CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING STRATEGIES

Dr. Graham W. DettrickSchool of EducationMonash University - Gippsland CampusCHURCHILLAustralia 3842

Office Phone: (051) 22 6364; [00 11 61 51 22 6364]Message: (051)22 6375; [00 11 61 51 22 6375]Facsimile: (051) 22 6361; [00 11 61 51 22 6361]Internet: graham@giaeb.cc.monash.edu.au

PART A: "INQUIRY" APPROACHES TO TEACHING SCIENCE

Definition of "inquiry"

The essence of the inquiry approach is to teach pupils to handle situationswhich they encounter when dealing with the physical world by usingtechniques which are applied by research scientists. Inquiry means thatteachers design situations so that pupils are caused to employ proceduresresearch scientists use to recognise problems, to ask questions, to applyinvestigational procedures, and to provide consistent descriptions,predictions, and explanations which are compatible with shared experienceof the physical world.

"Inquiry" is used deliberately in the context of an investigation inscience and the approach to teaching science described here. "Enquiry" willbe used to refer to all other questions, probes, surveys, or examinationsof a general nature so that the terms will not be confused.

"Inquiry" should not be confused with "discovery". Discovery assumes arealist or logical positivist approach to the world which is notnecessarily present in "inquiry". Inquiry tends to imply a constructionistapproach to teaching science. Inquiry is open-ended and on-going.Discovery concentrates upon closure on some important process, fact,principle, or law which is required by the science syllabus.

How to teach using an inquiry approach

There are a number of teaching strategies which can be classified asinquiry. However, the approaches have a number of common aspects. Therationale for the inquiry approach has strong support from constructionistpsychology. The teacher applies procedures so that:

(a) there is a primary emphasis on a hands-on, problem-centred approach;

(b) the focus lies with learning and applying appropriateinvestigational or analytical strategies (This does not have anything to dowith the use of the so-called "scientific method".);

(c) memorising the "facts" of science which may arise is not asimportant as development of an understanding of the manner of developmentof scientific constructs.

Inquiry Strategy 1: The pupil-centred inquiry model: "free inquiry"

An example of this approach is presented very simply by the authors of aJunior High School "text book" prepared by the Biological SciencesCurriculum Study. The approach is outlined as a letter addressed to thepupils for whom the text book was written:

Dear Students,

You are about to become a biologist - a person who investigates problemsabout living things. Animals and plants will be the objects of yourstudies. Some of the plants and animals will be large enough for you tosee and hold in your hands. Other plants and animals will be too small tosee without the aid of a microscope or a magnifying glass. The living worldis filled with unusual and exciting organisms. It is our hope that you willfind your study of biology an exciting adventure.

We have designed this course for you as an individual. What you do and whatyou learn will be decided by you. It is possible that you will decide towork on a problem in biology that no one else in your class will be workingon. Your teacher will act as your helper during this course. He or she willprovide the materials you need for your investigations, help you solveproblems you may run into, and help you learn new skills you will need forworking with plants and animals.

This book is not like any other book you have used in the past. It is notfilled with the factual information of biology. Instead, this book contains

a large number of problems: questions about living things. Each of thesequestions can lead you to design experiments of your own so that you maylearn more about biology. You will be able to learn how living thingsrespond to their environments, or how living things are put together. Theimportant thing to remember is that you will decide which questions youwant to answer. You may find that you have questions about biology that wedid not think about. If this happens, feel free to design experiments toget answers for your questions...

...Just as this book is different from any other books you have used, sowill your class be different from each of your other classes. It will bedifferent in the following ways:

1. You will not have to compete against other class members to see whois the "best or "smartest".

2. You will be given the freedom to decide what you want to learn inthe way that is best for you. Neither your teacher nor your classmates willforce you to do what they do.

3. You will be expected to do what you are capable of doing and tolearn as much as you can about the problems you investigate.

4. The amount of time you spend on each problem will be decided byyou. The length of your school year and the number of days you are inbiology class each week will also affect that decision. If you areinterested and involved in meaningful investigations, you will not beinterrupted by others.

You should find a number of things in each problem will be of interest toyou. Bothering and disrupting others will not be part of your freedom inthis class. The rights and privileges of others must be respected at alltimes. Your success in this biology course will depend mostly on yourcuriosity, enthusiasm and initiative. As the school year progresses, wehope you will feel that you are becoming a person who knows how to askquestions and solve problems about the world of life around him.

