflated Price and Consumption, Retail
$1.00
$1.10
$1.20
$1.30
$1.40
$1.50
$1.60
$1.70
$1.80
$1.90
$2.00
48 50 52 54 56 58
96
97
86
87
82
90
91 84
83
89
85
88
00 98
93
95
92
94
99
81 80
Per Capita Consumption in Pounds
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Market or Aggregate Market or Aggregate DemandDemand
Add individual demand curvesAdd individual demand curves Horizontally across consumersHorizontally across consumers http://www.aaec.vt.edu/rilp/Demandhttp://www.aaec.vt.edu/rilp/Demand
%20Changes-2000.pdf%20Changes-2000.pdf (Pages 1-10) (Pages 1-10)
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Beef and Pork Demand Index, 1997 Base
0
50
100
150
200
250
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Beef Pork
Source: Research Institute on Livestock Pricing
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Demand is a function ofDemand is a function of
Price of substitutesPrice of substitutes Price of complementsPrice of complements Consumer incomeConsumer income Taste and preferencesTaste and preferences IS NOT FUNCTION OF THE IS NOT FUNCTION OF THE
GOOD’S OWN PRICEGOOD’S OWN PRICE
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Change in Demand orChange in Demand orin Quantity Demandedin Quantity Demanded
Px
Qx
D1 D2
A
B
Moving from A to B due to a price decline is a change in quantity demand.
A shift of the demand curve from D1 to D2 is a change in demand.
C
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Factors effecting Factors effecting aggregate aggregate demand for a productdemand for a product
ExportsExports New product developmentNew product development AdvertisingAdvertising New informationNew information Product differentiationProduct differentiation
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Income effect on food demandIncome effect on food demand
Food is normal goodFood is normal good• Income demandIncome demand
• Particularly important for meats Particularly important for meats
• Emerging economiesEmerging economies
Services are a normal goodServices are a normal good• Income servicesIncome services
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Inverse Demand Inverse Demand
Price is a function of quantityPrice is a function of quantity• P = P = ff(Q)(Q)
Important in agricultureImportant in agriculture• Short run supplies are relatively fixedShort run supplies are relatively fixed
• Prices change to clear the marketPrices change to clear the market
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SupplySupply
The amount of a given commodity The amount of a given commodity that will be offered for sale per that will be offered for sale per unit time as the price varies, other unit time as the price varies, other factors held constant.factors held constant.
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SupplySupply Derived from cost functionDerived from cost function
• Production functionProduction function
• Input - output relationshipInput - output relationship
Assume that firms seek toAssume that firms seek to• Maximize profitsMaximize profits
• Minimize costsMinimize costs
Supply starts will individual firmSupply starts will individual firm
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Production FunctionProduction Function
Total Product
Input
Output
Increasing returns to the input
Decreasing returns to the input
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Opportunity costOpportunity cost The opportunity cost of commodity The opportunity cost of commodity
A is income forgone by not A is income forgone by not producing commodity B.producing commodity B.
Measures of opportunity costMeasures of opportunity cost• Market value of inputMarket value of input• Expected return over other cost of not Expected return over other cost of not
producing commodity B.producing commodity B.
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Cost CurvesCost Curves Average variable cost = AVCAverage variable cost = AVC
• Total variable cost / QTotal variable cost / Q• Variable costs change with QVariable costs change with Q
Average fixed cost = AFCAverage fixed cost = AFC• Total fixed cost / QTotal fixed cost / Q• Fixed costs do not change with QFixed costs do not change with Q
Average total cost = ATC Average total cost = ATC = AVC+AFC= AVC+AFC
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Cost CurvesCost Curves
Marginal cost = MCMarginal cost = MC• Change in total cost by producing 1 moreChange in total cost by producing 1 more
• TC / QTC / Q
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Cost curvesCost curves
Cost
Q
MC
ATC
AVC
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Supply curveSupply curve
MC curve above AVC curveMC curve above AVC curve Upward sloping curveUpward sloping curve
• Optimal output @ MC = MROptimal output @ MC = MR
• MR = Price => Optimal at MC=PriceMR = Price => Optimal at MC=Price
• The last unit of input just pays for itselfThe last unit of input just pays for itself
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ProfitProfit Profit = total revenue - total costProfit = total revenue - total cost
• TR= P x QTR= P x Q
• TC = ATC x QTC = ATC x Q
Profit per unit = Profit/QProfit per unit = Profit/Q• = TR/Q - TC/Q= TR/Q - TC/Q
• = P - ATC= P - ATC
Profit maximizing QProfit maximizing Q• MC=MR=PMC=MR=P
• Profit/Q = P-ATC at optimal QProfit/Q = P-ATC at optimal Q
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Optimal Q at P=MCOptimal Q at P=MC
MC
ATC
AVC
P1
P2
Cost
QQ1 Q2
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Market or Aggregate Market or Aggregate Supply Supply
Combination of individual supply Combination of individual supply schedulesschedules• Add horizontally across firmsAdd horizontally across firms
Flattens with timeFlattens with time• More time to adjust supplyMore time to adjust supply
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Market supply curvesMarket supply curves
Qx
PxSShort run
SLong run
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Cost curves and supplyCost curves and supply
Shut down if P < AVCShut down if P < AVC• Lose on every unit producedLose on every unit produced• P>AVC make some payment to fixed costP>AVC make some payment to fixed cost
In the long run everything is variableIn the long run everything is variable• Short run defined by having fixed costShort run defined by having fixed cost
Long run supply curve for individualLong run supply curve for individual• Low point on ATC curveLow point on ATC curve
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Market supply curves
Qx
Px S1 S2A
BC
Move from A to B is a change in quantity supplied due to a price decline.
Move from B to C is a shift in supply.
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Supply Shifts from Supply Shifts from ChangeChange
in input pricesin input prices in returns for competing enterprisesin returns for competing enterprises in technology on yields or costsin technology on yields or costs in price of joint productsin price of joint products in yield and/or price riskin yield and/or price risk institutional constraintsinstitutional constraints
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Additional referencesAdditional references
Reading roomReading roomAgricultural Product Prices, Agricultural Product Prices, Tomek & Tomek &
Robinson Chpts 2 and 4.Robinson Chpts 2 and 4.