Sincerely, August, 1973 Boulder, ColoradoThe authors

The preceding extract, which is written for a biological context,illustrates a number of features common to the student centred on "free"inquiry approach:

(a) learning stems from seeking responses to questions about thephysical world and pupils are encouraged to formulate the questions whichinterest them;

(b) the search for understanding of one question invariably leads tothe posing of other related questions so that investigation becomes acontinuing event;

(c) questions, investigations, and learning are directly andimmediately related to concrete (hands-on) experiences and activitiesundertaken by pupils;

(d) investigations stemming from the same topic may follow numerouspaths so that many different activities may be occurring in the one classat the same time;

(e) questions, investigations and learning are all highlyindividualised so that it makes little sense for the teacher to haveinstructional lessons for the whole class;

(f) the rate of progress is determined by the capacity of each pupiland the difficulty or complexity of the investigation undertaken thus,methods of evaluation other than class tests and examinations must be used;

(g) the pupil exercises great deal of choice and shares responsibilityfor learning so a pertinent teacher =B4 pupil relationship must be developed=;(h) the teacher has a number of key roles:

(i) provision of an appropriate questionframework in the absence of any pupil questions;

(ii) helper and facilitator of pupil investigatio=ns;

(iii) motivator, class manager and disciplinarian;

(iv) interested listener, challenger and evaluate=r.

The BSCS text together with the foregoing statements summarising the mainaspects of "free inquiry" may act as a guide for a teacher who wishes toundertake "free inquiry" in physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, etc.

Exract reference: The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. 1973:Biological Science - Invitations to Discovery. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston, Inc., p. viii. (Comment: The preferred title of this book *should*have been "Invitations to Inquiry". It will become clear after perusing theBSCS book and the description of inquiry methods in Part A here, which arecontrasted with Bruner's "discovery" method in Part B, that "inquiry" and"discovery" are not only different strategies but that the metaphysicsunderlying each approach is different.)

Inquiry Strategy 2: The Schwab inquiry model: structured laboratory inquiry

Joyce and Weil (1980) present Schwab's approach in such detail in Chapter 8that the approach will not be reproduced here. The authors appear tosuggest that Schwab's inquiry approach is applicable to the BiologicalSciences only. It is true that Schwab developed the inquiry approach inconjunction with his Biological Sciences Curriculum Study work, but theapproach may be applied to any area of science and the extract should bestudied with this in mind.

During the discussion of the "Model of Teaching" which is developed throughthe last five pages of Chapter 8, it should be noted that the approach ismuch more prescribed and explicit than the relatively informal approachoutlined in the "Free Inquiry" Model, above. The Schwab model of inquiryteaching proposes a four phase "syntax":

Phase 1: The teacher "proposes" an area of investigation to thepupil together with appropriate methodologies;

Phase 2: Pupils structure the problem with teacher guidance so thatthe thrust of the problem is identified;

Phase 3: Pupils "speculate" about the problem to identify theinvestigational difficulty or possible theoretical inconsistency;

Phase 4: Pupils "speculate" about ways of dealing with thedifficulties through further investigation, data reorganisation, experimentdesign, or concept development.

The approach is essentially reflective and judgemental with respect toinvestigations which have already been undertaken by research scientists.It is through the process of reflective criticism that the pupils learn theprocedures and thought processes of research scientists and how to improve

upon them. Some readers may recognise this as a means of facilitatingmetacognition.

The principal role of the teacher is to guide pupils to the generation ofhypotheses, interpretation of data, and the development of constructs whichare seen as acceptable ways of interpreting the nature of the physicalworld. It is worth pointing out that this approach may end by focussing onthe importance of the current paradigmatic viewpoint that is the researchmight be confirmatory, but equally, the strategy might be used toillustrate (using a suitably chosen piece of research) how research maylead to the refutation and the suggestion of change from the current pointof view. What ever the case, the major emphasis lies not with the contentbut with reflective criticism of research procedures and thought processesof scientists.

Joyce, B. & Weil, M. 1980: Models of Teaching. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., pp. 130-142. (It appears that the Schwab approach to inquiryhas been dropped from the latest edition of Models of Teaching whichappears to me to be an error of judgment.)-------------------------------------------------------------------------CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING STRATEGIES - 2

Inquiry Strategy 3: The Suchman inquiry model: Structured inquiry reasoning

While the Schwab approach is fundamentally laboratory or field centred tothe extent that research activities in the laboratory and the field are animportant basis for the inquiry, once the problem has been structuredappropriately by the teacher, the Suchman model of inquiry teaching (Eggenet al., 1979, Chapter 8) does not require the pupils to work in the fieldor laboratory. The approach depends upon the use of known conditions, knownvariables, and existing data as a basis for teaching and practisingreasoning strategies which a research scientist might be expected to applyto the problem which the teacher has chosen as the focus. While the Schwabapproach emphasizes reflective criticism, the Suchman model deals with theuse of data, the formulation of questions, and the application ofinference.

The teaching procedure could be characterised simplistically by the game"20 questions" where the players apply reasoning to the data and conditionssupplied to progressively develop an acceptable response to the problemset.

The Suchman Model is presented in such a detailed fashion in Eggen, et al.

(1979) that it is unnecessary to discuss the approach further here.

Eggen, P.D., et al. 1979: Strategies for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs:Prentice-Hall Inc., pp. 309-344.

Inquiry Strategy 4: The "creating knowledge" model: an entry point forpupil negotiated inquiry

Lesson 1This approach to inquiry teaching shares some features of the "pupilcentred model" to the extent that the teacher's role includes motivator,facilitator, and class manager. In a similar fashion, the teacher has norole as direct transmitter of factual information. At this point, however,the approaches diverge. The "pupil centred model" is almost entirelydevoted to continuous hands-on investigation in the laboratory or field.The "creating knowledge" model begins with the class in a conventionalclass teaching/seating arrangement with the teacher at the front of theclass. The approach has substantial support from constructionistpsychology. Piaget (1964) should be studied carefully in conjunction withthe lesson plan. Social transmission and personal experience are the twomost important means by which teachers may influence cognitive developmentand knowledge growth. Both are used here. Conflicts and disagreementsresulting from group discussions or class debate are an important means ofestablishing the disequilibration of inappropriate knowledge schemes inpreparation for further knowledge growth.

The steps in the teaching procedure are as follows:

Step 1: The teacher waits for or establishes a quiet atmosphere at thebeginning of the lesson. The teacher may announce the topic by sayingsomething like:

"This period we are going to begin work on topic X."

(In this model lesson, topic X will be sea gulls - it could beigneous rocks, or what influences the "tick-tock" rate of a pendulum, orany number of other topics. The teacher continues:)

"On the chalk board, I have drawn two columns with headings. Copythe columns and the headings into your work-book. When you have finished,watch me."

Example

Sea Gulls (Title)

What I know about sea gulls. What I'd like to know about sea gulls. (Twocolumn headings.)

(Space under the headings... Imagine a two column table on a sheet of paper...)

Step 2: The teacher waits a reasonable time for the work to becompleted and says: "Watch me", (or the equivalent) to gain attention.

"The activity which follows is a 'Do it yourself job'. There is tobe no talking or discussion, no movement, and no copying or looking on."

Some rules such as the foregoing will be necessary. However therules should be few and brief. This way the few simple rules are easilymonitored and enforced and pupils have a better chance of remembering andworking to them.

Step 3: "You are to add as much as you can to the two columns. Keep to therules".

At this point the teacher should move to a position from which itis an advantage to supervise the class activity.

(It is wise to take up a first position near the point you mightexpect the first rule-breaking to occur. Reinforce the rules quietly andfirmly by applying methods supporting pupil self-control where possible. Donot shout commands to offenders across the room. Move to other positions ofadvantage around the room. Do not take up a supervising position where someof the class is behind your back. Do not talk to pupils during theactivity. Watch to see how the activity is progressing and note ananticipated finish time. Do not read over any pupil's shoulder while thewriting is progressing. (This is very threatening and reduces pupil input.It also causes pupils to write content which they imagine will gain theteacher's approval.)

Step 4: When a satisfactory amount of work has been done, stop the work andhave the pupils face you. (Look around to see that you have all eyes facingyour way. If someone is not attending, quietly say :"X, I'm waiting foryou."

At this point you will form the class into 4-groups. This should bedone quickly without fuss. The fastest way is to nominate the four members

of a group and the discussion position in the room for the whole class.Keep noise and random movement, which can disturb the working tone of thelesson, to a minimum through class management. Then say:

"You are about to work in your groups with what you have written inthe columns. Keep the discussion noise level low. What you are to do isshare what you have written with others in your group and you are to add toboth of your columns during the discussion".

Animated discussion will follow. The teacher should move from groupto group to listen to the discussion. (See Study Guide 7: PracticumVoluntary Activities 1 and 2.) No attempt should be made to take over thediscussion, or correct "errors". If pupils stop discussing when you come tothe group, just say: "Keep going, I'm just here to listen." If someone asksa question of fact, e.g., "Do sea gulls have yellow legs?" respond bysaying: "That's a good question to add to your 'What I'd like to know aboutsea gulls.' column."

Control should be maintained constantly. If the discussion noiselevel begins to rise say: "Quieter, please." Do not leave this too late sothat you have to shout to be heard. If you find you have to raise yourvoice to something resembling a shout you are on the verge of losingcontrol of the class if control has not been lost already. When listeningto the group discussions place yourself in a position where you cansupervise the whole class. Do not let misbehaviour or non-lesson relatedbehaviour pass unchecked. Do not discipline pupils from across the room.Move close quickly and speak to the offending person(s) to reinforce therule(s) in operation at the time.

Step 5: When the pupils have had a useful length of time to complete thetask close the discussion by saying: "Stop work. [Pause and wait.] Watchme."

(As a matter of interest, when you teach this lesson you will findthat all pupils manage to add to both columns. That is, not only does eachpupil learn new things through the discussion process but they are able toadjust beliefs. Further, the "What I'd like to know..." column often growsfaster than the "What I know..." column.)

At this point the teacher will introduce some form of SENSE DATArelated to the topic. Pupils will use the sense data provided to createadditional knowledge, correct statements in their "What I know..." columns,or add more questions to the "What I'd like to know..." columns. In thecase of the sea gulls topic, sense data in the form of a film strip would

be suitable. (See the MACOS Film Strip: "Herring Gulls", for example.)The sense data could be in the form of posters, rock samples in a geologylesson, test-tube reachions in a chemistry lesson, a video of an event inphysics, or a set of sequenced photographic slides in astronomy. If thesense data is in the form of a film or a videotape, the sound from themachine should be turned OFF because the narration often provides manyfacts and clues. This would turn the lesson into a copying session ratherthan an active thinking "creating knowledge" lesson.

To introduce the sense data the teacher might say: "We are about toview a film strip. See what you can add to each column as the filmprogresses. Once again, this is a 'do your own thing' activity - nodiscussion, no copying".

Dim the room quickly (not black-out). Run the film strip so thatthere is a reasonable time to view each frame. Allow time for writing. If aquestion arises which is not a question of fact about sea gulls answer thequestion briefly, e.g., Pupil: "What is that thing on the left of theseagull?" Teacher: "That is a red stick." If on the other hand, a pupilasks a question of fact, or sense data interpretation use the "add to"response, e.g., Pupil: "Do sea gulls always have three eggs?" Teacher:"That's a good question to add to your 'What I'd like to know...' column".

When the film strip showing has been completed restore the lightinglevel.

Step 6: Return to 4-group discussion. Have the pupils share and add to bothcolumns again. Repeat the teacher supervisor/listener procedure. Do notanswer questions of fact. If facts are supplied, inquiry ceases andmotivation to continue with the inquiry will plummet accordingly.

Step 7: If listening indicates that a repeat showing of the film stripwould be useful, show the film strip for a second time. [Repeat Step 5.] Ifnot, introduce another set of sense data which has the capacity to extendknowledge and challenge, for example, a film of social behaviour of seagulls [SOUND OFF] could be used. Alternatively, each pupil could besupplied with a short photocopied research diary of seagull observations.Other ideas could be substituted here.

Pupils proceed to add to their columns as a personal "Do your ownthing." action (not a group activity).

Step 8: Repeat the group discussion procedure. (Whether or not step 7 or 8occurs during the same class period as steps 1 through 5 will depend upon

the progress of the lesson and the time available.)

Step 9: Draw the discussion to a close. Advise the class that the sea gullknowledge table must be brought to the next class. (If it seems unlikelythat this will happen, the sheets should be retained. A simple effectiveprocedure is to make paper available for the work at the beginning of thelesson so that the named sheets can be collected at the end of the lesson.There is an additional advantage in collecting the work-sheets in that theteacher can review the assembled ideas and gain some advance notice of theinvestigations which are likely to flow from the process of knowledgecreation.)

Lesson 2 (summary only)The two major tasks to be accomplished in this lesson are: (1) thepreparation of a continuous prose group report written on the basis of eachgroup's "What I know..." columns, and (2) the planning of subsequentinvestigations and activities by the group.

Task 1: Establish order and quiet. (Pass out the work-sheets if these wereheld over from the last class. Use non-disruptive pupil assistants.)Establish the 4-groups. Instruct the pupils to prepare the reports. Aformat could be suggested. The teacher should act as if learning to bescientifically literate is important. In this part of the lesson, theteacher should concentrate on the development of communication skillsincluding sentence construction, grammar, use of words, spelling,punctuation, and so on. If computers and word processing packages areavailable, these would be of assistance at this stage.

The prose reports may be read to the class by a member of each of thegroups, or the reports could be photocopied (or printed if printers andcomputers are available) and circulated.

Following the presentation of the "What I know..." reports, a class debateshould be organised and chaired by the teacher or an appropropriatelyskilled pupil to permit pupils to explore any controversial issues in acontrolled fashion. The teacher must resist any tendency or desire to usethe opportunity to correct matters of "fact". If there are contradictionsor divergences of opinion, the matters should be listed as unresolved andadded to the "What I'd like to know..." columns.

When the debate has run its course the class should be reorganised into the4-groups in preparation for task 2.

Task 2: Each 4-group is given the task of firstly preparing a list of "What

I'd like to know-s..." and secondly producing activity sheets containingcognate questions, investigations, or activities in preparation forsubsequent practical field work, laboratory investigations and libraryresearch activities. By this stage of the lesson sequence, the teachershould be familiar with the likely directions the activity sheets willfollow. The teacher should prepare additional activity sheets which openareas not being considered by the class. A wide range of activities mightbe considered, for example:

1. make origami sea gulls (exploring spatial relations through paperfolding);

2. make sea gull ceiling mobiles (exploring balancing - the mobilesshould be made in parts "on the floor" and not "in the air"):

3. make papermache sea gull models of different named sea gulls - tosize, colour and markings (taxonomy);

4. explore the shape of sea gull wings - include the making of glidermodels - test for stability, length of flight, load carrying capacity andthe like (aerodynamics of flight);

5. create movement activities which mimic the actions of sea gullchicks, adults, and adult gull social interactions (mime);

6. read and write stories or poems which create wonder and empathy foraspects of sea gull life e.g., Jonathan Livingstone Seagull (communicationskill development);

7. explore the possible financial benefit and/or cost of sea gullpopulations to fishing, tourism, etc. (economics);

8. ...etc.: explore the geographic distributions of sea gullpopulations...predator/prey relationships...nest building strategies by seagull type...preferred foods...growth...mating...adult behaviours and socialorder in gulls..invite an ornithologist to speak to the class and answerquestions...and so on.

Once the activity sheets are prepared the pupils and the teacher shouldreview the possibilities in terms of practicality and cost. Some activitiesor investigations may not be possible because of the implications forsupervision. Others may have to be ruled out because necessary equipment isunavailable.

In as far as it is possible, investigations should be encouraged on anindividual (1-group) level. 2-groups may be used. Cooperation, discussion,and sharing of ideas and findings of groups working on cognate areas shouldbe encouraged.

Investigations and activities may continue for some time: possibly for twoor three weeks - or longer if the activities are running productively andmotivation remains high. Displays, demonstrations and presentations shouldbe arranged periodically as appropriate. The teacher should assist pupilsto prepare for these presentations and assist with the development ofself-evaluation and quality.

Piaget , J. 1964: "Development and Learning." in Journal of Research inScience Teaching. 2, 2, 176-186.

Other references:

Renner, J.W. et al. 1976: Research, Teaching and Learning with the PiagetModel. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Gruber, H.E. & Voneche J.J. (Eds.) 1977: The Essential Piaget: AnInterpretative Reference and Guide. New York: Basic Books.

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CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING STRATEGIES - 3

Inquiry Strategy 5: The theme-based model: pupil centred,"multi-disciplinary free inquiry"

The idea of "theme" or a "thematic approach" to teaching is not new.Thematic approaches, and there were many of them, became popular in the'60s and '70s particularly in primary schools. This accompanied the shiftfrom a traditional or subject facts view of curriculum to a more open andflexible approach which could transcend familiar subject boundaries. Thislatter viewpoint can be associated with what is sometimes described as a"liberal-progressive" type of curriculum organization. Theliberal-progressive approach to curriculum was dealt with in an earliermailing.

The thematic approach derives its validity from two sets of assumptions.The first set involves a belief about the nature of knowledge. Knowledge,it is argued is a function of one's personal integration of experience and

therefore does not fall into neatly separate categories or "disciplines".This idea is explored in R.S. Bath: Open Education and the American School.Material presented to the pupil and any experiences the pupil may have aremore meaningful and relevant if it occurs in a context which assistsintegration and helps the development of interlocking experience and ideanetworks devoid of artificially imposed boundaries.

The second set of assumptions is about the nature of pupils' learning. Thisincludes the belief that pupils, who are encouraged to do so by thenon-threatening and supportive nature of their school environment, willshow natural exploratory and learning behaviour. This is a point which hasbeen made by Jean Piaget and many other writers. A further belief is thatpupils have both the competence and the right to make significant decisionsconcerning their own learning and that is a pupil has a choice, apart fromexceptional circumstances, there will be full involvement and enjoymentassociated with any activity the pupil has chosen to do. As a result of theeffect of self-motivation, more effective learning will take place.

Certain implications regarding classroom practice follow from these assumptions:

(1) There is a need to create a flexible use of time so that pupils asindividuals, or in small groups, can vary the amount of time and effortspent on a task, according to their abilities and interests.

(2) It is necessary to reduce the unnecessary subject fragmentation ofthe curriculum and, in particular, reduce the dominance of the textbook andincrease the possibility of relevant personal experience in learning.

(3) It is important to develop each pupil's concept in self, for selfconcept is highly related to desire to learn and capacity to learn. Aclimate supporting each pupil's development of a positive attitude in asocially cooperative rather than a strongly competitive atmosphere isessential.

Some general aims which might be developed for a science programme on thebasis of the foregoing assumptions are: * To help pupils understand the nature of science by locating itsplace in the totality of human experiences and activities. * To help pupils to develop skills in observation, the formulation ofrelationships, and the exploration of any meaning which may be made out thenetwork of experience. * To help pupils master the concepts and techniques of science whichthey can confidently apply to everyday puzzles and problems. * To help pupils to form favourable attitudes towards science and all

other human activities. * To help pupils to acquire confidence in their ability to reason,make independent judgements, and reflect upon justifications for theirideas by giving them the opportunities to make decisions and choices.

Pupils' attitudes and motivation are of importance to all teachers and thebasis for positive attitude is developed in situations which invite pupilsto become active learners and apply their learning in a variety of ways tothings they come across in everyday life or are presented as options forinvolvement through the efforts of teachers. Pupils who are taught to viewscience as part of the totality of human activities and experience ratherthat a mass of subject matter to be memorized find that science gives thempleasure because it helps them to develop ways of "finding out", itprovides stimulation for their curiosity as they probe what for them isunknown and worth knowing, and that science is purposeful and satisfyingbecause it can be related to the environment and people and life all aroundthem.

TEACHING IDEAS GUIDE FOR THE THEME "DAYTIME ASTRONOMY"

Introduction: What follows is a collection of semi-hastily arranged ideasabout daytime astronomy. They are designed to be used as part of a thematicapproach to the topic - at any age level including adult. The ideas aresuitable for adolescent or adult non-science majors in particular.Essentially, the ideas are about the physical world, but since theme basedteaching is cross-disciplinary, there are some ideas which are not supposedto be "science".

The Daytime Astronomy Theme: To develop a theme one begins by having abrainstorming session to develop cognate ideas - it's useful to develop aconcept map. To design the concept map, just put the theme in the centre ofa large piece of paper and as your major ideas come, drawn them connectedwith lines to the central idea so you have something like the spokes of awheel. Then, go around the spokes and see if you can elaborate any of theprincipal ideas further into topics which might be a centre of interest.Hook these together with more lines. After ten minutes or so, I ended withthe following:

DAYTIME ASTRONOMY...

Measuring distances... Mapping... Navigation... Heights and Altitudes...

Orienteering... Finding directions...

Space... Science Fiction... Space Travel... Infinity...

Sun... Sun Worship... Art & Religion... Eclipse... Light... Shadows... Heat Energy...

Atmosphere... Weather... Rainfall Pressure

TemperatureMoon... Tides... Stars?... Movement... Astrology...

Gravity...

Earth... Structure... Motion... Size... Shape...Change...

As a self-development exercise, brain-storm on your own or with someoneelse to expand the list of topic areas and topics in the concept map ...

One of the major ideas which might have been included above was "time".This major idea could be expanded into its own concept map (as could all ofthe other major ideas) viz.,

TIME...

Evolution...

Units... Day, hour, minute, second... GreenwichMean Time Measurement...

Eastern Standard Time... DaylightSaving Time

Calendars... Months (origin)... Days (origin)... Years... AD...BC

Moslem Calendars

Jewish Calendars Mayan

Chinese, Roman...Clocks... Water, Sun, Sand... Mechanical...Pendulum...Pulse... Candle...Biological...Computer...

Dates... Archaeology... Arch.Evidence... Diggings History

Zones... Time Differences...

etc., etc...

One uses the topics and ideas like racks and coat-hangers for activities,e.g., one of the topics might have been "sun shadows".

SUN SHADOWS: Questions which may form the basis for an inquiry.

1. Make a shadow stick. Put a suitable dowel vertically into asupporting base. Make the dowel about 1m. Choose specific times during theday to measure the length of the shadow. Don't forget a compass to find thedirection. Work out the angle of elevation of the sun. Do this for anextended period. Graph the results daily/weekly. Try to figure out what ishappening.

2. Exchange shadow records with a friend in another state. Make surethat the times of day and days correspond so that comparisons may be made.What are the similarities and differences. Is there some way or some modelwhich you can construct which you can use to show how things are the same

(or different) in two different places.

3. Try (2.) with a friend in another country - preferably in the N.hemisphere. (S for you!) What are the similarities and differences. Isthere some way or some model which you can construct which you can use toshow how things are the same (or different) in two different places.

4. Can you use your shadow records to find directions?

About now you might notice that I've shifted from givinginstructions to asking questions. Inquiry is NOT about followinginstructions you may remember, it's about responding to puzzles, andquestions.

5. Can you use your shadow stick to tell the time of day?

CAUTION: NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE SUN

6. Where is the sun at noon?

7. What is a shadow?

8. How do shadows form?

REMEMBER, "WHY" QUESTIONS ARE USUALLY TOO DIFFICULT FOR YEAR 7-10PUPILS AND "WHY" QUESTIONS ARE CERTAINLY TOO DIFFICULT FOR ALL BUT THE VERYBRIGHTEST PUPILS IN YEARS 5 AND 6. INITIALLY, THEY MAY ALSO BE TOO HARD FOROLDER ADOLESENTS AND ADULTS BECAUSE "WHY" QUESTIONS GENERALLY DEMAND FORMALREASONING STRATEGIES. PRACTICE ASKING: "WHERE", "HOW", "WHAT", "HOW MUCH","CAN YOU SHOW ME", "WHAT DO YOU THINK IS HAPPENING", "ARE THERE ANY EVENTSWHICH RECUR REGULARLY", "HAVE YOU FOUND ANY EVENTS WHICH APPEAR TO BERELATED", AND "ARE THERE ANY IDEAS YOU HAVE MADE UP TO EXPLAIN THAT". THEFOREGOING QUESTIONS MOSTLY DEMAND CONCRETE REASONING STRATEGIES. Examplesof a wide range of questions which may be used are outlined in anotherpaper.

9. Can you make light shadows and dark shadows?

10. Can you make shadows inside shadows?

10A. Can you draw shadows which tell a story?

11. Is there a noon shadow? Is there always a noon shadow everywhere?

12. Do sun shadows change with the seasons? How? Graph the shadows' lengths.

13. Is there a relationship between sun shadow length and dailytemperature? Rainfall?

14. Is there any relationship between the length of a shadow and theelevation? Can you use this to work out the height of things - trees, tallbuildings?

15. Do you think you could make a shadow calendar?

16. Can you make a model which shows how the sun shadows act the waythey do?

17. Are there any places which don't have noon shadows?

18. Are there places where there may be no daytime shadows for weeks on end?

19. How did Eratosthenes of Cyrene "measure" the earth's circumferenceabout 250 BC by using a shadow?

20. What can you find out about how Stonehenge may have been used as acalendar?

21. How quickly do sun shadows move?

22. Can you predict what shadows would be like on different parts ofthe globe at the one time?

23. Can you investigate moon shadows?

24. Do shadows effect the way we build our houses or plant our gardens?

25. Can there be sunlight without shadows?

26. When is a sun shadow longest? Shortest?

27. Is the middle of the daytime shadow the same length as the noon shadow?

28. Can you use your shadow stick measurements to show the sun'sposition at different times of the year?

29. How does a sextant work?

30. Can you make a simple sextant with a protractor, some string, awasher, pin, thumb tack, and a soda straw?

REPEAT WARNING: NEVER LOOK AT THE SUN DIRECTLY.

31. Your turn...

TIME

1. See if you can make a sundial. It has to be able to tell the time.

2. Design and make other sundials.

3. How does a water clock work? See if you can make your own water clock.

4. Once people used a candle to tell time. Can you make a candle tell time?

5. How useful is your built-in clock for telling time? (Galileo usedhis as a portable timer in many of his investigations.)

6. How do clocks work? See if you can get an old clock which doesn'twork and work out how the gears work. Can you tell how many times thefaster gears turn for one turn of a slow gear?

7. What is an almanac?

8. What are the similarities and differences between differentcalendars? (Jewish, Gregorian, Islamic, Chinese, Mayan...) How didcalendars originate?

9. What is an equinox?

10. How do our feast days and festivals relate to the phases of themoon? Start with Easter. What about seasons of the year?

11. How can you use a pendulum to tell the time?

12. What makes a difference to the time it takes for a pendulum toswing to and fro?

13. Can you plot the results of your pendulum investigations on a graph?

14. What is a Foucault pendulum?

15. Where do meridians come from? Lines of longitude? Latitude? How arethey used?

16. Can you make a moon-pie time chart?

17. Can you find out what events are dated by eclipses? {Example: Amos(viii), 9 can be dated as June 15, 763 BC.} How about other celestialevents like comets?

18. How long would it take for you to run to your favourite planet?

19. Your turn again...

Finally a few on the moon...

WHERE IS THE MOON?

1. Can you ever see the moon during the day? Is there any pattern todaytime moon sightings?

2. Where is the moon when you can't see it (day or night)?

3. How does the moon move?

4. Can you draw a number of pictures or make a model to show how themoon moves across the sky?

5. Can you predict where the moon will be?

6. Is the moon visible all night? All day?

7. When you look at all the sky you can see, how much of the whole sky

can you see?

8. Can you ever see the whole sky from where you live?

9. Does the moon rise earlier, later, or at the same time each day?

10. Why is Venus in the "same" place every evening just about sunsetbut the moon isn't? (Remember that "why" questions are very tough forpupils.)

11. Your turn again...

You can see that three very definitely underworked topics have beenturned into sixty inquiry ideas. Now you have the general notion, with alittle practice, you and your colleagues can generate hundreds of reallygreat ideas for activities related to a theme. With this strategy behindyou, I'm sure you will agree that there is no need for boredom in yourscience classes - not ever.

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CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING STRATEGIES - 4

Part B: THE DISCOVERY APPROACH

The discovery approach was first popularised by Jerome Bruner in a book TheProcess of Education which was written as a consequence of his involvementwith a conference of science educators at Woods Hole in USA. The stimulusfor the conference was the perceived failure of the US to beat the USSR inthe space race. The USSR won by putting "Sputnik" in orbit first on October4, 1957.

The concept behind the discovery approach is that the motivation of pupilsto learn science will be increased if they experience the feelingsscientists obtain from "discovering" scientific knowledge. Further, theidea was supported by the notion that pupils would learn about the natureof science, and the formation of scientific knowledge through the processof "discovery". It could be said that Bruner's heart was in the rightplace, but that his rationale was faulty. Even your limited studies in thehistory and philosophy of science to this point should indicate thatBruner's idea poses some philosophical problems about the nature of scienceand the formation of scientific knowledge.

The discovery approach is presented by Schulman (Good, 1972). This could befollowed by reading Strike (1975) and Feifer (1971). These readings dealwith the procedures of discovery learning and relevant issues andconflicting points of view.

In a discovery lesson, the teacher decides, in advance, the concept,process, law or piece of scientific knowledge which is to be "discovered"or un-covered by the pupils. The lesson proceeds through a hierarchy ofstages which may be associated with Bruner's levels of thought, viz.,

Stage 1: Enactive levelPupils perform "hands-on" activities which are directly related to what isto be discovered. This is where the pupil is able to think about the natureof the physical world in terms of personal experience. For example inteaching Boyle's Law by this method, pupils would do activities which theteacger knows would show that as pressure is increased volume is diminished- pupils might draw some air into a large syringe, plug the exit, and mountthe syringe vertically in a hole in a board and then load the top of theplunger/piston successively with equal weight objects: one textbook, twotextbooks; three, four..., and note the result on the air trapped in thesyringe by either length or volume. (It might be interesting to have abrief "aside" discussion to explore why one can measure the length of theair column and ifer something about the volume. The teacher should expectthat the column length-column volume relationship will *not* be obvious topupils.)

Stage 2: Ikonic levelThe teacher directs the thinking of pupils to deal with the experientialsituations in terms of mental images of the objects used in the activitiesupon which the "discovery" is to be based. At this stage the pupils mightdescribe what happened or discuss what data tables show in terms of"pressure increase" (number of book weights pushing on the piston area:pressure = force + surface area), "volume decrease", or the equivalent.

Stage 3: Symbolic levelThis is the stage where the pupils move to replace the mental images withsymbols in a move to increased generality and abstraction which results inthe "discovery" planned by the teacher in advance. In the case of theexample here pupils would "discover" that p *is proportional to* 1/V (at agiven temperature) and go on to conclude that pV = k (a constant). Itshould also be possible for pupils to predict (at this stage) what the bookweight versus volume graph would look like without plotting the graph fromthe data tables from stage 1 and generalise from this to all correspondingsituations.

Naturally, there are serious problems at the symbolic level (c.f. formalreasoning) when teachers try to have concrete reasoning pupils "discover"relationships which are abstract and which require formal reasoningprocesses for invention, understanding or application. Teachers aregenerally driven to amazing verbal games in science classes to literally"put the words in the mouths" of the pupils so that the "discovery" processcan be completed. As an aside, I am led to remark that pupils can float andsink things for ever without re-inventing Archimedes' Principle. Whatactually happens in science classes is usually a far cry from Bruner'shopes that pupils experience the positive feelings scientists obtain from"discovering" or un-covering scientific knowledge and that pupils aremotivated to assimilate the "facts of science" through the process of"discovery" they actually experience in class.

It is worth commenting that most science teachers who use the term"discovery" with respect to a teaching approach could NOT recount theprofessional knowledge embedded in the description of discovery above, ordebate the issues and conflicts in the points of view in the readingsprovided. It follows then, that most science teachers who talk about"discovery" literally do not know what they are talking about.

Bruner, J.S. 1960: The Process of Education. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press.

Feifer, N. 1971: "The Teacher's Role in the Discovery Approach: Lessonsfrom the History of Science." in The Science Teacher, 38, Nov., 27-29.

Schulman, L.S. 1972: "Psychological Controversies in the Teaching ofScience and Mathematics" in R.G. Good, Science <--> Children: Readings inElementary Science Education. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Co., Publishers, pp.227-243.

Strike, K.A. 1975: "The Logic of Learning by Discovery" in Review ofEducation Research 45, 3, 461-483.

Coming (maybe): Process teaching in Science.

http://www.towson.edu/csme/mctp/Essays/Strategies.txt